STALL Catalog, Volume 2

THE INAUGURAL ISSUE

SPACE EXPLORATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

FOR OUR STORY ON ASTRONAUT CHARLIE DUKE, SEE PAGE 18.

(20 JULY 1969) AS WE LANDED ON THE MOON FOR THE FIRST TIME, IT WAS CHARLIE DUKE WHO GUIDED THE APOLLO 11 CREW IN HIS FAMOUS SOUTHERN DRAWL. THREE YEARS LATER, DUKE GOT THE OPPORTUNITY TO TAKE HIS ‘SMALL STEPS’ ON THE LUNAR SURFACE, BECOMING THE YOUNGEST MAN TO WALK ON THE MOON, AN ACCOLADE HE STILL HOLDS TO THIS DAY.

CONTROL ROOM DURING APOLLO 11, 1969, HOUSTON

A LETTER FROM THE EDITOR

ONCE

an unoccupied horse stall, the 10x10 foot room in the big red barn was given a new purpose when it became my art studio in 2022. A dedicated place to create, to think, and to observe was all I needed in order to let my new path take root. From full-time accounting professional to full-time creative, this decision had not only a clearly drawn out plan, but also a faith-filled leap.

Fast forward to today, this last horse stall in a row of three still remains an important space in my life. Its importance is now not only physical, but symbolic. ‘Stall Three’ reminds me of not only the importance of taking a leap of faith into the unknown, but it reminds me to embrace moments of pause and reflection.

In today’s fast-paced, technological forward world, we all find ourselves jumping from topic to topic, not giving ourselves the time to slow down and engage with a thought deeper than the news headline. By taking the time to explore new subjects and ideas, one can cultivate a deeper understanding and appreciation for our world we live in.

Let’s rewrite the narrative. It’s okay to ‘stall’, because subconsciously, perhaps we delay action until we are in the right headspace to proceed.

Just like the astronauts from Apollo to today, taking calculated leaps into the unknown, finding a new world of quiet in space, I encourage you to embrace the time for solitude. Taking the time to be quiet, to observe and to be curious, feels contrary to the world we live in. However, I think it is something that is innate within us.

So dig deeper. Embrace the ‘stall’.

STERLING CRAWFORD FOUNDER AND EDITOR

INAUGURAL ISSUE

STALL Magazine

Summer 2024

Volume 1, Issue 1

Follow STALL on social media @Stall_Magazine

SPACE EXPLORATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

To subscribe, purchase copies, and find stockists of STALL, please visit stallmagazine.com For editorial and advertising inquiries: Contact@stallthreestudio.com For a list of references and resources used in this issue, please visit stallmagazine.com/ references.

Published by Stall Three Studio, LLC

1201 W Peachtree St NW Ste 2625, PMB 59591, Atlanta, Georgia 30309-3499

(c) 2024 Stall Magazine | Printed by Lane Press.

Todd Lundgren (CMG)

Chuck Driskell

Joe Hazen (CMG) Team at Lane Press

We extend our gratitude to NASA for providing access to numerous image assets via the NASA Photo Archive. Several images featured in this edition originate from NASA’s collection; however, due to their age, some may exhibit blurriness. STALL Magazine is a quarterly publication. The next issue is Fall 2024.

Artwork by Andy Saunders, titled ‘Charlie Saluting Panorama’.

6 STALL SUMMER 2024

THE PAST

THE SPACE RACE

Pioneering the Path to Apollo

CHARLIE DUKE

From Small Southern Town to the World Stage...And Beyond

ROCKETS TO SHUTTLES

A Look at the Space Shuttle Program

WHAT ABOUT THE MOON?

Why Haven’t We Gone Back to the Moon in over 50 Years?

MUSK’S PLEA TO GO BACK TO SPACE

The Rise of Privatization

COMMERCIAL SPACE

Unveiling a Future $1 Trillion Space Economy

ORBITING REFLECTIONS

A Conversation with Astronaut Nicole Stott

WHY SPACE?

Why Are So Many Billionaires Investing in Space?

The Race to Defend Space

Artwork by Nikolina Kovalneko, titled ‘The Moon’.

Feature on Charlie Duke, 10th and youngest man to have walked on the Moon

Amongst the bitter winters of Siberia, a young boy sought refuge within the pages of science fiction. He, the fifth of eighteen children born into an impoverished Polish immigrant family, had his life forever altered when Scarlet Fever robbed him of his hearing at the age of ten. Although isolated and now suspended from the local school, his father recognized his insatiable thirst for knowledge and arranged access to textbooks from mathematics to mechanics from the local library.

Lockedin a silent world, he continued to find solace in books through adolescence and young adulthood.

Through the fictional novels of Jules Verne, he found inspiration to begin to question what it would take to design a space vehicle. After a few years as a math teacher, he pursued his passion and curiosity and began to write science fiction novels, tending to focus on the technical challenges of space travel. His fervor prompted him to transition from writing fiction to publishing groundbreaking theories on space flight and interplanetary travel, becoming a renowned scientist.

In 1897, at the age of 40, he unveiled an equation that revolutionized space exploration. This equation illustrated the delicate balance between fuel and payload, proving how a device launched at a certain velocity could achieve Earth orbit.

Today, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky’s Rocket Equation remains a cornerstone of space science, allowing our rockets to propel into the vast expanse of space.

ARTWORK BY NIKOLINA KOVALENKO, ‘UNTOLD MOONTALE’

Artwork by Nikolina Kovalenko, titled ‘Untold Moontale’.

THE PAST

EARLY ROCKETS

(1950) Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

- The Bumper V-2 is the first missile launched at Cape Canaveral on July 24, 1950. Image credit: NASA

PIONEERING THE PATH TO APOLLO

THE SPACE RACE

Arising under intense competition and political upheaval, the Space Race between the United States and Soviet Union was a series of competing achievements leading not only to man on the Moon, but to surprising collaboration.

Ignited by war and fueled by ambition, the Space Race was an era of competing achievements between two rivals striving for global superiority. At the end of World War II and the rise of the Cold War, tensions were tight amongst the European allies and the Soviet Union. With war comes rapid innovation in military technologies, aimed at gaining an advantage over the opponent and providing necessary protections.

At this time, the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) emerged as a top priority for the Soviet Union, as its target was situated halfway across the globe. The United States, on the other hand, was able to leverage its alliances in Europe and establish nearby bases to the Soviet Union, alleviating the immediate need for the development of these long-range weapons.

In 1953, Soviet Union rocket designer Sergei Korolev developed the R-7 Rocket, the first rocket capable of carrying nuclear weapons between continents. This development prompted the U.S. to recognize the Soviet Union’s capacity for such advancements, accentuating fears that its military technology lagged behind.

Taking advantage of international scientific talent in the face of emerging Cold War tensions, the U.S. government enlisted the expertise of Nazi German rocket scientists in 1945 who had been key in developing ballistic missiles during World War II.

This secret U.S. intelligence program, known as ‘Operation Paperclip’, brought over 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians to the U.S. for employment with the aim to seize Nazi technologies, - particularly aircrafts, rockets, and missiles - that the U.S. deemed superior to others.

Despite the inconvenient Nazi records of many scientists and engineers involved, escalating tensions with the Soviet Union made their permanent immigration more acceptable, as their expertise was seen as crucial for bolstering the U.S. weapon program. For 15 years after World War II, GermanAmerican aerospace engineer Von Braun led a team working with the U.S. Army in the development of guided missiles.

Not only was the United States threatened by USSR’s quicker advancement of technologies, but was also threatened by the potential of attack. Journalists and intelligence analysts began asserting that the Soviet missile force could outnumber the American arsenal of ICBMs by as much as 16 to one by 1960. This perception of the “missiles gap”, coined in 1957, led to increased investments and development by the U.S. in order to catch up with Soviet’s rapid advancements.

While the U.S. was working on ICBMs, the Soviet Union utilized the R-7 Rocket in another way: to use the powerful propulsion capabilities to launch satellites into orbit.

Building upon Konstantin Tsiolkovsky’s

rocket equation, Korolev redesigned the R-7 rocket to accommodate a heavier payload and explored the potential of using the vehicle to launch a satellite.

The R-7 Rocket’s newfound dual role in space exploration and military defense led the competition from war to space. The significance of this shift became starkly evident with the launch of Sputnik in October 1957 by the Soviet Union, a milestone moment that signaled the beginning of the Space Race.

The Soviet Union possessed the crucial equation needed to launch large satellites into orbit, while the U.S. faced a constant struggle to keep pace, battling to lift satellites even half the size.

Continuing to leverage the knowledge and experience of these German engineers, the United States followed suit and also repurposed ICBMs for space exploration, culminating in the launch of the ‘Explorer I’ satellite on January 31, 1958.

This achievement, made possible by the collaborative efforts of American scientists and German rocket experts, proved the U.S. was able to compete with the Soviet Union in the race to space.

As the timeline of competing space achievements unfurled, it became evident that the Space Race was not just about reaching the stars but about establishing supremacy on Earth in a world post World War II.

GERMAN JUMO 004 ENGINE AT THE LEWIS FLIGHT PROPULSION LABORATORY

(1946) Research is being done on the German Jumo 004 engine at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronatics (NACA) to test its maximum performance. This engine powered the world’s first operational jet fighter and was the only jet aircraft used in combat during WWII.

Conveniently the engine’s designer Anselm Franz had recently arrived at WrightPatterson Air Force Base in nearby Dayton, Ohio as part of Project Paperclip.

Image credit: NASA

While the Space Race was undeniably driven by the desire for supremacy, it also served as a platform for unexpected moments of collaboration and unity.

1957

October 1957 | The USSR successfully launches Sputnik 1, the first Earth-orbiting satellite in history.

December 1957 | The U.S. suffered a severe setback when its first artificial satellite, Vanguard, exploded on the launch pad. This was a clear indication of how much the country still needed to achieve in order to compete militarily with the Soviets.

April 1959 | NASA introduced its first astronaut class for Project Mercury, named the “Original Seven”. Over the years, Mercury launched 6 crewed flights and 20 uncrewed flights, and became the first U.S. program to put humans into space.

1962 1959 1963

1961

1958

January 1958 | Just over 2 months after the Soviet Union launches Sputnik, the U.S. successfully launches their first satellite, Explorer I. The successful launch of Explorer I was a crucial achievement for the United States, as it demonstrated its capability to launch satellites into space and compete with the Soviet Union in space technology.

April 1961 | The USSR sends man into orbit. Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made one orbit around Earth on April 12, 1961 on a flight that lasted 108 minutes.

May 1961 | NASA launches Alan Shephard into a suborbital trajectory—a flight that goes into space but does not go all the way around Earth, lasting 15 minutes.

Three weeks later on May 25th, President John F. Kennedy challenged the United States to an ambitious goal, declaring: “I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before the decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth.”

February 1962 | Astronaut John Glenn aboard the Friendship 7 Mercury Spacecraft makes history by becoming the first U.S. astronaut to orbit Earth.

June 1963 | Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first civilian and first woman in space. She spends almost 3 days in space, orbiting the Earth 48 times aboard her spacecraft, Vostok 6.

March 1965 | Alexei Leonov leaves his spacecraft, the Voskhod 2, in a specialized spacesuit and conducts a 12 minute spacewalk, the first of its kind.

June 1965 | NASA astronaut Ed White became the first American to walk in space, aboard Gemini IV.

1965 1968 1970 1969 1971 SPACE RACE

Astronaut Edward H. White II, pilot of the Gemini IV four-day Earth-orbital mission, floats in the zero gravity of space outside the Gemini IV spacecraft.

December 1968 | The U.S. spacecraft Apollo 8 becomes the first human-crewed spacecraft to reach the Moon, orbit it, and successfully return to Earth.

April 1970 | The U.S. Apollo 13 mission is known as the first explosion aboard a spacecraft where the crew survived, giving the mission the reputation as a ‘successful failure’.

July 1969 | United States astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin become the first men to walk on the Moon while their crewmate Michael Collins continues to orbit the Moon aboard the Columbia spacecraft. This secured a victory for America in the Space Race with a televised landing witnessed around the world by 650 million people.

April 1971 | The USSR launches the first space station, Salyut 1. Remaining in space for 175 days, its main purpose was to test the elements of the systems of a space station and to conduct scientific research and experiments.

August 1971 | Apollo 15 was launched on July 26th, 1971, becoming the ninth crewed mission in NASA’s Apollo program, and fourth mission to land astronauts on the Moon. This mission is notable for its heavy focus on scientific research allowing for extended stays on the surface and the first use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV).

1975 AN INTERNATIONAL HANDSHAKE

On July 15th, 1975, a historic moment began to unfold as an Apollo spacecraft carrying a crew of three launched as part of the first cooperative international space flight. This mission, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, was carried out jointly by the United States and the Soviet Union and aimed to test the compatibility of rendezvous and docking system.

