Sahel to come: What today tells us about tomorrow

Sahel to Come What today tells us about tomorrow

Authorised for publication by Laurent Bossard, Director, SWAC/OECD Secretariat.

The Sahel and West Africa Club

Cover photo: Jérôme Labeur, Sur la route de Tabalak 2020

The Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC) is an independent international platform. Its Secretariat is hosted at the Organisation for the Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Its mission is to promote regional policies that will improve the economic and social well-being of the people in the Sahel and West Africa. Its objectives are to produce and collect data, draft analyses and facilitate strategic dialogue in order to nurture and promote public policies in line with rapid developments in the region. It also promotes regional co-operation as a tool for sustainable development and stability. Its current areas of work are food dynamics, cities and territories, security and gender.

SWAC Members and financial partners include: Austria, Belgium, Canada, CILSS, the ECOWAS Commission, the European Commission, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, the UEMOA Commission and the United States.

Graphic design: Ahonen & Lamberg

More information: www.oecd.org/swac

The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official views of SWAC/OECD Members.

This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.

Recommended citation: © SWAC/OECD, Sahel to Come: What Today Tells us About Tomorrow 2021 Contact: swac.contact@oecd.org

Author: Sarah Lawan Gana, Sahel and West Africa Club Secretariat (SWAC/OECD) Acknowledgements: Special thanks go to Laurent Bossard (SWAC/OECD), whose Sahel Future note largely inspired this work, for his wise comments and careful reading.

Niagalé Bagayoko (ASSN), Alain Feler (IMF), Martin Kessler (DCD/OECD), Sylvie Letassey (SWAC/OECD), Khadija Maïga (SWAC/OECD), Ibrahim Assane Mayaki (SWAC/ OECD & AUDA-NEPAD), Todd P. Mitchell (University of Washington), Jean-David Naudet (AFD), Jean-Marc Pradelle (AFD), Mikaïlou Sidibé (G5 Sahel), Ousmane Sy (ARGA), Mahaman Sanoussi Tidjani Alou (LASDEL), Bakary Traoré (DEV/OECD), Gilles Olakounlé Yabi (WATHI).

This work benefitted from Agence française de développement (AFD) funds.

2

INDEX

5

Facing up to reality, preparing for the future

8

Livelihood zones José Luengo-Cabrera

9

Pastoralists and farmers in the Sahel and cyclical movements SWAC/OECD, 2014

10 Transhumance patterns Anne Bacheré & José Luengo-Cabrera 11 Metals and minerals José Luengo-Cabrera

12 Changing societies 16 Sahara-Sahel empires and their routes SWAC/OECD, 2014 17 West African languages spoken by more than one million native speakers SWAC/OECD, 2009

22 Evolution of country population and median age Inhoi Heo

33 Access to electricity Anne Bacheré & Jennifer Sheahan

23 Change in population José Luengo-Cabrera

34 Electricity Transmission Network in West Africa José Luengo-Cabrera

24 Population pyramid in the Sahel Jennifer Sheahan

35 Interconnected vulnerabilities

25 Protests and riots José Luengo-Cabrera

38 Climate change in Africa SWAC/OECD, 2009

26 Informal employment rate José Luengo-Cabrera

39 Precipitation anomalies in the Sahel José Luengo-Cabrera

27 Share of the food economy in West African GDP and employment Léopold Ghins

40 Changes in Lake Chad’s surface area Anne Bacheré

28 Share and number of people employed in the food economy SWAC/OECD, 2018

41 Fatalities by location José Luengo-Cabrera 42 Reported fatalities in Western Sahel countries José Luengo-Cabrera

18 Mental maps by locality SWAC/OECD, 2017

29 Share of women’s employment by food economy segment SWAC/OECD, 2018

19 Population growth in West Africa Jennifer Sheahan

30 Mobile cellular subscriptions Anne Bacheré & José Luengo-Cabrera

44 Jihadi attacks against security forces José Luengo-Cabrera

20 Projections of population growth Jennifer Sheahan

31 Population using the internet Anne Bacheré & José Luengo-Cabrera

21 Fertility and school enrolment Jennifer Sheahan & Julia Wanjiru

32 Facebook subscribers José Luengo-Cabrera

45 Jihadi attacks against military forces where more than 20 soldiers were reportedly killed José Luengo-Cabrera

43 Reported fatalities in Lake Chad Basin countries José Luengo-Cabrera

3

46 Violent events and fatalities in Mali and Central Sahel SWAC/OECD, 2020 47 Civilian fatalities by attributed perpetrator in the Liptako-Gourma José Luengo-Cabrera 48 Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Burkina Faso José Luengo-Cabrera 49 Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) within Nigeria and reason for displacement José Luengo-Cabrera

60

Urban population growth Inhoi Heo

73 Compensation of government employees Anne Bacheré & Jennifer Sheahan

61

Share of urban population in the Sahel Anne Bacheré & Jennifer Sheahan

74 Health workers Jennifer Sheahan

62

Emergence of new agglomerations Inhoi Heo

75 Health expenditure Jennifer Sheahan

63

Vegetation cover in Tchadoua (Niger) SWAC/OECD, 2019

76 Public expenditure José Luengo-Cabrera

64

Places of residence of Sahelian emigrants Julia Wanjiru

77 Military capacity José Luengo-Cabrera

65

Dead or missing migrants José Luengo-Cabrera

78 Country Programmable Aid (CPA) José Luengo-Cabrera

66

Working of border markets SWAC/OECD, 2003

79 Net Official Development Assistance (ODA) José Luengo-Cabrera

67

Population potential of West African border markets SWAC/OECD, 2017

80 Personal remittances José Luengo-Cabrera

68

Gender disparities in trade networks SWAC/OECD, 2019

69

Integrated Territorial Development Project (PATI) José Luengo-Cabrera

70

Fragile governance

72

General government revenue José Luengo-Cabrera

50 Food insecurity and violence José Luengo-Cabrera 51 Biomass José Luengo-Cabrera 52 Food and nutrition situation RPCA 53 Food and nutrition trends in the Sahel and West Africa SWAC/OECD, 2021

54 Reconfigured territories

81 Tax-to-GDP ratio Anne Bacheré & Jennifer Sheahan 82 Coups d’État by type since independance José Luengo-Cabrera

83 Sahel to come 58 Least connected urban agglomerations Inhoi Heo 59 Evolution of urbanisation Inhoi Heo

85 The Sahel to come Anne Bacheré 86 Data caveats José Luengo-Cabrera 4

Facing up to reality, preparing for the future

Sahelian consultations

The word “Sahel” is derived from the Arabic term for edge or shore. Geographically, it is a transitional region between the Sahara desert and the Sudanian savannah with its more substantial rains. The boundary with the Sahara is often considered to follow the isohyets of 200 mm annual precipitation, or the northern limit to the area where the annual grass Cenchrus biflorus (“cram-cram”) grows.

Although this line is generally considered a border, in reality the Sahelian strip is a hub for interaction and trade. The northernmost belt is an area of sub arid steppes where herders raise their livestock. To the south, there is a belt of wooded savannah where rain-fed agriculture is practised. Southern farmers expand their land under cultivation northwards after several wet years, while northern herders move south to find pasture in times of drought. The strip formed by the Sahel thus constitutes a traffic corridor where regular exchanges between herders and growers creates longitudinal displacements.

The Sahel is commonly understood to cover the countries immediately south of the Sahara, from the Atlantic (southern Mauritania and Senegal) to the Red Sea (Horn of Africa). In a political sense, it refers to the G5 Sahel countries (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania and Niger). For the purposes of this exercise, we refer to the Sahel as defined by the Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC): the bridge between the Maghreb and the coastal countries of West Africa. This area stretches from Pointe des Almadies to Lake Chad and covers seven countries: Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal.

This booklet was written as part of a pilot foresight exercise, the Sahelian consultations.

This exercise will provide a platform to those in the region who are rethinking the complex equation of development, governance and stability, and who are outside governmental and international arenas. By involving actors from civil society, academia, professional organisations and think tanks, it is hoped that these consultations will generate new ways of developing

and implementing public policy in the Sahel.

From both a spatial and a temporal perspective, the SWAC proposes a retrospective and prospective analysis of the Sahel. This booklet highlights current realities and inexorable trends that must be taken into account when developing a regional project that is both realistic and attainable for communities in the region. These foreseeable factors, along with current vulnerabilities, will shape trans-Sahelian dialogue on the region’s future within the next generation.

From the outset, it is important to clarify the data used and the figures presented in the texts and visualisations. These figures are difficult to obtain, often incomplete and always open to improvement (see caveats at end of the booklet).

The informed reader must therefore take this into account to fully appreciate the content of the analysis offered.

State of play

After independence, the vast majority of West African countries proactively adopted policies Facing up to reality, preparing for the future

5

to industrialise their economies, while pursuing the development and export of agricultural cash crops to world markets. However, these ambitious policies were hampered by narrow internal markets that undermined the emerging industrial composition. Moreover, climate hazards such as the great drought of the early 1970s were already complicating industrial emergence at the time.

In the 1980s, the fall in the price of raw materials on world markets had a severe impact on economies that were already experiencing structural difficulties. This fall paved the way for the structural adjustment programmes that the Bretton Woods institutions imposed on governments on the verge of bankruptcy.

The emphasis on economic liberalism resulted in the state withdrawing from certain core sectors, and in de-industrialisation. In 1994, the devaluation of the CFA franc boosted exports but affected people’s standard of living, halving wages overnight.

From 1995 onwards, there was a desire to revive industrialisation processes, particularly through the Regional Economic Communities (RECs) founded to form an economic and monetary union that would increase trade within Africa and integrate economies into global value chains. The Economic Community

of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) took regional measures to promote coordinated industrialisation and diversified manufacturing capacities.

Nowadays, despite the harsh climate, the availability of arable land, surface water (Lake Chad, the Niger and Senegal rivers and their tributaries) and groundwater provide the region with good potential for agro-sylvo-pastoral and fisheries sector. Cotton, groundnuts, rice, livestock and fisheries are value chains with high potential for the productive transformation of Sahelian agricultural economies. The Sahelian countries are ranked among the world’s leading producers of shea and cashew nuts, sesame, fonio, cowpeas, yams, cassava, gum arabic, millet and sorghum.

The subsoil is rich in natural resources, including oil, bauxite, gold, uranium, iron, limestone and phosphate. However, exploiting them leads to strong dependency on world prices for raw materials – particularly for oil and uranium – and can cause environmental disasters. The Sahara has huge gold deposits, which attract millions of artisanal gold miners.

According to the International Crisis Group, artisanal production now accounts for almost half the volume of industrially produced gold.

However, the agricultural sector as a whole remains by far the primary source of employment. The economy is largely dominated by the primary and tertiary sectors, where most operation is informal. Industry contributes only 20% of gross domestic product (GDP).

The strong economic growth since the turn of the century has not led to real socio-economic transformation for the majority. Human development indices are still extremely low. The emergence of a middle class that has, nevertheless, been observed is a cause for optimism because of the purchasing power it represents.

However, this phenomenon remains difficult to pin down as its definition varies depending on the methodologies used. The African Development Bank (AfDB) estimated that 34% of the African population was middle class in 2011, while this figure was estimated at 3% by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 2009, 14% by the Compagnie française de l’Afrique occidentale (CFAO) in 2015, and 22% by McKinsey Global Institute in 2008 (study published in Futuribles International in 2019). Despite improved access to basic services and a decline in the poverty rate since 1990, the absolute number of poor people has increased. The Covid-19 pandemic has aggravated this situation and plunged several tens of Facing up to reality, preparing for the future

6

millions more Sahelians into poverty – up to 9% of the population according to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The rise in poverty has also seen a rise in inequalities.