Two days later, on July 17th, the Apollo spacecraft docked with a Soyuz spacecraft in Earth orbit in a remarkable display of collaboration. Commanders, U.S. astronaut Tom Stafford and Russian Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, met and exchanged the first international handshake. This gesture not only bridged the gap between two superpowers but also symbolically brought an end to the intense competition of the Space Race.

The success of the Apollo-Soyuz mission demonstrated that despite political differences, nations could come together to achieve common goals in space. The mission laid the foundation for future joint endeavors in space exploration, paving the way for collaborative efforts that followed, such as the Shuttle-Mir program (1994-1998) and the International Space Station (ISS), beginning in 1998.

This historical handshake between Stafford and Leonov signified a commitment to mutual understanding and peaceful cooperation in space exploration. It continually reminds us of a future where nations could work together for the betterment of humanity.

Although, most historians agree that the Space Race ended 6 years earlier when Neil Armstrong made the first steps on the Moon. While the race to the Moon may have formally concluded, both nations continued their space endeavors.

The Soviets shifted priority towards longer-term goals, like establishing a permanent presence in space with Earth-orbiting space stations and exploring other planets with robotics and probes.

The United States continued the Apollo program, allowing 12 men to become ‘Moonwalkers’. The Apollo program ended with Apollo 17 in December 1972 due to governmental budget cuts.

As space exploration continued pushing forward, so did the rest of the world. The Cold War persisted, witnessing significant geopolitical shifts such as the Fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, leading to the reunification of Germany. On Christmas day 1991, the dissolution of the Soviet Union brought an official end to the Cold War era.

Advancements and missions to space persisted, but in a different form. Over the three decades following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States and Russia have engaged in cooperative agreements, notably contributing to the assembly and occupation of the International Space Station since the dawn of the 21st century.

Although maintaining their own independent security and industrial interests in space, the two countries, along with others, have realized the significance in collaboration.

SPACE RACE

ASTRONAUT STAFFORD AND COSMONAUT LEONOV TOGETHER IN SOYUZ ORBITAL MODULE

(1975) Astronaut Donald K. Slayton (left) and cosmonaut Aleksey A. Leonov (right) are seen together in the Soyuz Orbital Module during the joint U.S.-USSR Apollo-Soyuz Test Project docking mission in Earth orbit. Slayton is the docking module pilot of the American crew. Leonov is the Soviet crew commander. Image credit: NASA

CHARLIE DUKE

SittinginhisnewSouthCarolinahome,surrounded bythetrophiesofhishuntsandspacememorabilia,I askApollo16astronautCharlieDuketoreflectonhis humbleSouthernupbringingandhowhelandedthetrip of a lifetime: a ticket to the Moon and back.

Ashisgranddaughter,I’vebeenfortunatetohear countlessstoriesofhisovertheyears.Yet,forthesakeof thisinterview, ourconversationstakeonanewtone— moredirectional,moretailored.

Speakingwithmygrandfatherisalwaysablessing-and mostpeoplewhohavehadthepleasureofmeetinghim wouldagree.Heexudeswisdom,kindness,and,ohyeahhe’s walked on the Moon.

Additionally,tomybenefitforwritingthisarticle, heisanincrediblestoryteller.SoIsitbackandallow hisnarrativestounfold,justastheyalwaysdo,withthe samefervorandenthusiasmasiftheeventsoccurredjust yesterday.

Words by Sterling Duke Crawford

Charlie Duke, Photography by Jack Robert (2024)

CHARLIE DUKE

FORGET COWBOYS & INDIANS

As World War II loomed on the horizon, Charlie and his twin brother Bill, just six years old at the time, resided in Charlotte, North Carolina, indulging in childhood mischief and immersing themselves in games of Cowboys and Indians. Duke vividly recalls the moment he returned home from church, to have his father eagerly flick on the radio to catch President Roosevelt’s address to the nation regarding the devastating bombing of Pearl Harbor. His father, an insurance agent at the time, decided to volunteer and ended up in the Navy. Given his age and expertise, he was commissioned as an officer and stationed at California North Island, a major Navy installation near San Diego. There, he would serve as a supply officer for the ensuing six months.

Charlie remembers the family traveling by train to visit. Feeling like they were “always in Texas”, the train ride across the country, albeit long, was fascinating for a young kid, he explains. Once on the West Coast, the twins, like any second grade boys, took advantage of the new surroundings. Charlie reminisces on swimming within the rocks and caves of the Pacific sea wall, highlighting their sense of adventure.

After a year in sunny California, his dad was relocated to the South Pacific, prompting the family’s relocation to Johnston, SC to live with their grandmother. Nestled on the outskirts of the county, the boys now had up to 400 acres of farmland to get into mischief.

Staying up to date with his father’s activities was important, with letter exchanges serving as a lifeline to the front lines of the war.

Charlie and Bill quickly settled into their new home. Their tight-knit family, including aunts, uncles, and cousin BoBo, fostered a sense of belonging while their father was away in service to the country. Lacking a father figure during this time, Pick, a man who worked on Charlie’s grandmothers farm stepped in as their mentor. “He was a disciplinarian. And he taught us how to work on the farm.” Charlie explains, crediting Pick to instilling in him a strong work ethic.

Just beyond his grandmother’s house was a railroad track, where troop trains would rumble past on their journey to Augusta, Georgia. For young Charlie and Bill, it was something they looked forward to—dashing up to wave eagerly at the passing soldiers in admiration.

Surrounded by effects of the war, Charlie’s affection for all things military blossomed. “Growing up in the South, you were just proud to be an American.”

“Everybody had a job that was patriotic,” Duke reflects, his voice proud as he recalls the days when people rallied to support their country during the war. “Even kids collected aluminum foil or cans.”

War wasn’t just a distant notion- its effects were woven into daily life. Charlie recalls walking almost everywhere because gasoline was rationed. And on Saturdays, after they’ve earned their pay of a few dollars from picking cotton, he and Bill would walk to town to catch a

movie. He remembers when newsreels would play before the film started to keep people up to speed on the war.

For a young Charlie, heroes weren’t just confined to storybooks and movies - they included his father, the soldiers passing on the train behind his house, and the real men on the big screen. These were the new heroes.

So, Charlie and Bill swapped their toy pistols and chaps for model airplanes. “It used to be Cowboy and Indians but now we were playing war.”

Once his dad returned from the South Pacific, he found himself stationed in Florida, and the Duke family made the move to Daytona Beach where they’d live for about a year. Charlie loved it - he loved

(Left image) Duke family at the Naval Base in Daytona Beach, Florida (1944) Charles Moss Duke Jr. (bottom right) with his identical twin brother William Waters (Bill) Duke (bottom left), and parents Willie Catherine Waters and Charles Moss Duke.

Brothers Charlie and Bill, Coronado, CA, 1942.

his new school, he loved being able to fish often, and he cherished how his dad could clean his and Bill’s fresh catch on the pier. It was a golden year, set against the backdrop of 1946, with the war finally over.

When Charlie’s father was discharged, they made the move back to South Carolina, finding a house to settle in the small town of Lancaster. Back to civilian life, his father opened an insurance business and his mother opened a ladies dress shop, a business she got experience in during the Great Depression working for a famous dress designer in New York.

Joining the boy scouts in his early teen years proved to be a pivotal point for Charlie. He recalls plenty of outdoor adventures and camping excursions offering not only recreation and brotherhood, but essential skills of independence. Most importantly, they instilled within him a strong sense of duty to his country, a commitment he vividly affirmed through the Boy Scout Oath— “to do my duty, to God and my country…” - a pledge whose magnitude would only become clear in the years to come.

His sense of duty didn’t end with the Scouts; it was reinforced by his mother’s staunch guidance. Growing up in the tight-knit community of Lancaster, the weight of family reputation was palpable. “You couldn’t get off the rails,” he recalls. “You had to represent your family.” This consciously shaped his actions and character.

CHARLIE DUKE

sky, thinking to himself “Man, I’d like to make a contrail.”

Inspired by the allure of flight, he harbored a newfound ambition to follow his dad’s footsteps and go to the Naval Academy. Although he would miss being with Bill at Lancaster High, Charlie knew the only way to get there was to go to a military prep school.

After three or four flights, he fell in love. His passion for flying ignited with a simple yet profound joy: “It was just fun, you were in the air and could control this thing. I mean these were open cockpits. It was pre-WW2 flying.” Fear never gripped him; rather, an overwhelming excitement fueled his pursuits. Without a doubt, he embraced aviation as his path forward.

In early high school, his folks built a house in the country on two acres called Partridge Hill. Like living on his grandmother’s farm in Johnston, Charlie loved living in the country. His father gifted a shotgun to the boys, and Charlie and Bill turned to hunting quail and rabbits in the nearby fields in order to ‘stay out of trouble’.

This was the beginning of the Jet Age. Charlie recalls seeing contrails in the sky overhead as he looked for quail in the blue

Prep school proved successful for Charlie’s goals. After graduating as President and Valedictorian of his senior class at Farragut Academy, he was accepted into the Naval Academy’s class of 1957. However, it only took a few weeks for Charlie to know that sea duty didn’t quite fit his aspirations - or his stomach. The constant motion of the small boats left him queasy, as if perpetually on the brink of illness. Thankfully, they were given flights in a pre-WWII single engine seaplane as part of their naval training.

Excited to jump into Naval aviation in a permanent capacity, Charlie was dismayed when testing revealed Astigmatism in his right eye, disqualifying him for the Naval aviation.

‘...But the airforce will take you.’ young Charlie was told, solidifying his choice to go to the Air Force. “That was 1957. Now, 60 something years later, no doctor has ever seen an Astigmatism in my eye!” laughs Charlie, ultimately knowing now that this (and many other) decisions ended up playing a part in how he got to the Moon.

“MAN, I’M AN ASTRONAUT! I’VE GOT IT MADE!”

Fast forward to 1962, his three year assignment in Germany was coming to a close. The Air Force recommended that young officers get as much education as possible, and with Charlie’s high goal for achievements, he decided to go to graduate school. He was accepted into MIT to study astronautics and aeronautics, a degree he wasn’t even aware of at the time existed, but since it was the only one offered to him, he said “Sure, I’ll take it!”

His longing for flying took a backseat to his ambition to succeed in his career. Thus, in his view, pursuing graduate school seemed justified, even though he realized he wouldn’t be flying for a few years. At that point, Charlie certainly didn’t give any thought into

Image (right): Charlie Duke during his years at the Naval Academy, standing with his father.

Admiral Farragut Academy, St. Petersburg, FL, 1952. Cadet Duke, 16 years old.

"Growing up in the South, you were just proud to be an American."

CHARLIE DUKE IN THE LOCAL NEWSPAPER.

(1956) Charlie was featured in the newspaper of his childhood hometown, Lancaster, SC. The town took great pride in his achievements, from prep school to moonlanding. Upon returning from the Moon in 1972, the town celebrated with a parade and the announcement of ‘Charlie Duke Day’.

CHARLIE DUKE

In 1962, President Kennedy announced the goal to land a man on the Moon in the next decade. Charlie’s reaction was one of incredulous unbelief, a thought shared by the men in his squadron.

becoming an astronaut. His thoughts were preoccupied by 8 hours of studying and his new southern bride-to-be, Dotty. Charlie proposed around Christmas 1962. While in her hometown of Atlanta, they attended a costume ball which Charlie suggested they dress up as test pilots. Decorating themselves with signs around their neck, Charlie’s read “On the Moon” and Dotty’s finished the sentence with “in June”, to announce their upcoming wedding date the following year. Little did they realize, he would be selected to become an astronaut only a few years later.

Just the previous year, on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard made the first manned U.S. space flight. Weeks later, President Kennedy announced the goal to land a man on the Moon in the next decade. Charlie’s reaction was one of incredulous unbelief. None of the fellow men in his squadron believed that goal to be achievable, he remembers, especially considering the difficulties the space program had in just launching small satellites.

Charlie’s initial interaction with NASA involved volunteering to conduct statistical analysis for a project being carried out by MIT for the space program. Being involved in this project brought him into contact with several astronauts. Charlie remembers believing that becoming an astronaut would represent the pinnacle achievement for a test pilot.

The thing that got Charlie’s attention was the fact that he would not only get to fly, but he would get to work on the design of the spacecraft. Charlie’s forte was operational engineering and his passion was flight - it would be a perfect role for him.

It wasn’t until he was assigned to the class of ‘64-C (aka ‘64-Charlie) where he was able to advance both his flying and engineering training. And that, he thought, gave him a chance of becoming an astronaut.

(Below Image) Ramstein Air Force Base, Germany, 1959 Charlie took this image of a F-86D that is ‘set up for a scramble’ in the alert hanger, as part of the 526th Fighter Intecerptor Squadron.