Table 1. Statistical data Country

Population *(thousands), 2020

Area in km2

GDP in USD (millions), 2019

GDP (Purchasing Power Parity) per capita, USD, 2019

GDP growth (%), 2019

% of population in extreme poverty ($1.90 per day, most recent measure)

Ranking in UNDP Human Development Index 2020 (out of 189)

Literacy rate (%) in female population aged 15+ years (most recent measure)

Burkina Faso

20 903

274 220

15 746

2 282

5.7

43.8

182

33

Mali

20 251

1 240 190

17 324

2 508

5.1

50.3 (2009)

184

26

Mauritania

4 650

1 030 700

7 600

6 036

5.9

6.0

157

43

Niger

24 207

1 267 000

12 912

1 276

5.9

45.4

189

27

Nigeria

206 140

923 770

448 120

5 353

2.2

39.1

161

53

Senegal

16 744

196 710

23 579

3 536

5.3

38.5

168

40

Chad

16 426

1 284 000

10 934

1 654

3.0

38.1

187

14

Sources: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019); World Bank data; Africa’s Development Dynamics 2021, Statistical Annex; UNDP, 2020 Facing up to reality, preparing for the future

7

Livelihood zones

Sahelian band

River

Agriculture Agropastoralism Pastoralism Irrigated agriculture Fishing Oases Mining Urban

Note: categorisation of zones as last updated per country Source: FEWS NET; OCHA; Natural Earth Facing up to reality, preparing for the future

8

Pastoralists and farmers in the Sahel and cyclical movements FIGURE 1.2 PASTORALISTS AND FARMERS IN THE SAHEL CYCLICAL MOVEMENTS Nomadic people Nomads

Pastoralists

Herders Pastoralists

Pastoralists

SAHEL

Soudanian Soudanianpeasants farmers Road, river Zonal shift

Sahelian city

Lake

Saharan city

Mountain range

Source: Retaillé D., Comment lire le contact Sahara-Sahel 1989a

Source: Retaillé D., Comment lire le contact Sahara-Sahel 1989 Extract: © SWAC/OECD, An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel 2014 Facing up to reality, preparing for the future

9

Transhumance patterns Flux de transhumance Transhumance patterns

Transhumance movements Itinéraires de transhumance and routes Restrictions de la mobilité pastorale Pastoral reduction due en raisonmovement de la Covid-19 en mai 2020 to Covid-19 as of May 2020 Très élevées (75-95%) Very high (75-95%) Élevées (55-75%) High (55-75%) Moyennes (<55%) Average (<55%) Zones d’insécurité élevée au cours des dernières années High insecurity areas in recent years Bande sahélienne Sahelian band urbaines Agglomérations Urban aglomerations Source: UNOWAS, Pastoralisme et Sécurité en Afrique de l’Ouest et au Sahel 2018 ; ACF and RBM

Sources: UNOWAS (2018), Action Against Hunger and Réseau Billital Maroobé (2020)

Source: UNOWAS, Pastoralism and Security in West Africa and the Sahel 2018; ACF and RBM Facing up to reality, preparing for the future

10

Metals and minerals

Main roads Sahelian band

Precious metals Metals Minerals Phosphates

Source: USGS, MRDS Facing up to reality, preparing for the future

11

Changing societies

Transnational spaces

West African countries have a long history of cross-border links, culture, trade and mobility. These links underpin the common destinies between neighbouring countries.

Although they are officially English-, French-, Portuguese- or Arabic-speaking, these countries are predominantly characterised by indigenous languages and cultures. Nearly 1 200 of the continent’s 2 000 languages are spoken here. Hausa, Mossi and Bambara are more widely spoken than English or French.

Lingua francas create cross-border ethnolinguistic areas. For example, Fulah is spoken in 15 countries in West and Central Africa; Hausa and Kanuri unite Niger and Nigeria inseparably; Senufo is spoken in Côte d’Ivoire and Mali; Gourmantché is used in Benin, Burkina Faso, Niger and Togo; and Tuareg languages are spoken in Algeria, Libya, Mali and Niger.

Culture plays a memorial, symbolic and emotional role on both sides of borders, encouraging transmission, reflection and criticism. It

Youth

consolidates identities within the group but also in relation to the outside world. As such, it is a core aspect of co-existence, of the social bond that unites communities, and of democratic consensus. Culture also connects the region’s collective imagination to a globalized world.

In Sahelian countries, 80% of the population declares religious affiliation. A blend of traditional beliefs and those imported through trans-Saharan trade or by European missionaries acts as a powerful cohesive factor for groups that are now separated by borders (Sahelian countries and those in the Gulf of Guinea). Religions widely shape many aspects of public and private life.

This cross-border societal landscape will continue in the decades to come. After 60 years of independence and nation building, community allegiance formed by common languages, cultures and beliefs is deeply rooted in the collective psyche. We cannot consider the future of the Sahel without taking this duality into account.

West Africa is the most populous region in Africa. Improved health conditions have triggered a population boom. The rapid population growth of around 3% per year is due to a combination of high fertility and a decline in infant mortality.

The population is therefore predominantly young, with nearly 60% of the population of the Sahel region under 25 years old. The countries are thus largely populated by young people and children. The number of young people (15–24 year olds) is expected to continue to rise until 2035, making it difficult to absorb all the new entrants into the labour market. The lack of employment opportunities is causing many of these young people to migrate within and beyond Africa.

Younger generations outnumber their elders and are better educated. Better informed and more demanding, they assert their right to a say over the management of public affairs, without necessarily entering political circles. They are Changing societies

12

steadfast urbanites who get involved in social movements that often have origins in civil society or student circles. These citizen uprisings address issues around governance (mismanagement, bribery, civic engagement, constitutional change, presidential third terms, road improvements, government officials’ salaries, police violence, insecurity, etc.) and have an effect on democratic processes. They include the Y’en a marre movement in Senegal, Balai citoyen in Burkina Faso, pro- and anti-Tazartché (meaning “continued rule”) movements in Niger, and the An tè a bana platform and Mouvement du 5 Juin - Rassemblement des forces patriotiques (M5-RFP) in Mali. Social networks, which are increasingly used, relay and amplify the campaigns, such as the now famous #BringBackOurGirls or more recently #EndSARS in Nigeria.

Over the past 20 years (2000–2020), the population of West Africa has increased by a factor of 1.7, from 244 million to 418 million.

Over the next two decades, it is expected have a slightly lower multiplier (1.6), reaching nearly 700 million by 2040. By then, Nigeria could have a population of 330 million and be the fourth most populous country in the world after China, India and the United States.

The population of Sahelian countries will double within a generation (20 to 25 years). These

are the average United Nations projections. The low projection (which assumes more proactive policies and a rapid decline in fertility) does not diverge from the medium projection within this timescale.

The Sahelian countries will see their combined population increase by 3 million per year from 2020, and by 4 million per year by the end of 2030. Landlocked countries started their demographic transition later than coastal countries and will face the greatest challenges.

They will experience stronger population growth between now and 2040: by a factor of 1.68 in Burkina Faso and Chad, 1.73 in Mali and 2 in Niger (which, although it currently has only a third of the population of France, could match its population by 2050). By contrast, Mauritania will experience a relatively steady and limited increase, albeit large in relation to its population.

Informal

There is a clear correlation between the size of the informal sector and the rate of population growth.

This type of economy is integral to communities undergoing demographic transition. It is not driven by capital accumulation, but by a necessary sharing of work that allows for the constant arrival of new operators. It seeks to provide for the

basic needs of the greatest number of people: food, shelter, clothing, transportation, health care and entertainment. In the Sahelian countries, a large share of the population lives in this social and economic space, which is overwhelmingly dominated by self-employment and family employment.

Formal and informal economies are closely intertwined. The formal sector relies on the informal, especially for retail sales (of phone cards, for example). The informal sector is a “shock absorber” for the formal sector – in the event of an economic crisis, many employees switch to the informal sector to survive (as did many employees of tourism companies due to the Covid-19 pandemic). The informal sector thus fulfils a dual role as a reservoir of employment and a social buffer in the event of a crisis.

The informal economy naturally shrinks as population growth slows down and economy develops, as can be seen in Cabo Verde and Mauritania.

Over the next 20 years, the informal sector is expected to remain the largest sector in Sahelian countries, where it currently accounts for more than 80% of the population. This does not preclude strong growth in the population involved in the formal sector. Even if the number of people in the formal sector were to double by 2040, the proportion of the population in the informal sector would remain similar.

Changing societies

13

Food economy

The food economy (from farm to fork) is the cornerstone of West African economies. It accounts for a total of USD 263 billion or 35% of regional GDP – much more than cash crops or oil and gas exports. It is the main source of employment in West Africa, employing two-thirds of the working population, or 98 million people. By 2030, the food economy could reach USD 480 billion and generate 131 million jobs.

Two-thirds of working women are employed in the food sector, where they represent 51% of the workforce and tend to have the most precarious jobs. They account for more than 40% of the agricultural labour force but have difficulty accessing land ownership. This is due to legal or traditional norms, particularly customary law, which places women under the guardianship of their father or husband. In Nigeria, women make up more than one-third of the agricultural labour force but account for only 4% of landowners.

In Sahelian countries today, the food economy is predominantly agricultural and rural.

Agro-sylvo-pastoral and fisheries productions account for 80 to 90% of all value creation.

However, the share of non-agricultural activities (trade, processing, street food) is increasing rapidly. This trend is due to rapid urbanisation,

which is driving market development and an increase in demand for processed products.

Between 1960 and 2020, the West African region saw its urban population multiply by 100, while its total population multiplied by five.

The food economy will still be highly dominant in 2040 in landlocked Sahelian countries.

Half of downstream agriculture activity, which is still an underdeveloped sector, takes place in urban areas. With the urban population growing twice as fast as the rural population, the food economy will diversify rapidly and the non-agricultural and urban share will grow significantly and faster than the agricultural and rural share.

Digital technology

West Africa has skipped the stage of landline telephones, thus leapfrogging technology. The number of individual mobile phone subscribers in West Africa increased by 80 million between 2002 and 2020. This increase is driven by the number of young consumers who are acquiring a mobile phone for the first time. The mobile phone penetration rate is growing faster than the population (currently around 50%, up from 28% at the beginning of the decade). According to the GSMA (the Global System for Mobile Communications), it should continue to grow to

reach 248 million subscribers by 2025. Sahelian countries, with the exception of Chad and Niger, are following the same trend.

In 2018, mobile technology and services contributed USD 52 billion to the West African economy (or 8.7% of GDP). At the time, this ecosystem directly employed over 200 000 people.

Mobile phones are still the main platform for Internet access, with the GSMA recording 100 million mobile Internet users in 2018.

However, the region still suffers from a connectivity gap: only one in four West Africans had access to the Internet in 2018, according to the Gallup World Poll. In addition to being limited, digital coverage remains expensive and of poor quality.

Despite these limitations, the digital ecosystem is booming, with facilities such as Jokkolabs in Ouagadougou, Bamako and Dakar, the Centre Incubateur des Petites et Moyennes Entreprises du Niger (CIPMEN) in Niamey and the Co-Creation Hub (CcHUB) in Lagos. These centres provide collaborative workspaces and incubate ideas into viable commercial products or services by accelerating innovation processes and technology transfer. Attracted by this creativity, Silicon Valley giants are considering strategic deployments in the region. According to the 2021 edition of Africa’s Development Dynamics (African Union Commission / OECD), West Changing societies

14

Africa now has 129 active startups that have raised at least USD 100 000 – five times more than five years ago.

The digital transformation is opening up new opportunities to digitalise administrative services (such as civil records) and to develop smart solutions for rural communities (such as the Niger 2.0 Smart Villages project) and for the informal economy. Mobile money services are scaling up significantly, making it easier to send money or pay bills. E-commerce platforms are emerging, along with home-delivery systems. Mobile phones are changing market operations through price sharing and can even help herders guide their animals to available pasture. Digital water management systems are emerging here and there.

Digitalisation will have a profound effect on the Sahelian economy and societies, which are currently mainly informal and dominated by the food industry. This trend is already producing important structural changes, and will continue to do so. However, this transformation is reliant on the creation of new digital infrastructures, starting with access to electricity, which will require considerable investment in a region that is currently suffering from a severe shortage of energy. It will also entail training people in these new tools (digital literacy) to ensure that they are properly used.

Changing societies

15

Sahara-Sahel empires and their routes

Hausa town

Empires

Hinge city

Kanem - Bornu

Hinge Route

10th - 13th century 14th - 16th century 16th - 19th century

Almoravid and Almohad 12th century 13th century

Ghana Mali Songhay 4th - 10th century 11th - 14th century 15th - 16th century

Nomadic zone Sedentary core Pastoral movements

Sources: Retaillé D., Comment lire le contact Sahara-Sahel 1989a; Retaillé D., Le contrôle de l’espace : les États sahélo-sahariens 1989b; Retaillé D. et O. Walther, Guerre et terrorisme au Sahara-Sahel : la reconversion des savoirs nomades 2011

Source: Retaillé D., Comment lire le contact Sahara-Sahel 1989; Retaillé D., Le contrôle de l’espace : les États sahélo-sahariens 1989; Retaillé D. et O. Walther, Guerre et terrorisme au Sahara-Sahel : la reconversion des savoirs nomades 2011 Extract: © SWAC/OECD, An Atlas of the Sahara-Sahel 2014 Changing societies

16

West African languages spoken by more than one million native speakers 2005

Source: SWAC/OECD; Vienna University; S.I.L. 2005 Created by: Frédéric Ocrisse-Aka Extract: © SWAC/OECD, Regional Atlas on West Africa 2009 Changing societies

17

Mental maps by locality

Note: each interviewee draws the boundaries of what they consider to be the priority space for cross-border co-operation Source: SWAC/OECD Extract: © SWAC/OECD, Cross-border Co-operation and Policy Networks in West Africa 2017 Changing societies

18

Population growth in West Africa In million

Population growth in West Africa 900m

High variant: 896m Medium variant: 831m

800m Historical growth

Future projections

Low variant: 766m

700m

600m

500m

400m

300m 2020 418m

1950 73m 200m

100m

0

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

Chart: © Faso, 2021. Sahel West Chad, Africa Club Secretariat (SWAC/OECD) - Source: United Nations, Population Division (2019) Note: countries included: Benin, Burkina Caboand Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo Source: UNDESA, Population Division, World Population Prospects 2019 Revision

Changing societies

19

Projections of population Population growth in the Sahelgrowth between 2020 and 2050 2020-2050

Mauritania 94%

Cabo Verde 22% Gambia 102%

Mali 115%

Niger 171% Chad 107%

Senegal 98%

Guinea-Bissau 81%

Guinea 98% Sierra Leone 62% Liberia 85%

Burkina Faso 108% Benin 100% Côte d’Ivoire 94%

Ghana 67%

Nigeria 95%

Togo 86%

Source: Division, World Population Prospects 2019 Revision Chart: UNDESA, © 2021. SahelPopulation and West Africa Club Secretariat (SWAC/OECD) - Source: United Nations, Population Division (2019) Changing societies

20

Sources population (2019). Perspectives de la population mondiale 2019, édition en ligne. révision. 1. et Institut de statistique de l’UNESCO, mise à jour des données pour septembre 2020.

Fertility and school enrolment FERTILITY AND SCHOOL ENROLMENT COUNTRY

FERTILITY RATE % (2015-20)

BIRTH RATE FOR GIRLS (15-19 YEARS) PER 1 000

PRIMARY SCHOOL NET ATTENDANCE RATE FOR GIRLS % (2010-18)

LITERACY RATE FOR GIRLS (15-24 YEARS) % (2014-18)

CABO VERDE

2.3

73.8

-

98.7

GHANA

3.9

71.8

73.1

92.2

SIERRA LEONE

4.3

112.8

64.9

62.7

TOGO

4.4

89.1

76.4

78.4

LIBERIA

4.4

136.0

32.5

45.6

GUINEA-BISSAU

4.5

104.8

25.7

49.8

MAURITANIA

4.6

71.0

49.3

56.8 53.0

CÔTE D’IVOIRE

4.7

117.6

53.2

GUINEA

4.7

135.3

39.1

37.2

SENEGAL

4.7

72.7

51.5

63.5

BENIN

4.9

86.1

44.1

51.9

BURKINA FASO

5.2

104.3

29.5

54.7

GAMBIA

5.2

78.2

69.3

64.4

NIGERIA

5.4

107.3

70.9

68.3

CHAD

5.8

161.1

23.7

22.4

MALI

5.9

169.1

42.3

43.3

NIGER

6.9

186.5

22.7

35.6

Sources: Prospects 2019, Online Edition. Rev. 1. and UNESCO Institute for Statistics, September 2020 data update.

Source: UNDESA, Population Division, World Population Prospects 2019 Revision; UNESCO Institute for Statistics (September 2020 data update) Changing societies

21

Evolution of country population and median age In million

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Nigeria 37.9 45.1

56

73.5

95.2

122

Burkina Faso 4.3

5.9

7.1

8.8

4.8

5.6

6.8

8.5

3.4

4.5

6

3.2

4.3

3

0.9

11.6

11.3

Nigeria 201

18.1

Niger 23.3

15.2

Burkina Faso 20.3

17.6

Mali 19.7

16.3

Senegal 16.3

18.5

Chad 15.9

16.6

Mauritania 4.5

20.1

16.5

15.6

Niger 2.6 8

10.9

15

5.6

7.5

9.8

12.7

3.6

4.5

6

8.4

12

1.1

1.5

2.6

3.5

Chad 2.5

Senegal 2.5

Mauritania 0.7 2

Median age in 2020

159

Mali 4.7 5.3

2019

Source: DESA UN, World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision and WDI Revision 2013, World Bank Source: UNDESA, Population Division, World Population Prospects 2019

Changing societies

22

Change in population In % of the population in 1960

Variation de la population par rapport à 1960 (en %) Burkina Faso

Chad

Mali

Mauritania

Niger

Nigeria

Senegal

600%

400%

200%

Source: World Bank

0% 1960

1970

Source : Banque Mondiale

1980

1990

2000

2010

2019

Changing societies

23

Population pyramid in the Sahel 2020 In million

Pyramide des âges au Sahel

Women Men Femmes Hommes

> 75

1.1m

933k

70-74

1.3m

1.2m

65-69

2m

1.8m

60-64

2.7m

2.5m

55-59

3.5m

3.3m

50-54

4.4m

4.2m

45-49

5.5m

5.4m

40-44

6.8m

6.8m

35-39

8.2m

8.2m

30-34

9.6m

9.7m

25-29

11.2m

11.5m

20-24

13.5m

13.8m

15-19

16.3m

16.9m

10-14

19.3m

20m

5-9

22.4m

23.3m

0-4

25.5m

26.6m

Donnée 2020 Pays inclus : Burkina Mali, Mauritanie, Niger, Nigéria, Sénégal et Tchad Note: countries included: Burkina Faso,Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal : © 2021.

Secrétariat du Club du SahelProspects et de l’Afrique de l’Ouest (CSAO/OCDE) - Source : United Nations, Population Division (2019) Source: UNDESA,Graphique Population Division, World Population 2019 Revision Changing societies

24

1500

Protests and riots

1000

500

Manifestations et émeutes 0

Chad

Niger

Senegal

Burkina Faso

Mali

Mauritania

Nigeria

Per year

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

By location (2020)

2000

1500

1000

500

0

2010

2011

By location (2020)

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

Source: ACLED

Source: ACLED Changing societies

25

Informal employment rate In % of Part the total deemployment la population

Women

dans l’économie informelle (en %)

Men

Niger

86.5

74.6

Mauritania

91.2

90.8

Senegal

91.9

89.2

Mali

Burkina Faso

Chad

96.6

97.7

99.0

90.9

93.5

95.2

Note : mesure la plus récente ; définition de l’OIT : l’économie informelle est définie comme l’ensemble des activités économiques exercées par des travailleurs et des unités économiques qui ne sont pas – en droit ou en pratique – couvertes ou insuffisamment couvertes par des dispositifs formels

Note: latest data available Source : OIT Source: ILO, ILOSTAT Database, 2021 Changing societies

26

Share of the food economy in West African GDP and employment

Employment

2030 131 million jobs 61% of total employment

GDP

2030 USD 480 billion 33% of GDP

2020 USD 263 billion 35% of GDP

2020 98 million jobs 62% of total employment

Source: SWAC/OECD, 2020 Changing societies

27

Share and number of people employed in the food economy 2015

Note: *modelled data; ECOWAS and UEMOA Source: Allen, T et al.

Extract: © SWAC/OECD, Agriculture, Food and Jobs in West Africa 2018 Changing societies

28

Share of women’s employment by food economy segment

Share of female employment by segment

2012-2015

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

Food agriculture

Food processing

Food marketing

Food-awayfrom-home

Note: countries included: Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal Source: Allen, T et al.

Extract: © SWAC/OECD, Agriculture, Food and Jobs in West Africa 2018 Changing societies

29

Mobile cellular subscriptions Per 100 people Abonnements

2010

à la téléphonie mobile (pour 100 habitants)

2019

125

100

75

50

25

0

Niger

Chad

Nigeria

Burkina Faso

Mauritania

Senegal

Mali

Note : les valeurs supérieures à 100 pourraient indiquer dans quelle mesure les utilisateurs possèdent plusieurs comptes d’abonnement mobile Note: values over 100 could be indicative of degree to which users have multiple mobile subscription accounts Source: ITU, World Database (via World Bank portal) SourceTelecommunication/ICT : UIT, Base de données des Indicators indicateurs des télécommunications TIC dans le monde (via le portail Banque Mondiale) Changing societies

30

Population using the internet In % of the population Population

2010

utilisant l’internet (en %)

2019

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Niger

Chad

Mali

Burkina Faso

Mauritania

Nigeria

Senegal

Source: ITU Source : UIT

Changing societies

31

Senegal

22.11%

Mauritania

Facebook subscribers

19.42%

Nigeria

15.07%

Mali

2021 In % of the population

9.75%

Burkina Faso

Abonnés Facebook (en % de la population) 2021

9.30%

Chad

2.62%

Niger

2.30% 0%

Senegal

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

22.11%

Mauritania

19.42%

Nigeria

15.07%

Mali

Mauritania 19.42%

Mali 9.75%

9.75%

Burkina Faso

9.30%

Chad

2.62%

Niger

2.30% 0%

Niger 2.30% Chad 2.62%

Senegal 22.11% Burkina Faso 9.30% Nigeria 15.07%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Source: Internet World Statistics (IWS)

Mauritania

Source: Internet World Statistics (IWS) 19.42% Mali 9.75%

Senegal 22.11%

Niger 2.30% Chad 2.62%

Changing societies

32

Access to electricity 2018 In % of the population

Accès à l’électricité au Sahel % de la population Access to electricity

No access to electricity

100%

92%

82%

81%

54%

52%

45%

30%

75%

70% 55%

50%

46%

48%

Mauritania

Mali

25%

0%

18%

19%

Burkina Faso

Niger

8% Chad

Nigeria

Senegal

Données 2018

Source: World Bank Graphique : © 2021. Secrétariat du Club du Sahel et de l’Afrique de l’Ouest (CSAO/OCDE) Source : Banque mondiale, 2018

Changing societies

33

Electricity Transmission Network in West Africa

West African Sahel

Data providers: World Bank & SWAC OECD

Existing and planned transmission grid network (medium and high voltage lines) in 2017 Urban population density Inhabitants per square kilometre in 2015

* Medium & high voltage lines

Source: ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (ECREEE), WAPP GIS Database; SWAC/OECD; Natural Earth

Changing societies

34

Interconnected vulnerabilities

Climate

The Sahel is on the list of global hot spots highly sensitive to climate change. Delta areas and semiarid regions are particularly affected. Projections suggest that, by 2040, climate change could result in annual losses equivalent to 2–4% of GDP in Sahelian countries.

There is almost certain to be a significant rise in temperature. According to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), it could be around 4°C – much higher than the global average – and probably focused on inland areas in the western Sahel.

It is currently difficult to predict the magnitude and duration of changes to rainfall.

Although it appears that the western Sahel is becoming drier and the eastern Sahel wetter, forecast models do not agree. On the contrary, the IPCC and Agrhymet / Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) state that it is inevitable there will be increased rainfall variability with alternating wet and dry years and an increase in the frequency

and intensity of extreme hydroclimatic events.

The succession of unpredictable and intense weather events is expected to have a negative impact on the livelihoods and food and nutrition security of the most vulnerable. Women responsible for “reproductive labour”, managing supplies of water, fodder and timber, could be particularly affected.

Climate change could also affect migration trends and contribute to social unrest and political instability.