(Main Image) U.S. Naval Academy Summer Training, 1955 Image of Charlie’s second class year at U.S. Naval Academy. Charlie is third from the left in the front row.

Keeping up to date with NASA’s programs, Charlie knew they were wrapping up Gemini and moving onto the Apollo program. He was determined that if an opening came up, he would take the opportunity.

On a Sunday afternoon in September of 1965, while Charlie was engrossed in watching a professional football game, his attention was caught by a nearby Los Angeles Times. There, on the front page, lay a job posting that would alter his life forever.

‘NASAislookingformen.Youmust be a United States citizen, not over 36 years old, less than 6 feet tall, with a collegebachelor’sdegreeandwithatleast 1,000 hours flying time. If you meet all therequirements,thenpleaseapply.’

Knowing he checked all the boxes, he quickly got approval from Dotty and applied. After passing physicals, interviews, and plenty of testing, Charlie got the job. Of the 3,500 applicants, Charlie was one of the 19 men (calling themselves the ‘Original 19’) selected to make up the fifth group of astronauts to join the NASA space program. Of these 19, 9 went to the Moon, and 3 walked on the Moon.

As Charlie drove into Houston with Dotty and his newborn son, Charles, he was reminded of his achievement: from a small-town boy to a NASA astronaut. He thought to himself, “Wow, I’m an astronaut. I’ve made it!”

A year later, Charlie and Dotty had their second son, Tom, completing the Duke family.

Charlie got his first experience on the Mission Control team during the last two Gemini launches in 1967. Charlie recalls the intensity of the launch countdowns, knowing that if something goes wrong, the control room had to be on top of the situation. But despite the intensity, he loved being part of the team.

Thereafter, he served on 5 Apollo missions, beginning with Apollo 10 in 1969 serving as Capsule Communicator (CapCom), the lead communicator between the flight director in Houston and the spacecraft. His performance

CHARLIE DUKE

in this mission would have caught the attention of a discerning individual, affording him the chance to participate in the most thrilling endeavor mankind has ever embarked upon.

“Charlie, can you help us on Apollo 11?” asks Neil Armstrong, the man selected to be the first person to ever set foot on the Moon.

Charlie was elated and honored, replying, “You bet!”

On July 20, 1969, Charlie was communicating to Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin as they descended the Lunar Module and landed on the surface of the Moon.

“We looked at Apollo as a U.S. triumph, but we knew it wasn’t just for us. It was a giant leap for mankind.”

The descent was stressful - fuel was running critically low, but the call was made to proceed with the landing. The Lunar Module landed with just seconds of fuel rmaining, and the control room was holding their breath. “You could hear a pin drop.” explains Charlie.

‘Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.’ announces Armstrong upon arrival. Charlie, on the other end of the line, lets out an exhilerated sigh of relief. As the control room around him was ready to sprawl into celebration, Charlie responds with controlled enthusiasm and his famous southern drawl, ‘Roger, Twank...Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We’re breathing again, thanks a lot’. He explains that he was so excited when he responded, he couldn’t even get the words out right.

When I asked Charlie about this moment, he shared with me a story I had

never heard before: Armstrong had told Charlie that he was going to alter the call sign of the spacecraft upon landing. In honor of the landing site, the Sea of Tranquility, Armstrong would add the famous line, ‘Tranquility base here’, before announcing the landing.

Curiosity took root, prompting a follow up question: “What about the Armstrong’s historic first words”, referring to ‘One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind’. “Did Armstrong rehearse that line?” I asked.

Responding, perhaps not having thought much about this question before, Charlie explains that during training, “you could tell Neil was debating what he would say”. Although they trained together, briefed and debriefed together, and went over every detail of the descent together, Charlie, nor anyone else, knew if Armstrong had those words rehearsed.

But these words did not come as a surprise to Charlie and Mission Control. All of Apollo looked at the mission of landing on the Moon as an achievement for humanity.

“We looked at Apollo as a U.S. triumph, but we knew it wasn’t just for us. It was a giant leap for mankind. It was the first time anybody had ever left Earth and landed on another heavenly body, so it was very significant in human history.”

“MY HEART SANK”

The Apollo 16 crew - Thomas ‘TK’ Mattingly, John Young, and Charlie Duke - had been training together for years, and it was finally their time to make strides toward the Moon.

Mattingly, the Command Module Pilot (CMP), was a naval aviator from Chicago, IL and was originally supposed to fly on Apollo 13. However, Duke exposed him to the Measles and he was replaced just weeks before the launch. When it was found that the oxygen tank ruptured in the service module as they were 200,000 miles from Earth, it really touched Mattingly. He knew he should be there. Luckily, Mattingly never held it against Duke and he was able to serve on

Apollo 16 alongside Duke.

“Mattingly knew the spacecraft inside and out,” says Duke. He was to stay in orbit while the other two guys landed on the Moon, and in Duke’s words, he was to “keep the home fires burning.”

“Mattingly weighed all options. He looked ahead and was the realist of the group.” Duke continues, saying, “My attitude on things was more like, ‘Let’s press on. Let’s get it done.” But he explains that they fit together really well.

The third member and Commander of the crew was John Young. Young was really good at molding them into a cohesive crew, claims Duke. They trained together for hours on end, learning how to communicate with each other, respond to various situations, and foster mutual trust.

As commander of the crew, it was Young who made the final call. Although Young was Commander, “he was not

an autocratic ruler”, Duke says. “He was very efficient as a commander.” For Young, he was the one with experience having multiple space flights under his belt, whereas for Duke and Mattingly it was their first flight. He had the experience, knew when to interject, and knew problems and strengths, but was open to collaboration and embraced teamwork.

It’s April 21, 1972 and the crew of Apollo 16 are orbiting the Moon.

Once the Lunar Module (“Orion”), carrying soon-to-be moonwalkers Duke and Young, was successfully undocked from the Command Module, it was time for Mattingly to execute an orbit change, positioning himself and the Command Module on the proper rendezvous path in case Duke and Young needed to abort their descent onto the Moon. During burn preparations, Mattingly discovered something majorly wrong

with the backup control system in the engine. Under mission rules, without this system, it meant they were a ‘no go’ for the circulation burn, meaning a ‘no go’ for landing.

“My heart sank,” Duke remembers. They had trained for 2 ½ years and traveled 240,000 miles, and they could literally see the landing site 8 miles below. They were one hour away from their scheduled landing, and now it

Charlie Duke Took Country Music to the Moon

Innatewithhiscountryroots,Charlie Duketookaplaylistofcountrymusicto theMoon.Yearslater,thesong,“Charlie DukeTookCountryMusictothe Moon”waswrittenbyRandyRogers andRobertEarleKeentomemoralize theevent.Youcantaketheboyoutofthe South,butyoucan’ttaketheSouthout oftheboy!

The Apollo 16 Crew with the Lunar Rover. Charlie Duke (Lunar Module Pilot) is seated, John Young (Commander) is in the center and Ken Mattingly (Command Module Pilot) is to the right.

looked as though they were going to have to return to Earth. “It was a very disappointing moment,” he recalls.

Having all three men experienced firsthand the difficulties of Apollo 13 and the distress the crew members felt from being unable to land on the Moon, they considered this to be one of the worst possible scenarios.

At this point, chances of landing were slim to none, but the NASA team, along with contractors across the country, were working feverishly to discover every possibility available for getting them on the Moon.

After a four-hour wait, continuously orbiting and nearing fuel depletion, they received the crucial message: “You do have a go for another attempt.” On the next revolution around the Moon, Duke and Young were to land in their scheduled Descartes highlands region of the Moon. “Our hearts came alive,” Duke explains it. “It was like being called back from the dead!”

HOME AWAY FROM HOME

“Old Orion is finally here, Houston. Fantastic!” Duke announced after their jarring landing. “We don’t have to walk far to pick up rocks, Houston” exclaimed Young, “We’re among them!”

Young and Duke stood with their noses pressed against the window, eagerly pointing out and describing the rocks and terrain they had spent years studying on paper; now, it lay before them, tangible and real.“It was an excitement like a little boy at Christmas.” he recalls laughing. “We must have said fantastic a hundred times.”

But they had critical things to do, and because of the six-hour landing delay, they were ordered to get some rest before opening the hatch. The Apollo 16 crew had been up almost 20 hours working tirelessly, so Duke and Young didn’t argue.

For Duke, stepping on the Moon was filled with wander, awe,

“It was an excitement like a little boy at Christmas.” Charlie recalls laughing. “We must have said fantastic a hundred times.”

“I’d promised my kids I’d take them to the Moon with me, and I did: one of my final acts before heading back to Earth was leaving this picture of my family behind.” - Charlie Duke >>

A Family Man in Space (Image of Charlie Duke and Family - wife Dotty, and two sonsCharles, left, and Tom, right). To ‘bring the family’ with him to the Moon, Charlie left a family photo on the lunar surface.

CHARLIE DUKE

and excitement. In remembrance, he exclaims, “It was like, ‘I’m on the Moon!’” almost at a loss for words to describe the surreal moment, now seated in his home in SC, almost 52 years to the day later.

Duke felt right at home. “There’s Stone Mountain on the left, and Smoky Mountains on the right!”

Although a hostile environment, they had the confidence in their knowledge, training, and equipment, so were able to take in the beauty of it all. Duke claims that the Moon has a special beauty of its own. “There is almost a purity about it - so still and pristine, unspoiled by any pollution of man.” Duke paints a great picture: the sun shines brightly, the lunar sky is pitch black with no stars visible— just the gray hills and mountains, all smooth and gently rolling toward the horizon.

Three days later, after pleading with Houston for two more hours on the Moon, Duke and Young climbed back into the LM to rendezvous back with Mattingly.

The crew landed safely in the South Pacific Ocean on April 27, 1972. Duke made his way back to Texas, joining back with his wife and two young sons, Charles and Tom.

KINGS, PRESIDENTS, AND PRIME MINISTERS

After the Moon landing, Charlie joined the crew of America’s Apollo heroes and traveled the globe to share the accomplishment.

Charlie left NASA in 1976, and in ‘78, he had someone prophecy over him. “He basically told me,” Charlie continues, “The Lord says I have watched over you and guided your every step. And through you, my name will be shared with Kings, Presidents, and Prime Ministers.” Dotty became a Christian in ‘75. In ‘78, Charlie did too.

Sure enough, throughout their decades of traveling for speaking engagements, Charlie and Dotty have indeed visited with presidents, prime ministers, dictators, and kings from

across the globe.

“I know now God had a purpose in sending me to the Moon, because being one of 12 men that had walked on the Moon opens a lot of doors.”

Although he’s lived many places, and the Moon was his temporary home away from home, Charlie will tell you that his roots are in South Carolina.

In February 2023, Charlie and Dotty relocated from their home of over 60 years in Texas to Greenville, South Carolina, reconnecting with their

lifelong ties to the state, where Charlie grew up in Lancaster and they spent each year visiting Pawleys Island. As of Spring 2024, they have 9 grandchildren and one great-grandchild, whom they get to visit with often amidst their many travels. They continue to spread their faith and Charlie’s Apollo adventures in the United States and various countries around the world.

Young Charlie Duke, who once waved at soldiers passing by on the train as they embarked to serve their country, would surely be proud of his accomplishments.

A Return from the Moon Apollo 16 crew is welcomed back on the deck of the recovery ship.

CHARLIE DUKE

A GREATER WALK THAN THE MOONWALK

Charlie was the 10th man to walk on the Moon, but his greatest walk began years later, when Charlie became a Christian. “Walking on the Moon was three days,” he said. “But walking with the Lord is forever.”

After reaching the highest of highs by walking on the Moon, Charlie and Dotty faced a troubled marriage and were unfulfilled with life.

While suffering hopelessness in her marriage and in her life, Dotty attended a church and gave her life to Jesus Christ. Seeing the transformation in Dotty and experiencing frustration in his work, Charlie, at a Bible Study,

asked Jesus into his life. The Lord healed their marriage and they started serving the Lord together.

In the early 1980’s, Duke Ministry for Christ was formed to answer the call of sharing their testimonies of what God had done in their lives and their marriage.

Since then, Charlie and Dotty have been privileged to travel throughout the U.S. and the world sharing their story.

Charlie and Dotty Duke in their new South Carolina home

Photography by Jack Robert (2024)

ROCKETS TO SHUTTLES

The Apollo missions concluded in 1972, giving way to the innovative Space Shuttle Program. This period was characterized by the triumph over design challenges, the unification of America, and the advancement of diversity in space exploration.

The Apollo missions achieved remarkable feats, including landing 12 Americans on the Moon and a further understanding of the lunar surface. However, the program was expensive.