Violence

Between 2011 and 2019, the number of violent events in West Africa increased from 581 to 2 617 and the number of victims from 3 360 to 11 900. In 2020, the number of victims of violent attacks in Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger increased by 30% over the previous year, reaching record levels.

Violence is driven by many socio-political, economic and cultural factors. It also feeds on feelings of injustice (real or perceived) specific to

each country and, in many cases, specific to local, often cross-border, areas. The inability of states to control their territory has allowed violent extremist organisations, militias and secessionist rebel groups to flourish. Few countries are spared from these waves of violence that know no borders.

Cross-border areas, such as Liptako-Gourma and the Lake Chad Basin, are particularly affected: 40% of violent events and deaths are recorded within 100 km of a land border; 10% of victims of political violence recorded since 1997 were within 10 km of a national border.

Military interventions have resulted in only short-lived respite. After a decrease in the intensity of violence, these interventions have generally been followed by a resumption of more intense but also more diffuse insurgent activity. This is the case in Mali, the theatre of Operation Serval (Operation Barkhane since 2014) and of the G5 Sahel Joint Force. It is also the case in the Lake Chad region, where the Multinational Joint Task Force involving Nigeria and its neighbouring countries has been operating since 2015.

Interconnected vulnerabilities

35

While it is impossible to predict the future of violence and conflict, we can nevertheless be sure that some of the underlying causes of current insecurities will persist over the coming decades.

In particular, there will be much greater strain upon natural resources and the means of accessing them, due to population growth. At the same time, states are unlikely to have significantly more human and financial resources available to enforce law and order than they do now.

Humanitarian aspects

Growing insecurity in rural areas is affecting already vulnerable populations. There is now more violence against civilians than there is due to fighting between the government and armed groups. This violence is also affecting local economies and therefore livelihoods. For the past six years, the Diffa region of Niger has been under a state of emergency with a curfew, a ban on motorcycle traffic and on growing and exporting peppers and fish, the closure of some weekly markets, and the rationing of oil and chemical fertilisers. Since 2017, this has also covered some departments in the Niger regions of Tillabéri and Tahoua.

The deteriorating security situation makes life particularly difficult for women. In conflict zones,

they are explicitly targeted for attacks, abduction, rape and sexual exploitation. They are also used by certain extremist organisations to promote their objectives and to recruit new members.

The number of refugees and displaced persons is rocketing. In the space of one year (2019– 2020), there has been a fourfold increase in the number of people displaced in the central Sahel due to armed violence. In Burkina Faso, nearly 1 million people were internally displaced in 2020 – 1 in 20 or 5% of the country’s population. Mali recorded 332 957 internally displaced persons at the end of 2020, a level comparable to June 2013 (the year France began its military engagement and the United Nations mission was deployed to Mali). In 2019, the Diffa region of Niger recorded 461 323 persons in need for humanitarian assistance out of a total population of 738 000, according to figures from the Direction régionale de l’ état civil (DREC). These included 120 000 refugees, mostly Nigerians, 104 000 displaced people and 26 000 returnees, as well as a significant number of host populations. In Nigeria, the Boko Haram insurgency has displaced nearly 2 million people. The Nigerian refugee crisis, now a regional crisis, is entering its seventh year. In 2019, the Lake Chad Basin was accommodating 3.4 million displaced people. At the end of 2020, the Office

of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that there were 304 000 Nigerian refugees in the three neighbouring countries of Cameroon, Chad and Niger.

As a result, the humanitarian situation is deteriorating. In the short term, the Sahelian countries and their partners will have no choice but to make considerable efforts to respond to the emergency and avoid an increased sense of frustration and abandonment among a growing segment of society. Currently, with half the population already living in deprivation, 29 million Sahelians – the highest number ever recorded – are in need of humanitarian assistance and protection, according to the United Nations.

This is 5 million more than in 2020. Between 2016 and 2020, the average funding gap for the Humanitarian Response Plans of Sahelian countries stood at 43%, even including partner support. At the end of 2020, at a ministerial round table on humanitarian aid for the central Sahel, 24 donors pledged a total of USD 1.7 billion, out of the USD 2.4 billion requested by the United Nations.

Nutrition

For many decades, the number of people suffering from malnutrition – chronic or circumstantial Interconnected vulnerabilities

36

– has been increasing, even if as a proportion of the total population it is decreasing. Since the famines of 1972–73 and 1984–85, the prevalence of undernutrition has declined overall in West Africa, from 24% in 1990–92 to 14.7% in 2017–19. Fast population growth is masking the efforts made and the positive achievements in this area.

Since the 2010s, the security factor has been added to the complex equation of hunger and malnutrition. Civil insecurity is a major reason for Sahelian populations experiencing the most severe food crisis in decades. People in need of food assistance are concentrated in the cross-border regions of Liptako-Gourma and the Lake Chad Basin, which are particularly affected by insecurity. In the tri-border zone (between Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger), more than 2.7 million people are currently in crisis and beyond (phases 3-5) and one in four are dependent on food aid. Northern Nigeria alone has an estimated 12.8 million people in need of immediate food assistance – 47.4% of the total in West Africa.

At its meeting in April 2021, the Food Crisis Prevention Network (RPCA) announced that the region must prepare, for the second year in a row, for another major food and nutrition crisis that could affect nearly 27.1 million people in

the next lean season (June to August 2021), if appropriate measures are not taken – representing 3 times more people than in 2019. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the prevalence of global acute malnutrition already exceeds the high threshold of 10% in several Sahelian countries. An additional 67 million people, currently under food pressure (phase 2), could fall into crisis during this lean season – a new peak for the region.

Yet, the region regularly sets records for agricultural production. West Africa recorded a good agropastoral season in 2020/21, with increased production of cereals (estimated at 74.3 million tonnes) and tubers (194.9 million tonnes), and surplus production of fodder. However, this performance is likely to be undermined by several factors: insecurity hindering access to fields and pastures; economic shocks, notably inflation, which leads to higher prices; Covid-19 measures preventing markets from functioning and restricting pastoral mobility; and climate variability affecting harvests, such as the heavy floods during the 2020 and 2021 rainy seasons.

Food and nutrition insecurity, which is more prevalent and better recorded in rural areas, is gaining ground in cities. In 2018, 110 million people in West Africa did not have a good diet, including 52 million who were overweight or

obese (mostly in cities). In Burkina Faso, the obesity rate has risen by 1 400% over the past 36 years. This dietary imbalance, caused by new eating habits and a sedentary lifestyle, is causing an epidemic of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The latest figures from the Global Nutrition Report show anaemia in 50% of women of reproductive age, and obesity in 13% of women in West Africa, resulting in a double burden of malnutrition.

There is great uncertainty as to how the food and nutrition situation will develop in the future.

There may be peaks or lulls, depending on factors such as climate events, insecurity level, world agricultural prices, locust invasions or health crises. Population resilience, i.e. the capacity to bounce back from a shock and adapt to change, must be a key focus of long-term public policies.

In the short and medium term, we are likely to see a continuation of the trends over the past decades (a relative reduction or absolute stagnation in undernutrition along with an increase in obesity and overweight).

Interconnected vulnerabilities

37

Climate change in Africa

Source: IPCC, Atlas de l’environnement 2007 Extract: © SWAC/OECD, Regional Atlas on West Africa 2009 Interconnected vulnerabilities

38

Precipitation anomalies in the Sahel 1950-2017

Anomalies de précipitation dans le Sahel 1950-2017 Cm/month 20

10

0

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

-10

les moyennes en 0.1 anomaly mm, ainsiwith « -5respect » correspond à une anomalie de précipitation de -0.05 cm Note: averages are Note in 0.1: mm, so “-5” is sont -0.05exprimées cm precipitation to 1980-2009; par rapport à 1980-2009 ; le Sahel correspond ici à la région géographique 20-10°N, 20°W-10°E here Sahel corresponds to the geographic region 20-10°N, 20°W-10°E Source : JISAO (Université de Washington) Source: JISAO (University of Washington) Interconnected vulnerabilities

39

Changes in Lake Chad’s surface area Water

Vegetation and swamp

1963

1963 shoreline

1973

1987

Niger

Niger

Nigeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

Cameroon

Cameroon

Cameroon 2003

Chad

Chad

Chad Niger

2013

2018

Niger

Niger

Nigeria

Nigeria

Nigeria Cameroon

Chad

Chad

Chad Niger

Cameroon

Cameroon

Source: USGS, EROS Center (Argon and Landsat satellite imagery) Interconnected vulnerabilities

40

Fatalities by location Décès par localisation

2015 2017 2020 Main roads Sahelian band

Note: fatalities from politically-motivated violence Source: ACLED; Natural Earth Interconnected vulnerabilities

41

fatalities Reported in Western fatalities Sahel in Western countries Sahel countries Reported fatalitiesReported in Western Sahel countries 2010-2020

2010-2020

2010-2020

Regional

Regional

Country

Country

Subnational (Admin Subnational 1) (Admin 1)

Note: fatalities include state and non-state combatants as well as civilians Source: ACLED

Note: fatalities include stateNote: and non-state fatalities include combatants state and as well non-state as civilians combatants as well as civilians

Interconnected vulnerabilities

42

fatalities Reported in Lake fatalities Chad in Basin Lakecountries Chad Basin countries Reported fatalitiesReported in Lake Chad Basin countries 2010-2020

2010-2020

2010-2020

Regional

Regional

Subnational (Admin 1) Subnational (Admin 1) Borno

Borno

Extreme-Nord

Extreme-Nord

Kaduna

Kaduna

Plateau

Plateau

Adamawa

Adamawa

Zamfara

Zamfara

Benue

Benue

Diffa

15 000

15 000

Diffa

Yobe

Yobe

Nord-Ouest

Nord-Ouest

Taraba

Taraba

Katsina

Katsina

Sud-Ouest

Sud-Ouest

Lac

10 000

10 000

Lac

Tillaberi

Tillaberi

Nassarawa

Nassarawa

Kano

5 000

0

5 000

2010

2011

2012

2013

Country

2014

2015

0 2016 2010 2017 2011 2018 2012 2019 2013 2020 2014

Country

2015

Kano

Delta

Delta

Rivers

Rivers

Niger

Niger

Bauchi

Bauchi

Cross River

Cross River

Gombe

Gombe

Federal Capital 2016 2017 2018 Kogi

2019

Federal Capital

2020

Kogi

Lagos

Lagos

Sokoto

Sokoto

Abia

Abia

Anambra

Anambra

Bayelsa

Bayelsa

Ebonyi

Ebonyi

Akwa Ibom

Akwa Ibom

Tibesti

Tibesti

Edo

Edo

Ogun

Ogun

Ouaddai

Ouaddai

Tahoua

Tahoua

Enugu

Enugu

Imo

Imo

Agadez

Agadez

Ndjamena

Ndjamena

Barh El Gazel

Barh El Gazel

Osun

Osun 0

10 000

20 0 000

000 1030 000

20 000

30 000

Note: fatalities include state and non-state combatants as well as civilians Source: ACLED Note: fatalities include state Note: andfatalities non-state include combatants state and as non-state well as civilians combatants as well as civilians Source: ACLED

Source: ACLED

Interconnected vulnerabilities

43

Jihadi attacks against security forces 2013-2020

Attaques meurtrières Attaques meurtrières jihadistes contre jihadistes les forces contrede lessécurité forces de sécurité 2013-2020 Military forces

Per year

2013-2020 Police Military forces forces

Per year

International Police forces military forcesInternational (MINUSMA,military France,forces US) (MINUSMA, France, US)

By location

By location Forces militaires nationales Attacks by location

Forces de police Forces militaires internationales

Note: one-sided attacks on security forces attributed to jihadi groups Note : attaques unilatérales Note : attaques contre lesunilatérales forces de sécurité contre les attribuées forces de aux sécurité groupes attribuées jihadistes aux groupes jihadistes Source: ACLED Source : ACLED

Source : ACLED

Interconnected vulnerabilities

44

Jihadi attacks against military forces where Jihadi against military forces where more than 20 soldiers were remore than 20attacks soldiers were reportedly killed portedly killed 2021