The United States spent $25.8 billion on the Apollo program, adjusting to $257 billion considering inflation in 2020. Public interest was waning as society became accustomed to lunar missions and with improved relations with the Soviet Union, competition was weakened. For these reasons, space budgets were cut and the Apollo program sunsetted after the 6th and final landing on the Moon with Apollo 17 in December 1972.

Approved during Apollo 16, the Space Shuttle Program heralded the next chapter for NASA - a chapter focused on creating a lower cost way to get back into space. Amidst planting the American flag and capturing iconic photographs, John Young and Charlie Duke received the announcement from Mission Control that the U.S. House of Representatives approved of NASA’s budget, ensuring funding for the proposed Space Shuttle Program. Young remarked, “The country needs that Shuttle mighty bad. You’ll see.”

first reusable spacecraft. Designed to take off like a rocket and land like a plane, it would be launched over and over again, ferrying payloads and personnel to and from Earth orbit.

Formally known as the Space Transportation System (STS), the 60ft long space shuttle comprises an aircraft-like orbiter, two boosters, and a massive external tank. Referred to as ‘the stack’, the 250,000 pound shuttle had to launch at more than 85 football fields per second, with the engine draining a full size swimming pull of fuel in 25 seconds. These engines are regarded as the most intricate rocket engines ever built.

The Shuttle’s engines were the most intricate rocket engines ever built, launching the 250,000 pound shuttle at more than 85 football fields per second.

THE DESIGN: THREE VEHICLES IN ONE

Beginning in 1972 the Space Shuttle Program introduced a revolutionary advancement in space transportation: the world’s

Crafting the space shuttle to ensure its safe return for reuse presented a monumental challenge, particularly given that it was the first of its kind ever built, unlike the disposable Saturn V rockets utilized in the Apollo missions.

The spacecraft, designed to re-enter Earth’s atmosphere and land safely like planes, required swift innovation to handle the challenge of safely guiding 98 tons of dead weight upon landing. The development was focused on optimizing the wing design for subsonic cruise and landing, leading to the selection of straight, unswept wings similar to World War II fighter planes, with directional stability provided by a tail, akin to conventional aircraft.

Following nine years of development using cutting edge technology, NASA’s space shuttle fleet began setting records with its first launch on April 12, 1981. The U.S. space shuttle fleet was ultimately made up of five shuttles: Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour.

THE SHUTTLE ERA

(1980) The Space Shuttle Orbiter Enterprise is lowered to the floor of the transfer aisle in the Vehicle Assembly Building during destacking operations. The Space Shuttle Orbiter Enterprise was created in the 1970s as a prototype for the Space Shuttle Program, serving as a test vehicle to validate various design concepts and aerodynamic characteristics. Unlike its operational counterparts, Enterprise never flew into space, but it played a crucial role in paving the way for subsequent shuttle missions. Image credit: NASA

GO COLUMBIA! GO AMERICA!

(1981) Enthused by the sight of the space shuttle launch, one of the thousands of observers in Brevard County, FL waves an American flag as Columbia heads skyward. Many people waited all night at viewing sites to assure that they would witness the historic first launch of the space shuttle. Image credit: NASA

THE SHUTTLE ERA

NASA once again seized global attention, representing resilience and perseverance in an era thirsting for heroes & triumphs.

UNIFYING AMERICA IN A TIME OF ADVERSITY

In the 1970s, with inflation soaring, the Vietnam War raging on, and racial tensions simmering, America was hungry for unity and excitement. The era of the space shuttle came at just the right time. The sight of the sleek, sophisticated shuttles ascending into space became a symbol of national pride, embodying the spirit of American innovation and resilience.

Just weeks after the assassination attempt on the recently inaugurated President Ronald Reagan, Americans were in desperation for hope and unity. In April 1981, Americans of all walks of life were attracted back to the launch pads and TV screens in awe and wonder as they witnessed the first launch of Space Shuttle Columbia. Crowds gathered in anticipation as they watched the shuttle pierce the sky.

Like the launch of the Apollo program, NASA seized global attention, representing resilience and perseverance in an era thirsting for heroes and triumphs.

GOLDEN AGE OF EXPLORATION AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS

Throughout the span of 1981 to 2011, the space shuttles facilitated a myriad of missions, from launching probes destined for distant planets like Magellan to Venus and Galileo to Jupiter, to deploying the iconic Hubble Telescope into orbit for servicing and upkeep. Acting as both transport vessels and launch platforms, these shuttles played an indispensable role in catapulting payloads that revolutionized our comprehension of space exploration.

Additionally, the shuttles were vital in the construction of the International Space Station (ISS), being the vehicle that launched many of the components for construction of the space station. One of the pivotal steps in assembling the ISS was the delivery of the S0 Truss Structure by Space Shuttle Atlantis in 2002. This structure, which comprises a set of large solar panels, was installed atop the Destiny module by the shuttle’s crew. The S0 Truss Structure not only provided structural support but also played a crucial role in the ISS’s power generation, highlighting the complexity and precision required in constructing such a monumental space station, all done through the power of the space shuttles.

THE SHUTTLES BRING DIVERSITY

The space shuttle era brought a significant wave of diversity to space exploration, with several missions marking historic ‘firsts’.

The famed 1978 Astronaut Class, referred to as the ‘35 new guys,’ was not only the first round of astronauts in 9 years since 1969, but it included the first African-American, first AsianAmerican, and the first woman astronaut. These astronauts emerged as new space heroes who better represented the diverse tapestry of America.

The year 1983 brought the first American woman and the first African American to fly into space. Sally Ride, one of the four women of the 1978 class, was an intelligent and determined physicist from California. She served as mission specialist aboard Space Shuttle Challenger during the STS-7 mission. Taking the same shuttle only two months after Ride, Guion Bluford, from Philadelphia, became the first African American in space also serving as mission specialist.

Both Ride and Bluford were extremely proud to be astronauts and were humbled in their historic feats of representing a new diverse group of astronauts. While they expressed a desire not to be solely celebrated based on their gender or ethnicity, their focus remained on being recognized for their achievements in space. Ride once remarked, “I didn’t want to be the woman who had flown in space. I just wanted to be the astronaut who had flown in space.” And Bluford reflects on his time as, “All of us knew that one of us would eventually step into that

role (of being the first African American Astronaut in space). I probably told people that I would probably prefer not being in that role... because I figured being the number 2 guy would probably be a lot more fun.”

Other achievements that the space shuttles brought were the first Asian American, Ellison Onizuka, and first civilian in space. Also prioritizing the historic importance of the space shuttles in terms of the technological advancements over his racial background, Onizuka claimed “There are a lot of outcomes from these projects that will affect both our society and the rest of our world.” Known for his national pride, and more specifically his pride for hometown state of Hawaii, Onizuka was intelligent and hardworking. After the success of the Discovery Space Shuttle flight, Onizuka was chosen to once again represent America on the Space Shuttle Challenger mission.

A diverse array of individuals from various walks of life, backgrounds, and regions joined this shuttle flight. As part of President Ronald Reagan’s Teacher in Space Project, Christa McAuliffe, an elementary school teacher, was chosen to become the first civilian in space, where she would talk with students from orbit.

On January 28, 1986, the Space Shuttle Challenger launched. Tragically, just 73 seconds after liftoff at 11:39 a.m., the orbiter exploded, claiming the lives of the 7 individuals. This explosion emerged as one of the defining events of the ‘80s, as billions around the world watched the tragedy unfold on television, ensuing a deep sense of empathy for the crew members who lost their lives.

“I didn’t want to be the woman who had flown in space. I just wanted to be the astronaut who had flown in space.”

LEFT: (2 OCT 1984) ASTRONAUT

SALLY K. RIDE, 41-G mission specialist, gets a last look of Houston from the ground prior to departing the area in a T-38 jet aircraft to begin preparations in Florida for her 41-G space mission later in the week. Credit: NASA

RIGHT: (30 OCT.-6 NOV. 1985)

Traditional in-flight portrait of all eight STS-61A crew membersmission later in the week. Left to right, back row, Henry W. Hartsfield Jr., Bonnie J. Dunbar, James F. Buchli, and Reinhard Furrer. Left to right, front row, Ernst Messerschmid, Wubbo J. Ockels, representing the European Space Agency (ESA); Steven R. Nagel, and Guion S. Bluford Jr.,.Credit: NASA

THE SHUTTLE ERA

ASTRONAUT CANDIDATES

- 1978 SHUTTLE PROGRAM

FROM LEFT TO RIGHT ARE GUION S. BLUFORD, DANIEL C. BRANDENSTEIN, JAMES F. BUCHLI, MICHAEL L. COATS, RICHARD O. COVEY, JOHN O. CREIGHTON, JOHN M. FABIAN, ANNA L. FISHER, DALE A. GARDNER, ROBERT L. GIBSON, FREDERICK D. GREGORY, S. DAVID GRIGGS, TERRY J. HART, FREDERICK H. (RICK) HAUCK, STEVEN A. HAWLEY, JEFFREY A. HOFFMAN, SHANNON W. LUCID, JON A. MCBRIDE, RONALD E. MCNAIR, RICHARD M. (MIKE) MULLANE, STEVEN R. NAGEL, GEORGE D. NELSON, ELLISON S. ONIZUKA, JUDITH A. RESNIK, SALLY K. RIDE, FRANCIS R. (DICK) SCOBEE, RHEA SEDDON, BREWSTER H. SHAW JR., LOREN J. SHRIVER, ROBERT L. STEWART, KATHRYN D. SULLIVAN, NORMAN E. THAGARD, JAMES D. VAN HOFTEN, DAVID M. WALKER AND DONALD E. WILLIAMS. PHOTO CREDIT: NASA OR NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

PUTTING ON THE BRAKES

The Challenger disaster of 1986 continues to stand as a stark reminder of the risks and uncertainties inherent in space exploration. The shuttle broke apart just over one minute into its flight, killing all seven crew members aboard and leaving the nation and the space community heartbroken and confused. The aftermath of the failed mission prompted extensive investigations and soul-searching within NASA and the broader space industry, leading to sweeping changes in safety protocols and mission procedures.

Seventeen years later, tragedy struck again with the Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003. The disintegration of Space Shuttle Columbia during re-entry shocked the nation claimed the lives of all seven astronauts on board. The disaster bore haunting similarities to the Challenger tragedy, raising questions about the safety and reliability of the overall space shuttle fleet.

In 2004, President George W. Bush pledged to complete its work on the International Space Station by 2010, returning the space shuttles to flight consistent with safety concerns and the recommendations of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board. Upon completion of the ISS, Bush promised to retire the Space Shuttle Program by the end of the decade, and to replace it with Constellation, a new U.S. crewed spaceflight program that was scheduled to carry astronauts to the ISS beginning in 2015.

Although the Constellation program experienced initial progress, such as the successful test flight of Ares I in 2009—a crew launch vehicle utilizing reusable solid rocket boosters derived from the Space Shuttle’s four-segment booster—it encountered scrutiny and budgetary challenges. In February 2010, the program was canceled by the Obama administration in favor of alternative approaches to U.S. crewed spaceflight, emphasizing commercial partnerships and cost reduction initiatives.The cancellation of the program left the U.S. without a vehicle to transport American astronauts to the space station. Consequently, the nation had to depend on Russia’s rockets, marking the end of an era in American spaceflight.

END OF AN ERA

Shuttle Atlantis’ three main engines take center stage to the banners commemorating the orbiters that served the Space Shuttle Program. Image credit: NASA

What About the Moon?

Everyone asks, “Why haven’t we gone back to the Moon in over 50 years?”

During the Space Race with the Soviet Union, the U.S. was investing in space more than ever, climbing NASA’s budget to 4.4% of federal spending in 1966. As the Space Race simmered down and public support weakened, so did the allocated budget. By 1975, three years after the last Apollo mission, NASA’s budget plummeted to below 1%. Since then, the space budget has hovered between 1% and 0.4%, with 2024’s budget standing at a mere 0.38% of federal spending, or $24.875 billion in annual spend.

The reason lies in budgets, bureaucracies, and risk.

infrastructure to enable an enduring presence on the moon. Putting budgets aside, the bureaucratic hurdles of space exploration present another significant obstacle to returning to the Moon.

Politicians, well, they’re in the business of politics. Their job is undeniably crucial—they’re entrusted with the task of ensuring our nation’s safety, maintaining economic stability, and handling a plethora of other responsibilities. Yet, with every new administration, we witness a shuffle of priorities and inevitably, budget adjustments.

For comparison, the Apollo program spent $25.8 billion to put 12 men on the Moon, averaging over $2 billion per astronaut. Adjusted for inflation, this would equate to approximately $13 billion per moonwalker in February 2024.