2020

2019

2018

Country

Location

Burkina Faso

Koutougou

19 August 2019

Chad

Bohouma

23 March 2020

NDjamena

15 June 2015

Mali

Niger

Nigeria

2017

2016

2015

Date

Bamba

6 April 2020

Gao

18 January 2017

Menaka

1 November 2019

Tabonkort

18 November 2019

Tarianda

15 March 2021

Bosso

3 June 2016

Chinagodrar

9 January 2020

In-Ates

10 December 2019

NGuigmi

25 April 2015

Doksa

15 October 2020

Kangarwa

9 October 2018

Metele

18 November 2018

Zari

30 August 2018

Source: ACLED

Source: ACLED Interconnected vulnerabilities

45

attacks resume in the north and Bamako

100

Events

Violent events and fatalities in Mali and Central Sahel 50

0

2011-2019

Jan 2011 Jul 2011 Jan 2012 Jul 2012 Jan 2013 Jul 2013 Jan 2014 Jul 2014 Jan 2015 Jul 2015 Jan 2016 Jul 2016 Jan 2017 Jul 2017 Jan 2018 Jul 2018 Jan 2019 Jul 2019

Operation Serval

Operation Barkhane

450

Fatalities Jan 2019: violence intensifies in the Menaka and Liptako regions; conflict Mar 2017: diffuses Group to Support Islam and Muslims created; to Burkina Faso attacks against MINUSMA

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

11 Jan 2013: France launches Operation Serval Mar 2012: Coup d’Etat against Amadou Toumani Touré Jan-Apr 2012: Islamists and rebels seize northern Mali

20 Mar 2014: French Defence Minister Le Drian declares that “the war is over Jan-Mar 2015: and has been won” First attacks

reported in Central Mali; attacks resume in the north and Bamako

Events 50

0 Jan 2011 Jul 2011 Jan 2012 Jul 2012 Jan 2013 Jul 2013 Jan 2014 Jul 2014 Jan 2015 Jul 2015 Jan 2016 Jul 2016 Jan 2017 Jul 2017 Jan 2018 Jul 2018 Jan 2019 Jul 2019

Operation Serval Operation Barkhane Source: SWAC/OECD based on ACLED Extract: © SWAC/OECD, The Geography of Conflict in North and West Africa 2020 Interconnected vulnerabilities

46

Civilian fatalities by attributed perpetrator in the Liptako-Gourma

Victimes civiles par auteur attribué dans le Liptako-Gourma

2013-2020

Victimes civiles par auteur attribué dans le Liptako-Gourma 2013-2020 2013-2020 Unidentified

Unidentified

Communal militias

Regional

Communal militias

Jihadi groups Regional

State security forces

Liptako-Gourma zoom-in 2018

State security forces

Liptako-Gourma zoom-in 2018

2 500

2 500

Jihadi groups

2 000

1 500

2 000

1 000

1 500

Civilian fatalities by location

2020

500

1 000 0

2013

2014

2015

2017

2018

2019

2020

2020

500

0

2016

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Note : décès de civils dus à des violences directes et indirectes (c’est à dire à des explosifs) ; l’histogramme s’applique à l’ensemble du pays pour le Burkina Faso, le Mali et 2018 2020 ne montrent que la zone connue sous le le Niger2019 ; les cartes nom de Liptako-Gourma

Civilian fatalities by location

Source : ACLED

Note: civilian direct and (i.e. explosives) violence; chart is countrywide for Burkina Faso, Note :deaths décèsfrom de civils dusindirect à des violences directes et bar indiMali and Niger;(c’est maps à display area known as Liptako-Gourma rectes dire àonly destheexplosifs) ; l’histogramme s’apSource:plique ACLEDà l’ensemble du pays pour le Burkina Faso, le Mali et

le Niger ; les cartes ne montrent que la zone connue sous le nom de Liptako-Gourma Source : ACLED

Interconnected vulnerabilities

47

InternallyPersonnes Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Burkina déplacées internes au Burkina Faso Faso 2018-2021

2018-2021

By province (Admin 2) in March 2021

Nationwide 1 250 000

1 000 000

750 000

500 000

Jan.-21

Feb.-21

March-21

July-20

Aug.-20

Jan.-20

May-20

Feb.-20

Oct.-19

Nov.-19

May-19

Aug.-19

April-19

June-19

March-19

July-18

Oct.-18

Feb.-19

0

April-18

250 000

Source : UNHCR (données de tendance) ; CONASUR/OCHA (données au niveau provincial)

Source: UNHCR (trend data); CONASUR/OCHA (province-level data) Interconnected vulnerabilities

48

IDPs by site

Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) within Nigeria and reason for displacement Main reason for displacement by site* 2021

Insurgency

Communal clash

Armed banditry and kidnapping

Natural disaster

Total IDPs IDPs Total

2 184 254 IDPs by by site site IDPs

Routes

principales for displacement by site* Main reason reason Main for displacement by site*

Insurgency Insurgency Armed banditry banditry and and kidnapping kidnapping Armed

Main roads

Communal clash clash Communal Natural disaster Natural disaster

Main Main roads roads

Source des données: OIM DTM (Mai 2021) *selon les déclarations des personnes déplacées intérrogées et categorisé par l'OIM

Note: *as reported by surveyed IDPs interviewed and categorised by IOM Source: DTM IOM (May 2021) Interconnected vulnerabilities

49

Food insecurity and violence Insecurité alimentaire et violence Insecurité alimentaire et Insecurité alimentaire et violence violence

2020-2021 2020-2021 2020-2021 2020-2021

Insecurité alimentaire et violence

2020-2021

Liptako-Gourma zoom-in

Liptako-Gourma zoom-avant Liptako-Gourma zoom-avant Liptako-Gourma zoom-avant Liptako-Gourma zoom-avant

River Fleuve Fleuve Fleuve

Bassin du laczoom-avant Tchad zoom-avant Bassin Bassindu dulac lacTchad Tchad zoom-avant

Lake Chad Basin zoom-in

Civilian fatalities Décès de civils Décès de civils Décès civils (01 de January 2020-30 June 2021)

Bassin du lac Tchad zoom-avant

01 janvier - 30 juin 2021 01 2020 30 2021 01janvier janvier 2020--2020 30juin juin 2021

Décès de civils 01 janvier 2020 - 30 juin 2021 Food insecurity phases Phase d'insécurité alimentaire Phase d'insécurité alimentaire Phase d'insécurité alimentaire (June 2021) (J uin 2021) (J(Juin uin2021) 2021) Urgence Urgence PhaseUrgence d'insécurité alimentaire Minimal rise (J uinCC2021) rise C rise S ous pression SSUrgence ous pression ousStressed pression

Minimale C rise Minimale Minimale Crisis

S ous pression

Emergency Sources: ACLED, FEWSNET Sources: ACLED, FEWSNET Sources: ACLED, FEWSNET Minimale Sources: ACLED, FEWSNET

Source: ACLED; FEWS NET

Interconnected vulnerabilities

50

Biomass

2016

2017

2019

2020

2018

Biomass production anomaly (in %)

Low growth

High growth

Note: biomass production anomaly is the difference between the biomass productivity of the year and the mean value calculated for the whole period (in this case 1999-2020) Source: Copernicus Land Service, Earth Observation Programme of the EU; ACF Interconnected vulnerabilities

51

Food and nutrition situation

2016

2017

2019

2020

2018

Food insecurity phases (March-May) Minimal Stressed Crisis Emergency Not analysed

Source: Cadre harmonisé Created by: CILSS/Agrhymet Extract: © RPCA Interconnected vulnerabilities

52

Food and nutrition trends in the Sahel and West Africa 2017-2021 FOOD AND NUTRITION TRENDS IN THE SAHEL & WEST AFRICA In million Number of people in “Crisis” or worse situation, 2017-21

March-May

5-year average: 13 million

June-August (lean season)

27.1 25 19.6

20 15 10

16.9

13.8 10.6

9.6

11.4

5.9

7.1 4.8

5 0

9.7

Mar-May Jun-Aug 2017

Mar-May Jun-Aug 2018

Mar-May Jun-Aug 2019

Mar-May Jun-Aug 2020

Mar-May Jun-Aug 2021

Source: Cadre harmonisé analysis of March for the period 2017-21. Figure: © SWAC/OECD Secretariat Note: number of people in “Crisis” or worse situation (phases 3-5); countries included: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo Source: Cadre harmonisé Created by: © SWAC/OECD, 2021 Interconnected vulnerabilities

53

Reconfigured territories

Urbanisation

Nearly 50% of West Africans now live in cities.

Twenty years ago, this proportion was 35%, and in 1960 it was less than 20%. Within the next two decades, this is expected to rise to 60%.

Within a generation, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal will become predominantly urban and Burkina Faso will approach rural/urban parity, whereas Niger and Chad will remain predominantly rural. The combined urban population of these countries is expected to increase by a factor of 2.3 between 2020 and 2040. In Nigeria, 65% of the population will live in urban areas by 2040 and almost 70% by 2050.

Agglomerations have developed as a result of migration to cities and natural population growth. Population growth is now by far the main driver of urbanisation. This is particularly true in the Sahelian region where, according to the Africapolis database, the rapid growth of villages is giving rise to many small agglomerations. Where there is little or no rural exodus, urbanisation is instead happening in situ.

Small and medium-sized towns are growing faster than capitals and other large cities. In 2015, Niger had 143 rural towns with populations ranging from 5 000 up to 10 000. By 2020, 29 of these had passed the 10 000 population threshold – an average of six per year between 2015 and 2020. This can be seen in the rapidly developing network of cities that are increasingly close together.

These new agglomerations are both rural and urban in character. Their economy is predominantly agrifood-based and they drive activity in their rural hinterland, providing both a market and a service centre. They create a market for the agrifood economy, along with increasingly long value chains that generate non-agricultural activities and jobs. Within these new agglomerations, women’s empowerment and the fertility transition are accelerating, while costs for accessing basic social services are reducing.

In addition, the rapid development of small agglomerations is effectively creating a network across the territory, which could make these services more accessible to the majority of the rural

population who are far from the major urban centres. Moreover, contrary to popular belief, the presence of dense human agglomerations does not preclude the presence of vegetation.

In the Sahel, urban areas are those recording the highest levels of vegetation (for example, Tchadoua in Niger, where the population more than doubled between 2000 and 2015).

The urban shift in the Sahel – one of the strongest anywhere in Africa or the world – will be accompanied by ongoing growth in the rural population, although at a slower rate than the overall population (an increase of around 50% by 2040).

For decades, the densification of rural settlements has been observed to take place mainly in the vicinity of urban centres. This will doubtless continue, resulting in increased pressure on natural resources.

If public policies are to respond effectively to the needs of the population, they will have to adapt to this rapid reconfiguration of the people and territories, as well as to the resulting changes in power.

Reconfigured territories

54

Table 2. Changes in number of agglomerations with more than 10 000 inhabitants in Sahelian countries Country

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2015

Burkina Faso

4

6

16

30

53

77

101

Mali

5

14

18

24

42

79

94

Mauritania

0

4

7

15

12

20

23

Niger

4

6

10

24

37

48

68

Nigeria

210

310

478

583

784

1 013

1 236

Senegal

9

13

27

36

45

59

74

Chad

4

9

14

25

36

70

93

Source: Africapolis, Geopolis, 2018

Mobility

West Africa has always been an area of high human mobility and cultural mixing. In the Sahel, mobility is a resilient response to the harsh environment. For thousands of years, there has been trading across the Sahara and towards the coast, seasonal migration of agricultural workers during the dry season, and engagement in transhumant pastoralism. In 2015, livestock trade and exports in the ECOWAS region were officially worth USD 800 million.

This mobility is also manifested in migration towards coastal countries. Over time, migration pairings have developed between, for example, Burkina Faso and Côte d’Ivoire, Côte d’Ivoire and Mali, Niger and Nigeria, and Mauritania and Senegal. These pairings are based in particular on cross-border ethnolinguistic similarities: Hausa

(Niger and Nigeria), Senufo (Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire and Mali) and Mandingo (Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Mali and Senegal).

This type of migration is poorly understood in official statistics, although they do show it taking place mainly within the region, and accounting for 90% of total migration.

International migration from Sahelian countries will continue unless politically constrained (such constraints would be in conflict with the Protocol on the Free Movement of Persons, Right of Residence and Establishment in the ECOWAS region). It may increase at least as fast as the population (at least doubling in 20 years). Migration is expected to continue to grow mostly within West Africa and the wider African continent, although since 1990 the proportion migrating to

other destinations (America, Asia and Europe) has continued to increase.

As regional mobility is part of the DNA of the Sahel and West Africa, it will remain a key economic and policy issue. In Sahelian countries that are still predominantly rural and agricultural, regional mobility will continue to be a vital necessity. This was demonstrated by the recent disastrous impact that border closures due to the pandemic had on transhumance, food trade and seasonal migration. In dialogue between Africa and Europe, these issues will continue to be discussed in terms of illegal migration to Europe. They will be at the heart of the debate between those who believe that a perfectly integrated and fluid West African space will be more prosperous and those who advocate short-termist policies based on a fear of mobility.

Reconfigured territories

55

Integration

In the Sahel, communication and exchange are vital links that have been driving regional integration for decades and have formed a basis for many institutional initiatives.

In 1975, the countries of West Africa joined together to form a Regional Economic Community (REC), ECOWAS, with a view to creating an economic and monetary union that would increase their trade and integrate them into global value chains. This community now has 15 member states (it excludes Chad and Mauritania). Africa’s RECs are designed to facilitate policy harmonisation and form a bridge between the national and continental levels. They are essential players in intra-African trade, by allowing for economies of scale and ensuring better access to domestic markets. In 2016, only 11.5% of ECOWAS trade was officially conducted on an intraregional basis. These figures seriously underestimate the true picture for informal trade, which is the real engine of economic integration. The Africa Regional Integration Index (ARII) gives ECOWAS a good score in terms of free movement of people and trade between member countries, despite its low score in terms of productive and infrastructural integration.

The seven Sahelian countries considered here all belong to the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD), which was established in 1998. This regional organisation is officially recognised by the African Union (AU) as one of the continent’s eight RECs. After a few years of inactivity, CEN-SAD intends to relaunch, having moved its executive body from Tripoli to N’Djamena in early 2020.

The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), which entered into force in 2019 at an Extraordinary Session of the AU Heads of State and Government in Niamey, hopes to become the largest free trade area in the world. It represents 1.3 billion consumers and over USD 3 trillion in combined GDP. Following delays due to Covid-19, the operational launch of the AfCFTA was finally announced in early 2021. The AU is counting on the help of the RECs to achieve this ambitious continental integration. Other existing regional and sub-regional bodies and initiatives could provide valuable assistance based on their specific expertise: the Lake Chad Basin Commission (established 1964) for sustainable and equitable management and preservation of lake ecosystem resources; the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS, established 1973) for food security and natural resource management; the West African

Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA, established 1994) for economic and monetary union; and the G5 Sahel (established 2014) for the security-development nexus, among others.

Driven by the relentless densification of regional and border settlements and by cross-border trade and migration, there will be even greater need for interstate cooperation than there is today. It will also be even more important to rationalise the institutional landscape.

Borders

West Africa has 32 000 km of land borders. Of its land surface, 45% is within 100 km of a border (55% if we exclude desert areas with few or no inhabitants), and these areas are home to 43% of the population. In the Sahel, this rises to 45% in Mali, over 50% in Burkina Faso, Mauritania and Senegal, and nearly 60% in Chad.

Certain highly populated cross-border areas have strong integration through their communities, history and commercial trading. These include the river valley between Mauritania and Senegal, the Liptako-Gourma area where Burkina Faso borders Mali and Niger, the border between Niger and Nigeria, and the Lake Chad Basin between Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria and Chad.

Reconfigured territories

56

These areas are driven by a dense network of border towns (there are more than 800 located within 100 km of a border, housing more than 80 million people, compared with 1.6 million people before the 1960s). These hubs link West African countries to each other and to global markets. The (mostly informal) trade that develops there relies on local, regional and international market networks.

Women in these towns are continuing a long tradition of cross-border trade, yet they remain marginalised in terms of wealth creation. Men tend to occupy the most profitable positions within the trading networks (for example, in marketing rice in the Dendi region between Benin, Niger and Nigeria).

Since the mid 20th century, border towns have almost always grown faster than other towns in the region. This rapid growth is particularly apparent within 50 km of national borders, where the most active markets are found.

However, these towns and the cross-border zones they serve are suffering both from a glaring lack of public investment, particularly in infrastructure, and from barriers to the free movement of people and goods, linked to road and border controls and regulatory red tape.

Cross-border basins will continue to densify and there will be a very rapid increase in trade

and interdependencies, simply because of population growth. Regional integration at “grassroots” level will therefore go on and intensify.

At the intersection between regional integration and local development, cross-border cooperation has been driving West African trade for many years. There have been many institutional initiatives to recognise and open up borders to support the vitality of these cross-border hubs. In 2004, cross-border cooperation was included in the integration strategy of first UEMOA and then CILSS. In 2005, ECOWAS created what became the Cross-Border Cooperation Programme (CBCP). In 2007, the Heads of State of the African Union launched the African Union Border Programme (AUBP). The AUBP led to the adoption in 2014 of the Niamey Convention, which provides a framework for cross-border cooperation with a view to continental integration and conflict resolution.

More recently, there has been renewed interest in integrated territorial development strategies. The G5 Sahel has set up the Programme d’aménagement territorial intégré (PATI) with the aim of helping to improve economic and social conditions for populations in the LiptakoGourma cross-border area through better access to infrastructure and economic services. The G5 Sahel is supported in this programme by

the Cellule de coopération transfrontalière décentralisée entre les collectivités territoriales du Sahel (C3 Sahel), comprising the communes of Dori, Gorom-Gorom, Sebba and Djibo in Burkina Faso, the Timbuktu Regional Council and the communes of Gao and Timbuktu in Mali, and the communes of Téra and Tillabéri in Niger.

The plan is that PATI will subsequently also support the populations of the Lake Chad Basin and the western Sahel zone.

Reconfigured territories

57

Least connected urban agglomerations

Note: 80% of the least connected urban agglomerations in Africa are in the Sahara and the Kalahari Desert Source: SWAC/OECD 2018, Africapolis (database) Based on: © SWAC/OECD, Africa’s Urbanisation Dynamics 2020 Reconfigured territories

58

Evolution of urbanisation

0% 4%

36%

1% 3%

21%

17% 29%

51%

16% 11%

1950

32%

17%

42%

3%

42%

14%

18%

29% 38%

53%

2010

1990 Share of urban population in total (%) 0-10

10-20

20-30

30-40

40-50

50-60

Source: SWAC/OECD 2018, Africapolis (database); Geopolis 2018 Based on: © SWAC/OECD, Africa’s Urbanisation Dynamics 2020 Reconfigured territories

59

Urban population growth 1950-2015

7.0%

5.7%

7.9% 6.7%

4.4% 6.6% 5.2%

Average urban growth (%) 4-5

5-6

6-7

7-8

Source: SWAC/OECD 2018, Africapolis (database); Geopolis 2018 Based on: © SWAC/OECD, Africa’s Urbanisation Dynamics 2020 Reconfigured territories

60

Share of urban population in the Sahel Urban

Rural

100%

Historical growth

Future projections

75%

50%

25%

0% 1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

Note: countries included: Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal Source: UNDESA, Population Division, World Population Prospects 2019 Revision Reconfigured territories

61

Emergence of new agglomerations

Type of agglomeration: Emerged after 2000 Existed in 2000

Source: SWAC/OECD 2018, Africapolis (database); Geopolis 2018 Based on: © SWAC/OECD, Africa’s Urbanisation Dynamics 2020 Reconfigured territories

62

Vegetation cover in Tchadoua (Niger)

25 000 inhabitants in 2015

Source: GoogleEarth 2014; SWAC/OECD, 2019 Reconfigured territories

63

Mauritania

Mali Mali

Niger

3.8%

Chad

Senegal

Niger Chad

Senegal Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso

PLACES OF RESIDENCE OF SAHELIAN EMIGRANTS, 2019 Nigeria

PLACES OF RESIDENCE OF SAHELIAN EMIGRANTS, 2019 Places of residence of Sahelian emigrants

88.3%

44.5% Europe

5.6%

MALI 1 264 700 EMIGRANTS

MAURITANIA 128 506 EMIGRANTS

CHAD 206 400 EMIGRANTS

BURKINA FASO 1 581 083 EMIGRANTS

Nigeria

14.8%

Sudan

Cameroon CHAD 11.8% 206 400 EMIGRANTS

BURKINA FASO Côte d’Ivoire 1 581 083 EMIGRANTS

Europe

5.6%

Mauritania Niger

3.8%

Chad

Senegal

Chad

Senegal Burkina Faso

Nigeria

d’Ivoire MAURITANIA 9.9% 128 506 EMIGRANTS

Europe

Mauritania

Niger

3.8%

Chad

Senegal Mauritania

Niger Nigeria

18.2%

Senegal

Côte d’Ivoire Burkina Faso

36.2%

Chad

Senegal

Europe

2.9% 18.2%

Chad

3.2%

Mali Chad

Senegal

3.3%

2.9%

SENEGAL 642 654 EMIGRANTS

Europe

48.1%

Mauritania Mali

Mauritania

2.8% Senegal Côte

Togo

Chad

Chad

2.6%

Senegal

Senegal Côte d’Ivoire

16.9%

Togo

16.5%

North America

Emigrants’ Mauritania

7.1%

3.6%

Benin

29.4%

Chad

Niger

Chad

Nigeria

> 10% of emigrants living in this country Cameroon

19.2% Faso Burkina

10.3% Only values greater than 2% are represented.

Nigeria

Source: United Nations (2019), Department of Economic and Social Aff airs, Trends in International Migrant Stock.

Europe

22.3%

48.1%

North America

Emigrants’ country of origin

7.1%

Senegal

Mauritania

2.8%

Niger

< 5% of emigrants living in this country 9.1%

Chad

Nigeria

> 10% of emigrants living in this country

d’Ivoire Cameroon 19.2%greater than 2% are represented 16.5%values Note: 16.9% only Burkina Faso 10.3% Only values greater than 2% are represented.

Source: UNDESA, TrendsNigeria in International Migrant Stock 2019 Gambia

20.6% SENEGAL 642 654 EMIGRANTS

Senegal

< 5% of emigrants living in this country 9.1% 5 < 10% of emigrants Burkina Fasoliving in this country

Niger Nigeria

North America

Chad

Mali

3.6%

5 < 10% of emigrants living in this country Niger Chad

Senegal

Burkina Fasoliving in this country 5 < 10% of emigrants

29.4%

country of origin Mali

20.6% SENEGAL 642 654 EMIGRANTS

country of origin Mali

3.3%

Benin

22.3%

< 5% of emigrants living in this country Mauritania Emigrants’