Compared to the 2024 budget of $24.875 billion, NASA has requested $25.83 billion for 2025. Of this, $7.5 billion is earmarked for Deep Space Exploration Initiatives. This covers a multitude of objectives from enabling Artemis’s goal of landing the first woman and first person of color on the Moon’s south pole, preparing for future Artemis moon-landing missions, and developing lunar

Some administrations have prioritized long term space goals, such as President George H.W. Bush (1989 - 1993) who introduced plans to lay the groundwork for crewed missions to Mars through the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI). While other administrations focused on shorter-term goals, including President Bill Clinton (1993-2001) who canceled Bush’s SEI to shift focus back to the establishment of the International Space Station and shorter-term, lowcost initiatives that benefit life on Earth. “Let’s get the space station up and going and evaluate what our longterm prospects are. I’ll tell you this, I am fora continued, aggressive exploration of space in ways that are high quality,

BUDGETS, BUREAUCRACIES, & RISKS

cost effective and that will benefit us here on Earth,” Clinton quotes in an interview with CNN in 1998.

Despite the potential for advancements in space exploration and the technological benefits they bring, space doesn’t always land on top of the priority list, and administrations have different agendas. This historical pattern of starts and stops has shown that neglecting continuous prioritization of crewed lunar missions and programs leads to stagnation in progress.

It’s been 50

years since humans last stepped foot on the Moon. The individuals involved in the original Moon landing missions are aging, and many are no longer alive.

Although brilliant, today’s space professionals have limited real-world experience with crewed lunarlanding missions, and they are confronted with unfamiliar challenges and methods. As a result, firms find themselves essentially starting from scratch in their efforts to explore the Moon.

Undoubtedly, reaching the Moon presents significant hurdles. The tragic losses of two space shuttle crews, Challenger and Columbia reiterated the dangers of space exploration. These events served as sobering reminders of the risks involved in sending humans beyond Earth’s atmosphere. They underscored the importance of not becoming overly confident in the face of consecutive successes, as space exploration always entails unexpected challenges.

Yet, progress often requires taking risks. The United States understands that pushing the limits of exploration means confronting challenges head on.

Although the journey back to the Moon is challenging and risky, it holds immense value.

Individuals like Charlie Duke of Apollo 16, and Guion Bluford (the first African American in space) and Sally Ride (the first woman in space), serve as heroes willing to take risks for the progress of science and humanity.

As the space industry shifts towards commercialization, there’s optimism for greater stability and continuity. Commercial entities leading innovation and competition can reduce dependence on government decisions and make space exploration more resilient to political changes. Jim Bridenstine, former NASA administrator (2018-2021) shares this vision. “We want the government to be one customer of many customers, and we want the providers to compete against each other on cost and innovation… and if we can pull all of that together, we can create this virtuous cycle of innovation and development that is sustainable apart from the whimsical budget of politicians.”

"I think we are at the dawn of a new era in commercial space exploration. The challenges are immense, and there are many risks involved, but the potential rewards are equally great. Humanity's future depends on us becoming a multiplanetary species. We must push the boundaries of what is possible and continue to explore and innovate, not just for ourselves but for the survival and advancement of our species." - Elon Musk

BUDGETS, BUREAUCRACIES, & RISKS

Moving towards the future of space exploration, it’s crucial to utilize commercial space ventures to encourage innovation and progress. By promoting competition and reducing expenses, space exploration can become more feasible and enduring, regardless of political budget fluctuations. Through cooperative efforts among governments, businesses, and global organizations, groundwork can be laid for a future where humans get back to the Moon, responsibly.

“We begin this venture knowing that space travel brings great risks…Since the beginning of the space program, America has lost 23 astronauts, and one astronaut from an allied nation –men and women who believed in their mission and accepted the dangers. As one family member said, ‘The legacy of Columbia must carry on –for the benefit of our children and yours.’ The Columbia’s crew did not turn away from the challenge, and neither will we.” - George W. Bush, 2004

ARTWORK BY NIKOLINA KOVALENKO, ‘INSOMNIA’

THE PRESENT

Musk’s Plea to Go to Back Space

Noticing a lack of progress to get back to the Moon, Musk decided to take matters into his own hands. With $100M to personally invest, he established a team to develop commercially built, reusable rockets, driven by the pivotal goal of enhancing the accessibility to space through increased reliability and cost efficiency.

When talking about the current state of the space industry, one name inevitably springs forward, Elon Musk.

The entrepreneur behind SpaceX, Elon is known for his far-reaching ideas, futuristic technologies, and his vision that is credited in single-handedly reshaping the trajectory of interplanetary exploration.

But why did he start SpaceX in the first place?

After waiting around for NASA to send people back to the Moon and not seeing any progress, Musk decided to take matters into his own hands.

In 2002, with $100M to personally invest and a profound belief in humanity’s destiny to become a multi-planetary species, SpaceX was born. Forming a small team and facing high stakes, Musk set out to defy the odds.

Musk identified two pivotal goals for SpaceX: to reduce space transportation costs and to make humanity multi-planetary. The need to slash space transportation costs was evident. According to NASA, they had spent an estimated $25.8 billion on the Apollo program, and around $113.7 billion over the life of the Shuttle program.

With each shuttle mission costing $775 million, on average, to prepare and launch, on top of the above $1 billion cost to build each shuttle, Musk viewed the key to affordability of space travel as reusable rockets.

To do this, Musk had to build a rocket that hacked the rocket equation to allow enough payload to return the vehicle to the same launch pad to fly again. NASA had tried to achieve this in the 1990s with the Delta Clipper, but the program

SPACEX DEMO-2

PREFLIGHT

(May 2020) Elon Musk, SpaceX Chief Engineer, attends a briefing at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida ahead of the SpaceX Demonstration Mission 2 launch on May 27, 2020. Image credit: NASA/Bill Ingalls

What’s the difference between Musks’s approach to reusable rockets and the Space Shuttles? Musk’sapproachtoreusablerockets wouldbedifferentthanthe‘reusable’spaceshuttles fromthelate20thcentury.TheSpaceShuttle programfacedchallengesduetocompromisesin funding,resultingintheselectionoflessreusable componentslikesolidrocketboosters,whereas SpaceXdevelopedasmaller,simplerrocketwith economicallyviableoptions.Thisallowedthemto attractcommercialcustomerstofundreusability development.

was canceled due to budget constraints - a recurring trend within the space industry.

However, Musk’s ambitions extended beyond mere economics.

He envisioned a future where humanity thrived on multiple planets, safeguarded against existential threats to Earth such as asteroid impacts and pandemics. Establishing colonies on Mars became a cornerstone of SpaceX’s mission, driven by Musk’s conviction in securing the enduring survival of humanity.

Initially, SpaceX prioritized satellite delivery as its primary focus, with plans to gradually transition towards human transportation. The development of the Falcon 1 - a small, reusable rocket designed to carry payloads into orbit - marked the inaugural project. However, the journey was fraught with challenges. Putting rockets into orbit is an incredibly difficult task. Musk reminds us that space is an unforgiving environment, and with “riding a controlled bomb into space, accelerating at 17,500 miles per hour, there is inherent risk.”

Technical hurdles, financial constraints, and operational issues plagued SpaceX’s early endeavors. From engine failures to regulatory hurdles, every setback was a lesson learned.

In March 2006, Musk gave himself and his team three attempts to launch the Falcon 1 successfully into orbit. The first attempt failed less than one minute after liftoff due to a fire in the main engine.

A year later, the second attempt made it farther, but had engine failure after 7.5 minutes. Pouring every ounce of determination into a third launch, they were only to be met with another setback - encountering a collision between stages 1 and 2. With fumes and finances dwindling, the situation seemed dire.

private companies can achieve this level of space infrastructure. Now, NASA can offload some work.

NASA’S BOLD BET: HOW SUPPORTING SPACEX IGNITED THE PRIVATIZATION OF SPACE EXPLORATION

NASA, at a juncture where tradition collided with innovation, found itself needing to make a change in its approach to space exploration. NASA was aware of SpaceX’s large ambitions and concrete progress. In 2006, two years before the success of Falcon 1, NASA engaged in an agreement with SpaceX called the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Demonstration (COTS). This contract awarded SpaceX $586 million over six years with the goal to perform three successful crewed missions, to prove their capabilities and to earn the trust of NASA.

WHAT DO THEU.S., RUSSIA, CHINA, AND ELON MUSKALL HAVE IN COMMON?

Yet, in the face of adversity, Musk forged ahead, recognizing the critical significance of a successful launch for the future of space exploration. With the weight of expectation bearing down upon them, SpaceX knew that proving themselves was paramount—not just for their own aspirations, but to garner the trust and collaboration of industry giants and specifically, NASA.

Finally, on the fourth attempt, success was achieved. In 2008, SpaceX’s Falcon 1 became the first privately developed launch vehicle to reach Earth orbit. Now, four entities have launched a space capsule into orbit and brought it successfully back to earth: U.S., Russia, China…and Elon Musk.

This triumph was not just a success for SpaceX, but symbolized a success for the space industry at large, proving that

But why did NASA throw its weight behind the privatization of the space industry, and why specifically did it place its bets on SpaceX?

For NASA, the decision to embrace privatization was driven by a desire to shake off the shackles of bureaucracy and propel humanity farther and faster into space. Their rocket fuel was Elon Musk, the futurist and entrepreneur with a penchant for disruption and a track record of defying the odds. “If anyone could break through the red tape and usher in a new era of space exploration,” former NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine states, “it would be Musk.”

And so, NASA placed a bet on SpaceX, recognizing the company’s bold vision and unwavering determination to push the boundaries of what was possible.

But what sets SpaceX apart from traditional aerospace contractors? For starters, SpaceX isn’t afraid to take monumental risks. While NASA’s meticulous approach prioritizes caution and certainty before launch, taking time and resources, SpaceX embraces a fail-fast mentality, recognizing that innovation often blossoms from the ashes of failure.

As Bridenstine aptly put it, “SpaceX breaks things, sees what breaks, and fixes it from there.”

Sure, SpaceX had its fair share of setbacks along the way. But as Elon Musk himself famously quipped, “This is what the business is—we make mistakes, and we fix them the next day.”

Failure wasn’t a roadblock; it was a detour on the path to progress and eventual success of the reusable rocket.

However, the mission doesn’t culminate with payload launches; the next step for SpaceX involves transporting humans.

PRIVATIZATION

OBAMA KENNEDY SPACE CENTER VISIT

(April 2010) President Barack Obama tours the commercial rocket processing facility of SpaceX, along with Elon Musk, SpaceX CEO at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Cape Canaveral, Fla. Obama also visited the NASA Kennedy Space Center to deliver remarks on the bold new course the administration is charting to maintain U.S. leadership in human space flight. Image credit: NASA/Bill Ingalls

“If anyone could break through the red tape and usher in a new era of space exploration, it would be Musk.”

SPACEX CREW FALCON

9 ROCKET

Image credit: NASA/Aubrey Gemignani

The Falcon 1, developed in the mid2000s, was SpaceX’s first orbital launch vehicle, designed primarily for launching small payloads into space. It had a single Merlin engine and was smaller and less powerful compared to its successor.

The Falcon 9, introduced in 2010, is a much larger and more powerful rocket, designed to carry a variety of payloads, including satellites, cargo, and eventually crewed missions. It features multiple Merlin engines and can deliver payloads to various orbits, including geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) and low Earth orbit (LEO).

The Falcon 1 was instrumental in establishing SpaceX as a viable player in the space industry, while the Falcon 9 has become the workhorse of SpaceX’s fleet, enabling a wide range of missions and paving the way for ambitious projects like the Falcon Heavy and Starship. These rockets represent significant advancements in SpaceX’s capabilities and have played crucial roles in reshaping the landscape of space exploration.

A TEST ON COMMERCIAL SPACE TRAVEL

How the launch of SpaceX’s Demo-2 mission was the ultimate test for a private space industry.

In 2014, NASA picked SpaceX as one of two companies (Boeing was the other) to fly astronaut taxi missions to the International Space Station (ISS) as part of the agency’s Commercial Crew Program. Crew Dragon is a crewed version of SpaceX’s Cargo Dragon spacecraft, an unpiloted vehicle that has been making resupply flights to the station for NASA since 2012.

In 2020, NASA’s SpaceX Demo-2 mission was the first launch with astronauts to the ISS as part of the agency’s Commercial Crew Program. Traveling aboard the SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft on the Falcon 9 rocket, this crewed test flight served as an end-to-end demonstration of SpaceX’s crew transportation system. The success of this flight

proved commercial entities are capable of such technology.

NASA chief Jim Bridenstine called the success of the Demo-2 mission as the dawn of a “new era of human spaceflight” while SpaceX President Gwynne Shotwell said the success will also help the company’s plans for non-NASA commercial spaceflights in the future.

SPACEX CREW MISSION GRAPHICS, FALCON 9 (2021) This graphic details the makeup of SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket, showing the first and second stage. Building upon the Falcon 1 rocket, Falcon 9 is the launch vehicle SpaceX uses for all crewed missions to the International Space Station as part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Program. Image credit: NASA

A MILESTONE FOR PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS AND NASA: SPACEX MAKES HISTORY WITH FIRST MANNED MISSION TO THE ISS

In May 2020, amidst the adversities of the Covid pandemic, SpaceX launched mission SpaceX Demo-2, their first manned mission to validate the crew transportation system. The Falcon 1 rocket successfully launched payloads, and now it was time for Falcon 9 rocket to launch a crew. Stakes for this mission were extremely high: it aimed to send American astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS) aboard a commercially built spacecraft for the first time in history. If successful, this would symbolize a ‘thumbs up’ to go ahead with NASA’s Commercial Crew Program, a program to put private companies in the driver’s seat of providing safe, reliable, and cost-effective human transportation to and from the ISS from the U.S. and eventually the Moon.

Astronauts, fathers, and friends, Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley, were put on board SpaceX’s Crew Dragon Spacecraft on May 30th, 2020, with the responsibility of testing the Falcon 9 rocket and associated systems in a real-world scenario.

Bob Behnken is a seasoned astronaut with multiple spaceflights under his belt. Known for his calm demeanor and meticulous attention to detail, Behnken’s background as a mechanical engineer and test pilot made him the perfect candidate for this historic undertaking.

Doug Hurley, shared a similar background, having flown on two previous space shuttle missions and earning a reputation for his professionalism and leadership qualities.

In reflecting on their collaboration aboard the SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft and a Falcon 9 rocket, Behnken underscores the paramount importance of their partnership and the critical role of trust, particularly in the high-stakes environment of space travel. He states, “Knowing that the person sitting next to you has your back, that’s what makes missions like these possible.”

SPACEX DEMO-2 ASTRONAUT WALK-OUT. (2020) NASA astronauts Douglas Hurley (left) and Robert Behnken (right) speak to their families before entering the Tesla Model X that will transport them to the historic Launch Complex 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida for NASA’s SpaceX Demo-2 mission. Behnken and Hurley will be the first astronauts to launch to the International Space Station from U.S. soil since the end of the Space Shuttle Program in 2011. Part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Program, this will be SpaceX’s final flight test, paving the way for the agency to certify the crew transportation system for regular, crewed flights to the orbiting laboratory. Image Credit: NASA/Brandon Garner BOB

DOUG HURLEY

Each step of the mission—from launch to docking—was fraught with challenges and uncertainty, but NASA, Musk, and the crew were prepared and considered the safety of the astronauts a top priority.

As Behnken and Hurley bid farewell to their families and launched toward the ISS, the world held its breath. The sense of optimism and excitement overwhelmed as the United States once again reached for the stars.

Building upon the previous success of Falcon 1, the success of this mission aboard the Falcon 9 rocket was a triumph not only for SpaceX and NASA but for the entire space industry. In reflecting on the mission, astronaut Doug Hurley remarked: “I think what SpaceX has done for us has given us an opportunity to look at our human spaceflight program in a different way. We’re just really grateful to be a part of that transition, to be a part of the evolution of the next era of human spaceflight.”

NASA’s SpaceX Demo-2 mission marked the first crewed mission launched from American soil since the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011, demonstrating the viability of commercial space companies in transporting astronauts to the ISS.

This milestone not only restored America’s ability to launch astronauts from its own soil, but also paved the way for regular crewed missions to the ISS under NASA’s Commercial Crew Program.

NASA’S COMMERCIAL CREW PROGRAM TODAY

From 2020 to 2024, NASA’s Commercial Crew Program has been instrumental in reshaping the landscape of human spaceflight, leveraging partnerships with private companies to advance the agency’s goals of returning astronauts to the Moon and beyond. Key players in this endeavor include SpaceX and Boeing, each tasked with developing spacecraft capable of ferrying astronauts to and from the ISS, serving as vital components in NASA’s broader lunar exploration plans.

Since the success of the Demo-2 mission in 2020, SpaceX has significantly bolstered its Crew Dragon fleet, scaling up from just one spacecraft to an impressive total of four, while also logging an impressive tally of 10 missions. Among these flights are notable milestones, including the groundbreaking Inspiration4 mission, marking the inaugural fully commercial spaceflight, and the pioneering Axiom-1 mission, heralding the first fully commercial expedition to the International Space Station (ISS). With each mission, SpaceX has demonstrated its capability to reliably transport astronauts to the ISS and back, solidifying its role as a key partner in NASA’s space exploration endeavors.

For Musk, his first goal was accomplished: lower cost and increase access to space travel. Next, he’s headed towards the Moon and beyond.

As NASA prepares for missions to the Moon and Mars, the Commercial Crew Program plays a pivotal role in laying the groundwork for these missions while developing on what NASA has already explored.

As commercial companies can’t easily fund exploring Mars, for example, these private companies can take advantage of what NASA has already shown we can accomplish and commercialize it.

By fostering partnerships with commercial entities like SpaceX and Boeing, NASA not only reduces reliance on Russian Soyuz spacecraft for crew transportation but also stimulates innovation and competition in the space industry. The experience gained from crewed missions to the ISS provides invaluable insights and operational readiness for future lunar exploration missions, accelerating progress toward NASA’s Artemis program goals.

Through collaboration with companies like SpaceX and Boeing, NASA is not only revitalizing America’s leadership in space but also laying the groundwork for a sustainable and vibrant future of space exploration.

How NASA has supported SpaceX:

NASA’ssupportforSpaceXfromitsinceptionin2002has beenmultifaceted,rangingfromtechnicalassistancetofinancial collaboration.

1.SpaceActAgreements:NASAenteredintoseveralSpace ActAgreementswithSpaceX,providingtechnicalexpertise, testingfacilities,andresourcestosupportthedevelopmentof SpaceX’slaunchvehiclesandspacecraft.

2.CommercialCrewDevelopmentProgram(CCDev): NASAawardedSpaceXaseriesofcontractstofosterthe developmentofcommercialcrewtransportationcapabilitiesto theInternationalSpaceStation(ISS).Thesecontractsprovided fundingtosupportSpaceX’seffortstodeveloptheCrew DragonspacecraftandFalcon9rocketforcrewedmissionsto theISS.

3.CommercialOrbitalTransportationServices(COTS): CommercialOrbitalTransportationServices(COTS): Underthiscontract,SpaceXreceivedfundingtodevelopand demonstratecargoresupplycapabilitiestotheISSusingits DragonspacecraftandFalcon9rocket.

4.LaunchServicesContracts:NASAhasalsoawarded multiplelaunchservicescontractstoSpaceX,allowingthe companytoprovidelaunchservicesforvariousNASA missions,includingsatellitedeployments,scientificmissions, andinterplanetaryexplorationmissions.

ANEW ECONOMY UNVEILING

FEATURING A CONVERSATION WITH SPACE ECONOMIST, KEVIN O’CONNELL

In the 1990s we saw the economic shift towards technology and digital innovation. Now, three decades later, we are on the brink of another economic shift, and this ‘new economy’ is focused on space.

Throughout history, the term "new economy" has emerged sporadically, each time signifying a seismic shift in the way we do business, innovate, and interact with the world around us. From the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century to the rise of the information age in the late 20th century, these periods marked not just economic transitions, but also cultural and societal transformations.

During the late 1990s, amid the fervor of the dot-com bubble, this term gained traction, symbolizing a shift from traditional heavy industry to a realm of digital innovation and service-oriented economies. Bill Clinton's presidency, particularly in its later years, embraced this era of technological advancement, emphasizing strategic investments in research and development and promoting increased access to these new technologies.

As Clinton himself remarked in 1998, "We are building a new economy for our people -- a new economy powered by technology, nurtured by the ingenuity of the human mind, and enlarged by trade among all nations -- one that will forever transform the way we live, work, and relate to one another."

The burgeoning space economy mirrors this trajectory. Propelled by technological innovation and fostering a new frontier of advancement, commerce, and collaboration, this economic shift towards space is poised to redefine our relationship with space and our place within it.

While the digital revolution transformed industries in the 1990s, today’s frontier lies beyond Earth’s bounds, where the ‘new space economy’ promises to redefine our world yet again.

SPACE X-4 DRAGON COMMERCIAL CARGO APPROACHES THE ISS

(23 Sept. 2014) Photographed

by an Expedition 41 crew member from the windows of the Cupola, the SpaceX Dragon commercial cargo craft approaches the International Space Station. Image credit: NASA

CITY LIGHTS OF THE UNITED STATES 2012

(2012) This image of the United States of America at night, captured by the Suomi NPP satellite, highlights the importance of satellites in our daily lives and understanding of the world. The composite was made possible by the satellite’s “daynight band” of the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), which detects various sources of light, including city lights, gas flares, auroras, wildfires, and reflected moonlight, showcasing the pivotal role of satellites in observing and analyzing Earth’s phenomena.

ECONOMY

A $500 Billion Space Economy

Synonymous to the launch of the personal computer in the 1970’s, the innovation that paved the way for a more recent economic shift was hands down the successful development of the reusable rocket.

This development by the SpaceX Falcon Rocket in mid 2010s significantly reduced space travel costs, expanding access across multiple fronts. More private players are now able to launch satellites, to utilize the International Space Station for research, and to ultimately explore our Moon like never before.

As public-private partnerships grow, entrepreneurs across various space sectors are saturating the market, contributing to scientific progress, national security, and economic prosperity.

According to the Space Foundation’s Annual Report, the global space market reached roughly $546 billion in 2022, growing 8% from 2021: the majority of this growth coming from commercial space companies ($426.6B, 78%). While the space economy is currently dominated by a few major players, its impact is felt by everyone. Space is leveraged everyday, even through the most menial tasks such as online banking and checking the weather. Kevin O’Connell, former Director of the Office of Space Commerce (DOSC) states, “[People] don’t have a clue how much their lives depend on space every day. And that’s a huge problem.”

While often referred to as the ‘new space economy’, commercial space activities have a longstanding history spanning decades, overseen and fostered by the Office of Space Commerce (OSC). This Office was established during the Reagan administration in 1988, at a time when the idea of space commercialization was only in the mind of a few visionaries.

While it took several years to get the political and financial support it needed, >>

(19 NOV. 2013) THREE NANOSATELLITES, KNOWN AS CUBESATS, ARE DEPLOYED FROM A SMALL SATELLITE ORBITAL DEPLOYER (SSOD) ATTACHED TO THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION. NANOSATELLITES, ALSO KNOWN AS CUBESATS, ARE MINIATURE SATELLITES TYPICALLY WEIGHING BETWEEN 1 AND 10 KILOGRAMS. THEY ARE USED FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES SUCH AS SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, EARTH OBSERVATION, AND COMMUNICATION. DESPITE THEIR SMALL SIZE, NANOSATELLITES OFFER COST-EFFECTIVE SOLUTIONS FOR SPACE EXPLORATION AND TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATION.

the OSC finally began to take off around the time O’Connell took office in 2018.

“Thankfully my secretary was wild about space and we had a great space council,” he credits.

As an advocate for the commercial space industry, the OSC diligently monitors industry concerns and opportunities, promotes the integration of commercial capabilities within government spheres, and upholds fair competition for the commercial sector internationally.

O’Connell emphasizes that given that the space industry contributes $5T in economic value to the U.S. economy, it is important that this office continues to grow.

“There’s so much energy and money going into the space economy now. However, it’s gone like this (as O’Connell uses his hand to show the volatility of the economy). So you have to be careful. But the reality is, there’s a lot of investment (and a lot of enthusiasm) in the space economy that we have to sustain.”

UNDERSTANDING THE SIZE OF THE SPACE ECONOMY

“The thing about the space economy,” O’Connell mentions, “is that it is very hard to measure.”

When first arriving at the Office of Space Commerce, O’Connell’s primary concern was the lack of rigor in measuring the space industry and the need for a better methodology of measurement. “It’s analytically difficult to understand what should be in the space economy and how we count it.” For example, he continues, pointing to his phone, “There’s 10 or 12 things on here that are part of the space economy, but it’s very difficult to count. And so I think we’re under-counting the total economic value actually.”

Turning to the Bureau of Economic Analysis for assistance, they aimed to improve the rigor of space economic statistics in order to get the burgeoning space economy on the same level as other national economies in terms of economic data.

O’Connell explains that the

important measure of the space economy isn’t necessarily the top number, but its the understanding of how that value is calculated. He explains, “What’s really important is to dive underneath and look at how the different market segments are growing and whythey are growing at certain rates.”

There are many ways in which to segment the industry, however a simple way to break it out is between traditional space business and non-traditional space business.

“[People] don’t have a clue how much their lives depend on space every day. And that’s a huge problem.”

TRADITIONAL: THE GROWING ROLE OF SATELLITES IN THE SPACE INDUSTRY

When we think of traditional space business, one main segment comes to mind: Satellites.