7.1%

3.6%

Chad

North America

30.5%

North America

Niger Nigeria

10.3%

Europe

Chad

Burkina Faso Mali

Chad

Cameroon

2.6%

3.3%

Gambia

Nigeria

10.3%

9.1% 13.3%

Côte d’Ivoire 41.3% Burkina Faso

North America

Niger

3.2%

4.4% Mauritania 2.8%

Cameroon

30.5%

Chad

Burkina Faso Mali

9.1% 13.3%

Europe

North America

Niger

3.2%

Senegal

NIGERIA 1 438 331 EMIGRANTS

29.4%

19.2% Europe

Mali

Niger Nigeria

Côte d’Ivoire

48.1%

Mauritania

41.3% Burkina Faso Nigeria

Benin

Europe

22.3%

Burkina Faso

Niger Nigeria

2.9%

North America

2.9%

Mauritania

Senegal

Niger Nigeria

Nigeria

19.2% Europe

7.3%

7.3% Burkina Faso Mali

NIGERIA 1 438 331 EMIGRANTS

29.4%

Benin

SENEGAL 642 654 EMIGRANTS

Niger

Senegal

Burkina Faso

Côte NIGER Togo d’Ivoire 401 16.9% 653 EMIGRANTS 16.5%

30.5% Mali

2.8% Burkina Faso Mali

4.4% 9.9%

Europe

8.6%

Niger

2.9%

Nigeria Côte NIGER Togo d’Ivoire 16.5% 401 16.9% 653 EMIGRANTS

9.7%

Mauritania

Niger

Chad

22.3%

Mali

Senegal

3.3%

Europe

2.6%

8.6%

Mauritania

Niger Nigeria

North America

30.5%

Mauritania

Burkina Faso Nigeria

North America

2.6%

2.8% Burkina Faso Mali

9.7% Europe

Chad

3.2%

Côte Senegald’Ivoire

4.4% 9.9%

13.3%

NIGERIA 1 438 331 EMIGRANTS

25.3%

Mali

Côte Senegald’Ivoire

Chad

44.5% 2.9%

MALI Côte d’Ivoire 1 264 700 EMIGRANTS

Europe

Mauritania

36.2%Mauritania

7.3% 14.8%

Sudan

11.8%

41.3%

NIGER 401 653 EMIGRANTS

Senegal

36.2%

Niger Nigeria

Burkina Faso Nigeria

Côte

4.4%

Mali

Cameroon

2.8%

Mauritania

Europe

North America

Niger

18.2%

Senegal Burkina Faso

88.3%

d’Ivoire MAURITANIA 9.9% 128 506 EMIGRANTS

Mali Chad

8.6%

2.9%

Mauritania Niger

Senegal Mauritania

Burkina Faso Mali

9.7%

13.3%

NIGERIA 1 438 331 EMIGRANTS

25.3% Europe

Europe Mali

25.3%

Mali

Burkina Faso Nigeria

Europe

NIGER 401 653 EMIGRANTS

Chad

2.9% 44.5%

11.8%

Côte MALI d’Ivoire 1 264 700 EMIGRANTS 41.3%

5.6%

Mauritania

7.3% 14.8%

Sudan

Cameroon

2.8%

Europe

MALI 1 264 700 EMIGRANTS

MAURITANIA 128 506 EMIGRANTS

Senegal

Niger Nigeria

Nigeria

Côte

14.8%

44.5%

Chad

Mali

88.3%

Nigeria Sudan

Cameroon CHAD 11.8% 206 400 EMIGRANTS

88.3%

Chad Burkina Faso

8.6%

Côte d’Ivoire Burkina Faso

36.2%

PLACES OF RESIDENCE OF SAHELIAN EMIGRANTS, 2019

Niger Nigeria

18.2%

Senegal

Niger

Senegal Mauritania

Burkina Faso Mali

Niger

Burkina Faso

BURKINA FASO Côte d’Ivoire 1 581 083 EMIGRANTS

Chad

Mauritania

Mali

9.7%

Mali Niger

Senegal

Mauritania

Europe

25.3%

Mali

3.8%

Mali

Mauritania

Europe

Mauritania

2019

Burkina Faso Gambia

20.6%

> 10% of emigrants living in this country Only values greater than 2% are represented.

Nigeria

Source: United Nations (2019), Department of Economic and Social Aff airs, Trends in International Migrant Stock.

Source: United Nations (2019), Department of Economic and Social Aff airs, Trends in International Migrant Stock.

Europe

48.1%

North America

7.1%

Emigrants’ country of origin < 5% of emigrants living in this country

Reconfigured territories

64

Dead or missing migrants 2014-2020

Per year

By location

Migration Migrantsroute décédés West African

ou disparus

Mediterranean

Route migratoire

Ouest-africaine

Dead or missing migrants by location 2014 - 2020

Méditerranéenne

6 000

4 000

2 000

0

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020 Dead or missing by location 2014 - 2020

Source : IOM

Source: IOM Reconfigured territories

65

Working of border markets

7.3 The working of border markets Sunday

Border

Monday

Saturday

Tuesday

Distribution of manufactured goods

Urban markets

Wednesday Friday

Tuesday Thursday

Semi-urban markets

Friday

Monday

Saturday

Rural markets Collection of primary products Sunday

Source: SWAC/OECD 2003

Source: SWAC/OECD, 2003 Reconfigured territories

66

Population potential of West African border markets

Source: European Space Agency 2010; Moriconi-Ebrard, F., D. Harre et P. Heirings 2016; Open Street Map 2014; Global Roads OpenAccess Data Set 2016; Shuttle Radar Topography Mission 2014; Global Administrative Areas 2016; LandScan™ 2014 Global Population Database Created by: Alterra Research Institute (University of Wageningen) Extract: © SWAC/OECD, Cross-border Co-operation and Policy Networks in West Africa 2017 Reconfigured territories

67

Gender disparities in trade networks 2018

Betweenness centrality by gender, 2018 Men

Business relationships

Women Others

Note: the size of the circles is proportional to the brokerage capacity of actors (betweenness centrality) Source: SWAC/OECD Extract: © SWAC/OECD, Women and Trade Networks in West Africa 2019 Reconfigured territories Femmes et réseaux marchands en Afrique de l’Ouest © OCDE 2019

4

68

Integrated Territorial Development Project (PATI) 2020

In progress:

G5 Sahel

Development and securing of the pastoral zone (Ceekol-Nagge, Burkina Faso)

Type of project by location

Strengthening the service level of the regional hospital (Dori, Burkina Faso)

Amenagement et sécurisation de la zone pastorale (Ceekol-Nagge, Burkina Faso)

Construction of livestock feed storage facilities (Gossi, Mali)

Construction de magasins de stockage d aliment bétail (Gossi, Mali)

PATI projects

Equipment of the slaughterhouse (Tillabéri, Niger)

Équipement de l abattoir (Tillabéri, Niger)

Awaiting financing:

Fourniture d énergie solaire aux populations (Régions du Lac et Kanem, Tchad)

Construction of multi-service and centres (Hodhs Ech Chargi et El Gharbi, Mauritania) Réalisation de pôles multiservices et de cohésion sociale (Régions de Hodh Echsocial Charguicohesion & Hodh El Gharbi, Mauritanie) Renforcement du niveau de service du centre hospitalier (Dori, Burkina Faso) Supply of solar energy to the population (Lac and Kanem regions, Chad)

Population density Inhabitants per square kilometre in 2015 135 789 50 000 2 000

Main roads

Data providers: G5 Sahel Secretariat, SWAC-OECD, OCHA/HDX

Source: G5 Sahel; SWAC/OECD; OCHA/HDX Reconfigured territories

69

Fragile governance

Public policies

The Covid-19 pandemic has exposed extreme weaknesses in health systems. There is a shortage of well-equipped hospitals and other health centres. Those that do exist are unevenly distributed across the country. Mali has only one hospital per 500 000 population and one doctor per 10 000 population, compared with an average of one per 35 in OECD countries. The country’s annual public health expenditure was USD 35 per capita in 2018, compared with USD 4 690 in France and USD 8 239 in Norway.

In Niger, in order to meet the basic education needs of a growing school-age population, the government decided in the 2000s to recruit large numbers of contract and temporary teachers, many of whom had no prior teacher training.

Meanwhile, the priority given to primary education has had a negative impact on secondary and especially higher education, research and development. To meet the demand, the number of private technical and vocational training institutions has increased, but they cater only

to a privileged minority and are not necessarily a guarantee of quality.

Similar observations can be made for the legal system, water and energy infrastructure, rural roads, telecommunications, urban development, etc. States must not only keep pace with population growth but also ensure the quality of the basic social services they provide. This is all playing out against a backdrop of increasing and interconnected food, security, humanitarian, health, socio-economic, socio-political and climate crises. States are being called on to achieve a lot, quickly, with little resources. Their only room for manoeuvre lies in trade-offs.

In the countries of the central Sahel, instability has significantly increased the share of spending on security over the past decade. Despite this, major failings are regularly observed, such as misappropriation of public funds and human rights abuses. Inadequate budgets and defence forces are resulting in the formation of communal militias. This delegation of a sovereign role is sometimes initiated by the state itself, as in the recruitment of “volunteers to defend the

homeland” in Burkina Faso. However, there is a risk of untrained volunteers committing atrocities. This is all happening in a context of inter-ethnic tensions, exacerbated by conflating groups perpetrating armed violence with the origin of some of the fighters in their ranks.

In the landlocked Sahelian countries, general government revenue (the government’s own income excluding aid) is now between USD 200 and USD 450 per capita per year (compared with about USD 4 000 in Algeria and USD 25 000 in France). There are also very few civil servants (e.g. six civil servants per 1 000 population in Mali, compared with 70 in the United States and 90 in France). Nevertheless, the civil service wage and salary bill represents about 40% of public expenditure in the Sahelian UEMOA member states. In Europe, the share allocated to this budget is between 5% and 15%.

Sahelian governments therefore currently have insufficient resources for designing, financing and implementing public policies. The budgetary resources and the number of civil servants would need to double in the next 20 years to Fragile governance

70

cope with the doubling of the population, just to maintain these low levels of government expenditure and staff.

The same calculation applies to international aid. Total aid to the G5 Sahel countries over the decade 2006–16 amounted to USD 34 billion. Country Programmable Aid (CPA) is a better proxy for assessing the actual aid available to recipient countries than the concept of Official Development Assistance (ODA), which also includes expenditure such as student scholarships, debt relief and receiving migrants. In absolute terms, CPA to Sahelian countries has not significantly increased when compared with the difficulties the region has encountered over the last ten years. Nevertheless, aid in any form (including humanitarian aid) highlights the limited absorbing capacity of recipient countries, as well as the limited measurement of its structural impact above and beyond the amounts disbursed.

There are, however, legitimate avenues for increasing state capacity, starting with eradicating corruption, widening the tax base, taxing multinational companies fairly, and digitalising tools for managing and implementing public policies. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have proven to be particularly popular instruments for unlocking finance, especially in the area of infrastructure. To avoid privatising profits and

nationalising losses, the use of PPPs calls for capacity-building and institutional strengthening to ensure these contractual agreements are based on solid legislative footing and projects well prepared in advance.

There are also opportunities for optimising action and impact under international cooperation, notably through better coordination of the many actors to ensure greater coherence and transparency. In 2019, the United Nations identified no less than 19 different Sahel strategies, and more than 23 missions to the region

by Special Envoys of international cooperation and development agencies.

Within a generation, the states will have insufficient resources and capacity to develop public policies that will enable them to provide basic public services and manage their territories, both overall and in areas of specific need.

Despite some successful efforts to address this, Sahelian countries will need to be creative and go beyond currently tested solutions in order to prepare for the future.

Local dynamics

Sahelian societies are taking organisational matters into their own hands at an increasingly local level to ensure a bare minimum of public services. In taking this alternative approach, these societies are showing their willingness to invest and contribute financially, provided they receive a service in return. Various arrangements have already been tested in countries in the region, such as health centres managed by residents, community schools, mobile courts, farmers training farmers, civil self-defence groups, citizen initiatives to make Covid-19 facemasks, local dialogue for peace and reconciliation, and festivals to bring together growers and herders.

Given the strength and speed of current and future trends, as well as the trajectory for state human and financial resources, these types of local initiatives will continue to develop and grow.

If this forecast proves accurate, the debate about the future of the Sahel could well hinge on the role of local initiatives and local actors (local authorities, customary powers, traditional practitioners, civil society, the private sector and think tanks) in public policy.

Fragile governance

71

Recettes des administrations publiques par habitant

General government 2018revenue 2018 Per capita in USD

1 317

623 439

Mauritania

Senegal

Mauritania 1 317

Nigeria

414

Burkina Faso

369

Mali

Mali 369

243

217

Chad

Niger

Niger 217 Chad 243

Senegal 623 Burkina Faso 414 Nigeria 439

Source: Authors, based on IMF data estimates Fragile governance

72

Compensation of government employees In % of government expenditure Rémunération des

emplyés du gouvernement au Sahel

% des dépenses publiques

Compensation of government employees

Other

100%

75%

50%

25%

0% Burkina Faso

Nigeria

Mali

Senegal

Dernières données disponibles : 2016 pour le Burkina Faso, le Mali et le Sénégal ; 2013 pour le Nigéria.