Satellites are integral to modern life, enabling communication, navigation, weather forecasting, and a host of other critical functions. Today, the satellite industry constitutes a significant portion of the overall space economy, and is continuing to grow. According to the same annual report by the Space Foundation, which valued the economy at $546 billion in 2022, the satellite sector grew to $28 billion from $24 billion in 2021, representing an increase of more

than 17%.

Recent advancements in satellite technology, coupled with the rise of nanosatellites and Cubesats, are poised to drive significant growth in this sector over the next 15 years, estimated to make up 1/10th of the projected $1 trillion space in 2040.

Advancements in rocket technology, including reusable rockets, have significantly reduced the cost of satellite launches. Private launch companies can now send small satellites into orbit for research and commercial purposes at a fraction of previous costs.

The demand for data is growing at an exponential rate around the world. This increasing demand is accompanied by a notable decrease in the cost of accessing space and data. This trend suggests significant potential for extending Internet access to underserved regions worldwide, while also supplying the need for bandwidth from autonomous cars, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and video.

NON-TRADITION: ALL COMPANIES ARE SPACE COMPANIES

Satellites lie at the heart of traditional space business, but with the increased commercialization, non-traditional space businesses are taking part, from art and culinary to

Kevin O’Connell is a recognized expert on space commerce, theglobal spaceeconomy,internationalintelligence andU.S.nationalsecuritymatters.For almostfourdecades,hehasfocusedon spacecommercializationandtechnological competitivenessandhowtoadvancethem inglobalmarkets.Hehasalsofocusedon howtheseinnovationsimpactU.S.and alliednationalsecurity.O’Connell’smost recentrolewasDirectoroftheOfficeof SpaceCommerce(OSC)withintheU.S. DepartmentofCommerce,spearheading outreachtodomesticprivatespace enterprisestofosterinnovationandbolster marketexpansion. Inaddition,O’Connell isaregularauthoronspacecommerce issues.

medicine.

Right now, we are in a transitional phase. Kevin O’Connell describes, “We are starting to recognize that space is perhaps one of, if not the, platform through which we are going to really drive many of the innovations that we both need and expect in the next couple of decades.”

During the Covid-19 pandemic, we observed a significant reliance on previously developed space assets. We moved to remote communications, we relied on GPS to deliver goods and services, and we saw the emergence of telemedicine and distant education.

To reduce the vulnerability to unexpected circumstances, O’Connell stresses the importance of continued investment in space exploration.

To his point, a growing number of companies traditionally outside the space sector are now venturing into space capabilities. Various industries, such as agriculture, healthcare, and education, are recognizing the potential of increased technological developments and are now seizing upon the heightened accessibility to participate.

“We are shifting from a world in which people didn’t understand a lot about how space impacted their lives to a growing recognition that many innovations that we’re going to rely on over the next couple of decades will be enabled by space at a minimum,” explains O’Connell.

As we create a new economy in space, the traditional roles of astronauts and engineers are just the tip of the iceberg.

It will require a diverse array of talents and expertise to not only address the challenges that lie ahead, but also to create a sustainable and comfortable ecosystem of culture in space.

“Just about anything you can do on Earth, are things you might want to do, or need to do, in space if we’re going to stick around up there,” states O’Connell.

Imagine a future where there are opportunities for long term life in

space. What will we eat? What cultural experiences will we enjoy? These questions underscore the need for a broad spectrum of skills and perspectives in shaping the space economy of tomorrow.

O’Connell underscores the importance of inclusivity in space endeavors. “We need every walk of life,” he emphasizes. “From artists to chefs, from engineers to entrepreneurs, each individual brings a unique contribution

Growing to a $1 Trillion Economy Sustainably

Howdowestimulateanindustry thatworksatadifferentspeed thanthegovernment?

With the continuous growth of the commercial space industry and increasing government spending on international defense and civil initiatives, it is estimated that the space economy will reach $800 billion by 2023 and $1 trillion by 2040.

A $1 trillion economy sounds like an optimistic opportunity, but it’s important to ensure we get there in a sustainable and economically sound way. To realize a $1 trillion space economy by 2040, the imperative lies in unleashing private enterprise and drawing upon government experience to provide the necessary demand signals, frameworks, and security incentives that drive market action.

Several challenges must be addressed to attain this economic goal, including fostering entrepreneurship and private finance, implementing fair regulatory reforms, attracting talent from diverse disciplines, and ensuring the safety and sustainability of space activities.

to the collective endeavor of exploring and inhabiting space.”

We are creatures of habit, creatures of culture, and creatures who love the comforts of home. As we move into a future where we begin to build a world where visiting space is permanent and sustainable, we need the things that make us who we are.

We need art. We need music. We need good food. O’Connell claims, “We need to encourage that there are all sorts of other people that need to be part of that trillion dollar space economy.”

As of April 2024 there are roughly 12,000 satellites in orbit, according NASA’s newest estimation released at the 2024 Space Symposium event in Colorado Springs. Many estimates, including some based on proposals filed with the Federal Communications Commission, predict there to be an additional 58,000 launched by 2030. In order to support all of these upcoming space services, it’s important to ensure that the orbits are ready for it. “The space environment is changing

Satellite imagery of the California Wildfires in 2017, covering an area of 34.5 by 39 kilometers. In critical situations, satellites equipped with thermal infrared cameras can report large fires within one hour of recognition to drastically improve response times.

so rapidly just by the natural course of events, that we are going to have to deal with the problem of space debris,” states O’Connell.

The signing of Space Policy Directive 3 (SPD3) in 2018, a policy on National Space Traffic Management, signaled the country’s serious commitment to addressing the problem of space debris.

The directive highlighted three key points: the urgency of combating space traffic and debris, the importance of international partnership, and most importantly, the need to leverage the private sector, when previously, it was solely monitored by the Department of Defense.

With the number of satellites expected to more than quadruple in the next decade, space debris and traffic are not problems that we can sit around and address slowly, he claims.

If we don’t deal with the growing amount of space objects now, O’Connell forecasts, current problems will be exacerbated into long-term irreversible problems, such as the Kessler effect, ultimately impacting how far and fast we go in the space economy.

The Kessler Effect is a real phenomenon in space where orbiting debris, with some dating back to 1957, pose a significant challenge. Many of these fragments remain in space for extended periods until they either naturally de-orbit or transition to a ‘graveyard’ orbit. This effect occurs when these space objects collide, generating a vast field of debris that renders the orbit unusable not just for a few years, but potentially for centuries, causing substantial damage to our orbit.

There are millions of objects traveling in space, ranging tiny centimeter-sized paint chips to discarded rocket bodies over 33 feet long. But anything traveling at speeds of 17,500 mph can inflict considerable harm to anything it comes in contact with.

A PATH FORWARD FOR DEBRIS REMOVAL

Addressing the problem of overpopulation in space is a daunting and

expensive task, but given the increased awareness of the issue, significant strides have been made.

Kevin O’Connell outlines four “tools” for mitigating the space debris problem, starting with preventing the creation of new debris during space missions.

Unlike in past missions when the creation of debris was not a concern, new missions consider innovative engineering designs and materials to proactively mitigate this problem.

The second tool is space situational awareness (SSA). The Department of Defense (DOD) emphasizes that space is a contested environment with increasing threats to satellites, thus believes

Space debris and traffic are not problems that we can sit around and address slowly.

SSA—the foundational knowledge and characterization of objects in space and the environment—is critical. Mitigated through regulation, new systems and processes, and cloud-sharing data, such as the publicly available website, spacetrack.org, this tool aims to enhance understanding of potential collisions with space objects, fostering timely communication among space operations.

The third, long-term, tool is space traffic management. This involves organizing space activities through international norms, practices, and standards.

Most countries are hesitant to permit interference with their space junk without explicit permission. This complex issue of debris

ownership and regulatory, legal, and jurisdictional hurdles are all tasks to solve on a government level and will take considerable time.

Active debris removal, though more expensive, remains a viable fourth option. Early-stage companies are exploring costeffective methods and creative solutions. To emphasize the urgency, NASA is facilitating this crucial work by granting nearly $20 million in total to six U.S. small businesses to advance technologies to address orbital debris challenges and surface dust.

While initial investments in approaching this issue may be government-led, a shift towards a commercial model to space debris removal is foreseeable as economic viability and technological advancements progress.

REGULATIONS TO KEEP UP THE PACE

Regulatory reform is vital to keeping up with the pace of economic growth. Without it, there’s a risk of hindering economic progress and pushing businesses to relocate to foreign countries.

The future of space exploration offers exciting prospects in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). The upcoming phase of economic growth revolves around on-orbit servicing and manufacturing capabilities, such as satellite inspection, refueling, and repair, along with the potential for in-space manufacturing.

Early successes, such as Orbit Fab’s tanker in space, signify the beginnings of a servicing industry dedicated to maintaining and enhancing satellites

A note on the measurement of the economy. MorganStanley,UBS,andthe U.S.ChamberofCommerceallestimate thefuturevalueoftheSpaceEconomywill reachbetween$1Trillion-$1.5Trillion by2040.BankofAmericaprojectsa$2.7 trillionspaceeconomyin2045.Although eachhaveadifferentwayofmeasurement, mostagreegrowthwillcomefromincrease inbroadbandinternetdemandand theaccompanyingdemandforground equipmentanddeclininglaunchcosts. >>

ECONOMY

(NOV. 15, 2019) A debris shield that was removed from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), the International Space Station’s cosmic particle detector, is pictured drifting away from the orbiting lab after spacewalkers Andrew Morgan and Luca Parmitano jettisoned it. The debris shield was detached by the spacewalkers so they could access and begin the repairs of the AMS thermal control system.

(JUNE 20, 2018) The NanoRacks Kaber MicroSat Deployer (robotic arms on the International Space Station, ISS) remove satellite debris as part of the NanoRacks-Remove Debris Satellite mission. NanoRacks-Remove Debris aims to demonstrate key technologies for Active Debris Removal to reduce the risks presented by space debris.

already in orbit, laying the groundwork for future developments in orbital fabrication and assembly.

Traditionally, once a satellite was launched into space, its destiny was predetermined; any malfunction or failure left it defunct, contributing to the accumulation of space debris. Now, thanks to on-orbit servicing, there exists the potential to repair and even enhance satellites while they are in space, extending their operational lifespan.

Mitigating the growth of space junk and lowering the cost due to reusability, the opportunity to service in-orbit brings optimism, revolutionizing the space industry’s approach to sustainability and efficiency.

Numerous initiatives are underway to expand activities in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), such as the development of commercial space stations, global internet coverage through satellite constellations, and space tourism ventures. NASA aims to foster a competitive LEO marketplace where it shares space with private entities, freeing up government resources for deep space exploration like the Artemis program.

Kevin O’Connell aptly captures the magnitude of these developments, stating, “I think we may see more economic benefit in our lifetimes from space than we have seen in all of human history.”

As humanity ventures further into space, the opportunities for economic growth are seemingly limitless, as long as they are allowed and growth, protected.

WHAT IS LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO)?

With all this talk about Low Earth Orbit, what actually is it?

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) refers to orbits around Earth that are within 1,200 miles in altitude. These orbits are strategically close to Earth, facilitating convenient transportation, communication, observation, and resupply missions.

LEO is currently home to the International Space Station (ISS) and is poised to host numerous future platforms.

NASA advocates for a robust commercial space economy in LEO, recognizing its significance for advancing American industry, technological discovery, and sustainable space enterprises.

This vision entails collaboration between government agencies, commercial providers, academic institutions, and other stakeholders to expand the LEO economy and support

future space endeavors. Through initiatives like private astronaut missions and collaborations with commercial partners, NASA aims to foster a thriving LEO marketplace where the private sector leads the way, while NASA remains a significant customer, focusing on deep space exploration through programs like Artemis.

ORBITING REFLECTIONS

IN CONVERSATION WITH ASTRONAUT NICOLE STOTT

Orbiting 254 miles above our planet, the International Space Station (ISS) has facilitated decades of scientific discovery and international collaboration.

Stationed 254 miles from Earth lies the orbiting science laboratory and astronaut base known as the International Space Station (ISS).

Beginning in late 1998 when the U.S. built “Unity node” and the Russian built “Zarya node” came together, the ISS would be an ongoing international construction project in orbit for the next decade.

Supporting the “Off the Earth, For the Earth” mission, the ISS provides a place for a plethora of international astronauts to conduct life-benefiting science experiments in microgravity. Experiments are done in many disciplines from life and physical sciences to technology development that would be difficult (or even impossible) to conduct on the ground.

Traveling at a speed of 5 Earthly miles per second (yes, you read that correctly) and orbiting the globe every 90 minutes, the ISS is larger than a 6 bedroom house with 6 sleeping quarters, 2 bathrooms, a gym, and a 360-degree view bay window -

offering other-worldly views of planet Earth. It sounds like an extravagant vacation home, but these astronauts are hard at work spending about 35 hours each week conducting groundbreaking research.