Note: latest available data (2016des for Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal & 2013 forenNigeria); compensation La rémunération employés comprend tous les paiements espèces, ainsi qu’en nature (tels que la nourriture et le logement), of employees consists of allemplyés payments cash, asde well as in kind (suchainsi as food to employees versés aux enin écha,ge services rendus, queand leshousing), contributions de l’État aux régimes d’assurance sociale tels que in return for services rendered, to social insurance aux schemes such as social la sécurité socialeand et government les pensionscontributions qui fournissent des avantages employés. security and pensions benefitsdu to Club employees Graphiquethat : © provide 2021. Secrétariat du Sahel et de l’Afrique de l’Ouest (CSAO/OCDE) Source: IMF, Government Finance Statistics Yearbook and data files; Our World in Data Fragile governance

73

Health workers Personnel de santé au Sahel

Per 10 000 people Pour 10 000 habitants Doctors

Nurses and midwives

Algeria

17.2 15.5

Nigeria

3.8 15.0 1.9 9.3

Mauritania

Mali

1.3

4.4

Burkina Faso

0.9

9.3

Senegal

0.9

5.4

Chad

0.5

1.4

Niger

0.4

2.2

Données de la dernière année disponible : 2018 ou 2019 Graphique : © 2021. Secrétariat du Club du Sahel et de l’Afrique de l’Ouest (CSAO/OCDE) Source : WHO, Global Health Workforce Statistics, 2019 Update

Note: latest available data (2018 & 2019) Source: WHO, Global Health Workforce Statistics 2019 Fragile governance

74

Health expenditure 2018 Per capita in USD PPP Dépenses PPA USD

de santé par habitant au Sahel

1000 963

750

500

250 233 190

146

112

90

79

78

Mali

Chad

Niger

0 Algeria

Nigeria

Mauritania

Senegal

Burkina Faso

Les dépenses courantes de santé comprennent les biens et services de santé consommés. Elle ne comprend pas les dépenses de santé en capital telles que les bâtiments, les machines, l’informatique et les stocks de vaccins pour les urgences ou les épidémies.

Graphique : © 2021. Secrétariat du Club du Sahel et de l’Afrique de l’Ouest (CSAO/OCDE) Source : WHO, Global Health Workforce Statistics, 2019 Update

Note: current health expenditure includes healthcare goods and services consumed, it does not include capital health expenditures such as buildings, machinery, IT and stocks of vaccines for emergency or outbreaks Source: WHO, Global Health Workforce Statistics 2019 Fragile governance

75

Public expenditure

Dépenses publiques (en % du PIB)

In % of GDP Security

Education

Burkina Faso

Health

1

2013 2015

3.6

0.9

2014

0.7

2016 2017 2018

3.3 1.9

2013 2014

3.7 2.4

1.1 1

4.2 3.1

4.8

2.1

3.6 2.5

1.2

3.1

3.2

1.5

3.6

3.6

3.8

2017

3.7

2018

2.8

1.1

3.3 2.6

1.1

0.8

3.6

2019

1

0.9 3.8

2016

2013

1.2 4

2015

Niger

1.3 1.3

2

2019

Mali

1.1 1,1

3.9

3.3 3.7

0.9 1.5

3.4

2014

5.4 3.9

2015 2016

3.1

2017

3

2018

3.2

4.3 3.7 3.5

1.4 1.2

1 1.2

3.7

1.8

Source : FMI, rapport UEMOA 2021

Source: IMF, UEMOA Country Report No. 21/50, 2021 Fragile governance

76

Military capacity

Capacité militaire 2019

2018

Military expenditure (million USD)

Military expenditure per capita (USD)

Armed forces personnel

Population-to-soldier ratio

Burkina Faso

358

17.61

11 200

1 763

Chad

235

14.72

32 850

471

Mali

474

24.13

21 000

908

Mauritania

162

35.88

20 850

211

Niger

172

7.38

10 300

2 179

Nigeria

1 860

9.26

223 000

878

Senegal

349

21.24

18 600

852

Opération Barkhane (France) in 2020 Military expenditure: EUR 911 million Active personnel: 5 100 Source : SIPRI ; IISS ; Chef d’État Major des Armées françaises (audition publique à l’Assemblée nationale)

Source: SIPRI; IISS; Chef d’État Major des Armées françaises (public hearing at the National Assembly) Fragile governance

77

Country Programmable Aid (CPA) In million USD (2019 Aide constant) Aide Programmable Programmable par Pays (APP)par Pays (APP)

En USD constantsEn USD constants Regional average Regional average

By recipient country By recipient country

500

1 250

500

400

400

1 250

1 000

1 000

300

300

750

750

200

200

500

500

100

100

250

250

0

2010

2011

2012

2013

0

2014

2015 20102016 20112017 20122018 20132019 2014

0

2015

2016 2010 2017 20112018 2012 2019 2013

0

2014 2010 2015 2011 2016 2012 2017 2013 2018 2014 2019 2015

Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso

Mali

Mali

Mauritania

Mauritania

Niger

Niger

Nigeria

Nigeria

Senegal

Senegal

Chad

Chad

2016

2017

2018

2019

Note: aid from the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) members Source: OECD, DAC, 2021 Note : aide des membres du Comité Noted’aide : aideau des développement membres du Comité (CAD) de d’aide l’OCDE au développement (CAD) de l’OCDE Source : OCDE, CAD, 2021 Source : OCDE, CAD, 2021 Fragile governance

78

Net Official Development Assistance (ODA) In million USD (2019 constant)

Aide PubliqueAide au Développement Publique au Développement (APD) nette (APD) nette En USD constants En USD constants Regional averageRegional average

By recipient country By recipient country

800

2 000

800

600

2 000

1 500

600

1 500

400

400

1 000

1 000

200

200

500

500

0

2010

2011

2012

2013

0

2014

0 2015 2010 2016 2011 2017 2012 2018 2013 2019 2014

2015

2016 2010 2017

Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso

Mali

Mali

Mauritania

Mauritania

Niger

Niger

Nigeria

Nigeria

Senegal

Senegal

Chad

Chad

0 2018 2011

2019 2012

2013

2014 2010

2015 2011

2016 2012

2017 2013

2018 2014

2019 2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Note: aid from the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) members Source: OECD, DAC, 2021 Note : aide des membres du Comité Note : d’aide aide des au membres développement du Comité (CAD) d’aide de l’OCDE au développement (CAD) de l’OCDE Source : OCDE, CAD, 2021 Source : OCDE, CAD, 2021

Fragile governance

79

Personal remittances In % of GDP

Envois de fonds Envois desdetravailleurs fonds desettravailleurs rémunérations et rémunérations des salariés des salariés (en % du PIB) (en % du PIB) Regional average Regional average

By country

By country

5

12

12

5

10

4

10

4

3

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0

0

Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso

Mali

Mali

Mauritania

Mauritania

Niger

Niger

Nigeria

Nigeria

Senegal

Senegal

3

2

2

1

0

0

2000 2001 2003 2002 2004 2006 2005 2008 2000 2009 2001 2007 2003 2010 2002 2012 2004 2011 2006 2013 2005 2014 2008 2015 2009 2016 2007 2019 2010 2017 2012 2018 2011 2013 2014 2015 2016 2019 2000 2017 2001 2018 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2000 2010 2001 2011 2002 2012 2003 2013 2004 2014 2005 2015 2006 2016 2007 2017 2008 2018 2009 2019 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

1

Source : Banque Mondiale Source : Banque Mondiale

Source: World Bank Fragile governance

80

Tax-to-GDP ratio 2018 Total tax revenue % of GDP Ratioin impôts/PIB

34.3%

16.5%

au Sahel

OECD average

Africa average (30 countries) 16.0%

16.5%

16.8%

Senegal

Burkina Faso

14.1% 11.1%

6.3%

Nigeria

7.1%

Chad

Niger

Mali

Mauritania

Graphique : © 2021. Secrétariat du Club du Sahel et de l’Afrique de l’Ouest (CSAO/OCDE) Source : OECD/ATAF/AUC(2020), Revenue Statistics in Africa 2020

Source: OECD/ATAF/AUC(2020), Revenue Statistics in Africa 2020

Fragile governance

81

Coups d’État by type since independance As of 31 December 2019 Coups d’État

Coup

par type depuis l’indépendance Conspiracy

Attempted

Nigeria Chad Mauritania Mali Burkina Faso Niger Senegal

Source: Cline Center Coup d’État project dataset

Source : Cline Center Coup d’État project dataset (au 31 décembre 2019)

Fragile governance

82

Sahel to come

What today tells us about tomorrow

All of the above indicates a number of certainties about the future of the Sahel within the next generation (around 20–25 years): • The total population will double.

• The vast majority of the population will still live in the “informal space”. The popular economy will still be by far the main provider of employment and will still be heavily dominated by agri-food activities. Within this food economy, the relative share of agricultural production will decrease, in favour of downstream activities (such as trade, transport and processing). The very strong growth of cities and their hinterland will drive these changes.

• The informal sector (agricultural and non-agricultural) will be significantly different from today, due to digitalisation. It is expected that 60% of the population will have a mobile phone, and almost half will have access to the Internet.

• Temperatures will rise, extreme weather events (such as droughts and floods) will be more frequent, and there will be increased pollution and greater pressure on natural resources.

• The urban network will be twice as extensive as it is today and several hundred new small towns will emerge. Rural areas will be much denser than they are today, especially those near to towns.

• There will be an increase in international migration. Cross-border areas will be much more densely populated and will see much higher levels of activity than they do now. Population-driven regional integration will increase the need for cooperation between states.

• States will have no greater human and financial resources per capita than they do now; local initiatives will continue to develop to compensate for weak state authority; there will be increasing emergence of local actors who are more demanding in terms of rights, freedoms and accountability.

In addition to these predictable factors, there are many unpredictable factors to consider for the future of the region. It is impossible to predict the future role of fossil-based raw materials in the world economy; the trajectory of demand for other raw materials; the international economic and geopolitical environment; and long-term trends in rainfall (very uncertain), technological revolutions and international solidarity. In addition, other unforeseen events are bound to occur, such as the global Covid-19 pandemic.

The security outlook is also uncertain. By definition, the future remains essentially unpredictable: the unknowns are greater than the knowns.

The Sahel to come will be shaped by interactions between the predictable and the unpredictable. It will also be determined by the way in which Sahelian societies manage these interactions, which comes down to methods of governance.

How a country develops and implements public policy is a matter of sovereignty. There is no trend or projection that can help calculate the probability of any particular form of Sahel to come

83

governance emerging. However, we can discuss a number of underlying assumptions derived from what is known about the future of the Sahel, as outlined above. This is what the Sahel consultations will cover.

Sahel to come

84

The Sahel to come In 2050

Source: your vision Sahel to come

85

Data caveats

Data is another word for stored information. It can be organised and coded in ways that make it easier to analyse, especially large quantities of it. When coded in numbers, quantitative data has the power to provide a better sense of the scale, frequency and spatial distribution of any given phenomenon. But when dealing with issues that require contextual nuancing, data can only tell us so much. For this reason, data analysis should be envisaged as a complementary tool to qualitative analysis.

Because of the high frequency nature of crisis situations, attempting to quantify their drivers can provide a more tangible way of gauging their occurrence, magnitude and geographical nature, notably so as to identify trends or patterns – and tailor policy responses accordingly.

With the use of statistics becoming increasingly popular in recent years, the growing salience of what has been dubbed as “evidence-based” policymaking has resulted in a greater demand for “data-driven” analyses.

Broadly speaking, Sahelian countries are recurrently portrayed as being in a state of

political instability, albeit to different degrees across the region. It is, however, often difficult to make sense of the multiplicity of disruptive events being reported. For this reason, the use of quantitative data has an added-value by way of making information more digestible. In other words, analysing and visualising data can be a valuable communication tool, one that provides a general audience with snapshots of the major drivers of political disruption.

While the quantitative approach has its notable advantages, data is however often taken at face value, sometimes creating the illusion that they are unquestionably reliable. However, because of the hazardous – and indeed oftentimes politicised – nature of collecting and disseminating information in countries undergoing crisis situations, data must always be consumed with caution, especially when considering the underlying methodological discrepancies and varying statistical outputs across different data providers. Moreover, when dealing with issues requiring contextual nuancing – especially in the realm of politics – data has its limitations.

The visuals presented here are sourced from a range of different data sources. Given the aforementioned imperfections in the use of data, the information presented in the visuals should be taken as indicative rather than as definitive. We recommend any reader to revert to the methodological documents and codebooks of different data providers to get a sense of the sort of caveats that are important to bear in mind when analysing such data.

Sahel to come

86

SAHEL AND WEST AFRICA

Club Secretariat