Typically accommodating seven crew members for sixmonth durations, the space station allows for larger crews during changeover periods, with a peak of 13 individuals in 2009 and most recently hosting 11 in March 2024. Some astronauts have extended their stays to nearly a year to conduct long-term experiments, particularly to study the effects of microgravity on the human body.

These extended experiments are crucial for advancing our knowledge on sustaining human presence in space for extended durations, a key step towards establishing lunar bases and infrastructure.

The ISS has had at least one astronaut on board since November 2000, and has stationed a wide range of astronauts

in terms of nationality, culture, race, gender, and expertise. Although the “principals” of the ISS are the U.S., Russian, European, Japanese, and Canadian space agencies, it has been maintained and operated by 15 countries, and visited by over 222 people from 18 countries, making it a symbol of international cooperation and unity. Astronauts who have visited the space station have experienced this unity first hand, setting aside political and cultural difference to work together in navigating the many challenges in space.

To learn more about life on the ISS, I spoke with American astronaut Nicole Stott. Retiring in 2015, Nicole has logged over 100 days in space over her 27 year career. We discussed a variety of topics, including how astronauts work together amidst political tensions and cultural divides on Earth, as well as her experience being a woman in a field dominated by men, and how unsurprisingly, she never felt out of place.

(STALL) Since the start of the ISS in 1998 with the partnership between Russia and the U.S., there have been multiple international wars, social justice uprisings, political shifts, and other international conflict. Even currently, we are in a lot of political turmoil right now with multiple international wars going on and important presidential elections. How have astronauts aboard the ISS continued to set aside political divides in space for over 20 years?

(Stott) I wish I knew what the secret sauce is. We’ve had this orbiting machine, the ISS, in space for over 25 years where crews representing 5 international space agencies and 15 different countries have somehow deliberately managed to operate together peacefully and successfully on this place in space.

It’s incredible!

This history of peaceful cooperation in space goes way back to even Apollo –a program that was born from a “Space Race”. Even though it was the United States who staked the flag in the surface of the Moon, these missions were about humanity, and every astronaut who flew in

space presented it that way.

If you think about it, most, if not all, space milestones are spoken about in ways that are celebrated as humanity’s achievements, not just the achievement of a single place on the planet.

One of the greatest examples of international cooperation in space, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Program (ASTP, read page 16), is one that actually set the stage for the many instances throughout space history where countries have united over a shared goal and that led to continued international cooperation in space –including for the ISS.

It was very sad when NASA astronaut Tom Stafford passed away (in March 2024). Stafford was the U.S. commander on the ASTP mission where he and Soviet cosmonaut commander Alexei Leonov docked their orbiting spacecraft and shared that iconic handshake across their opened hatches. A handshake that to this day signifies long-term cooperation in space.

Tom and Alexei became life-long best friends. They carried that handshake forward in their own lives and our space programs continue to champion what that handshake symbolized for us all.

You often refer to the ISS as a “masterpiece”, claiming it is an incredible achievement politically, culturally, and technologically. Can you elaborate on that?

Creating a large, Earth-orbiting laboratory in space is not an easy feat – especially when you have to create it as a life support system that mimics as best we can what Earth does for us naturally. And when you think about it from a political, cultural, just basic human-being standpoint and the partnerships that had to be in place to make that happen – it’s really extraordinary.

(In1988theinitial13countriescametogetheronthe design,development,operation,andutilizationoftheISSby creatingtheIntergovernmentalAgreement(IGA)onSpace StationCooperation.Adecadelater,theyagreedtoinclude Russiainthepartnership,bringingtheagreementto15 countries.Tenmonthsfollowingthemodified IGA,theRussiansandtheU.S.launched theirrespectivemoduleswheretheywouldbe unitedinorbit,markingthefirstassemblyof thestation.Overthenext13years,countries havesentadditionalmodulesand200 astronautstocontinueconstruction,untilits completionin2011.)

“The ISS is a masterpiece. Technically, politically -the most challenging thing human beings have ever done, and we did it in space.”

From the beginning, all partners committed to the “Off the Earth, for the Earth” mission of the ISS, and agreed on how they would make it happen together. I don’t know of anything else like it.

Culturally, and in all the other ways, we established the rules of engagement

Astronaut Nicole Stott Image credit: NASA/Kim Shiflett

THE ISS

for how we were going to behave with each other and solve the problems that would inevitably come up along the way. And we had to purposely, deliberately, and diligently think about thatyou know - ‘how are we going to do this?’

And the same thing was true with how we were going to build the space station. Everyone had to agree on the standards of the technical construction, for example, ‘when two things come together, this is going to be the way they stick together.’

These were really complex pieces of machinery that we were attaching to each other in space, built by different countries...and it was a rarity to get to space and try to attach two things together for the space station and have it not work. That’s pretty incredible.

But if they didn’t work, we already knew how we were going to work together to overcome those challenges. Even if we didn’t know the exact solution at the time, we already had the ways in place of how we would work with each other to make sure that we got it right. That’s pretty cool. The ISS is a masterpiece in space (and it is also the best example of living off the grid that you can find!)

During the STS-128 mission in 2009, you were part of a seven-person crew aboard the NASA Space Shuttle, and upon reaching the ISS, you joined a crew of thirteen. Did you ever sense being the sole woman, or did it feel more like being one astronaut among thirteen, collectively working toward a common goal?

Iastronaut.

And I thought, ‘Oh my gosh, I’m going to get over there and it’s going to be so difficult.’ And it absolutely was not. They were just the same as anywhere else. They were looking to say, ‘Is Nicole going to be prepared and come to this class? Is she going to do her best and succeed at this? Is she going to become part of the crew? All of the things they were looking for in anybody who was training.

honestly never really thought being the only woman, or even being awoman, doing these things, unless somebody asked me about it. I never felt like my crew members were thinking, ‘Oh, here comes Nicole. She’s the woman on the crew.’ Nor did I feel like any of my trainers felt that way.

I’ll tell you I did wonder a little bit though about what it would be like going to Russia to Star City to train. I knew that the instructors were going to be some of the same older gentlemen that had even trained Gagarin. I was given a, thankfully unjustified, impression about what the male Russian thoughts might be on women doing things like training to be an

They may have wanted to hold the door for me or carry my bag. And I was like, ‘You go for it! I’m happy for you to do that!’ But I never got any sense of, ‘Oh, here comes Nicole, a woman, into our class.’

I will tell you though, the only place I had any sense of being judged differently during astronaut training because I’m a woman, was spacewalk training. There was this blatant, predisposition that women just are not going to be as good at spacewalking.

When in fact it really had more to do with women not being supplied with the right equipment, even though that equipment was available. The small suits and other equipment that would fit us were available for NASA to supply, but for whatever reason they chose not to supply them. Pretty impressive when you think about the success the smaller women have had in suits that were too big.

Why did they not buy smaller suits?

I think it was justified as an overall cost thing. At the time the bulk of the people in the office were men and it really wasn’t thought that there were going to be a whole lot of women astronauts. I guess they were thinking that they could afford to notsupplythe smaller suits.

In fact, the thing that’s wonderful is that we can say ‘Hey, look at the women who’ve performed spacewalks.’ I’m happy to be one of them. And further, look at how successful they have been - even in suits that were technically too big for them.

So, I’m like, ‘High five. Look at what we can do!’ Imagine what we’ll do when we have the proper fitting suits!

(2009), STS-128 crew member Nicole Stott during STS-128 17A EVA 1 training. Image credit: NASA

NICOLE MARIE PASSONNO STOTT, a retired NASA astronaut and engineer, has had a remarkable 27-year career marked by significant achievements. She served as a flight engineer on ISS Expeditions 20 and 21, as well as a mission specialist on STS-128 and STS-133. Nicole's contributions extended to overseeing the construction of critical components for the ISS as the NASA Project Lead for Space Station truss elements. Her expertise facilitated international collaboration and scientific research aboard the ISS. Throughout her tenure, she conducted experiments focusing on microgravity physics and chemistry, contributing to astronaut safety during launch. Since retiring from NASA in 2015, Nicole remains active in various endeavors, including art, philanthropy, public speaking, and travel, continuing to inspire others in space exploration and scientific inquiry.

IMAGE CREDIT:

NICOLE STOTT

As the International Space Station (ISS) continues its orbit around Earth, approaching its third decade since the beginning of construction, the question of its future is contemplated.

In recent years, questions about the ISS’s lifespan have intensified, with concerns about aging infrastructure, escalating operational costs, and the need for modernization in the face of a rapidly evolving space economy.

As private companies enter the space industry and commercial activities in low Earth orbit (LEO) ramp up, there is growing pressure to ensure that the aging ISS remains relevant and capable of supporting emerging needs and technologies. As a result, space agencies around the world are considering the possibility of transitioning from the ISS to new platforms that can better accommodate the new era of space exploration.

NASA’s transition plan for the ISS outlines a strategic roadmap for the station’s future, beyond its current operational phase. The agency aims to transition from direct government funding to a model that involves increased commercial and international partnerships, synonymous with the commercialization of all other aspects of the space industry.

While specific timelines for the cessation of ISS operations have not been set in stone, NASA envisions transitioning to the next phase of space exploration by the end of the decade. This transition will involve gradually reducing government funding for ISS operations while fostering the growth of commercial

activities and international collaboration in LEO.

So, what comes after the ISS? The answer is a multitude of space stations.

As NASA’s Artemis program prepares to return humans to the Moon, astronauts will need an outpost to serve as a staging point for crewed missions from the Moon and beyond.

Introducing, Gateway - humanity’s first space station around the Moon.

NASA’s plan for Gateway represents a fundamental shift in how humans will operate in space. Unlike the ISS, which orbits Earth, Gateway will orbit the Moon, providing a strategic vantage point for exploring the lunar surface and beyond.

And continuing the ISS’s theme of collaboration, this lunar orbiting space station will continue its legacy by serving as a hub for international collaboration, with NASA partnering with other space agencies, including the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), among others in the construction, use, and maintenance.

As of March 2024, there is no set timeline for the closure of the ISS. Discussions regarding the retirement of the ISS are ongoing, and plans for the transition are still being developed and evaluated by space agencies and stakeholders.

As we have seen in space exploration’s past: each end of an era leaves room for a new one. This one to be characterized by increased commercialization, international cooperation, and bold ambitions to explore further into space.

WHAT’S NEXT

A BUSY LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO)

How LEO will become a bustling arena for commercial industries.

The ISS also acts as an orbital outpost to facilitate and empower the commercial market in Low Earth Orbit. At this point in time, the commercial avenues are mainly driven through contracting U.S. Space companies for cargo and

space transportation from Earth to the ISS. Currently, NASA has contracted two space companies under the commercial resupply services program. SpaceX and Northrop Grumman are both contracted to deliver critical science, hardware, and

supplies to the crew aboard the ISS. As we move forward into the new space economy, there are boundless opportunities to incorporate commercial partnerships into LEO.

THE FUTURE

There’s a big discussion happening about whether we should spend money on space projects, whether from government funds or private investors.

Why Space?

Why are so many billionaires focused on space? Is it realistic to think solutions to Earthly problems lie beyond our atmosphere?

As of April 2024, the top 10 richest people in the world have a combined net worth of over $1.5 trillion. Of these individuals, two stand prominent in leading the charge in space investment: Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos. While it’s hard to find exactly how much they’ve personally invested into their respective companies, SpaceX and Blue Origin, it’s clear they’re devoting a lot of their time and resources to these projects.

‘Why invest in space exploration when there are pressing issues at home?’ This question often arises, with many arguing that resources should be directed towards solving domestic problems. There’s no denying that there are environmental and humanitarian issues on Earth that urgently need attention. Surprisingly, many solutions may lie further than we think, possibly even 238,900 miles away from home.

LOOKING TO SPACE FOR SUSTAINABILITY

A significant challenge for Earth is the scarcity of sustainable energy and the necessity to explore alternative sources. While we have several solutions available domestically, such as wind, bioenergy, and hydro energy, we can also turn our gaze towards space for potential alternatives.

While Earth benefits from a protective magnetic field, the Moon lacks this shield, leaving it vulnerable

to solar wind. As a result, certain areas of the Moon’s surface accumulate significant amounts of Helium-3.

Scientists propose that by combining Helium-3 with Deuterium (a stable isotope of hydrogen) in a safe nuclear fusion process that produces minimal waste, it could offer a promising source of clean energy.

There are also discussions about space-based solar power, where satellites equipped with solar panels gather strong and continuous solar radiation. They achieve this by reflecting large amounts of sunlight onto smaller solar collectors using massive mirrors.

This collected energy could be transmitted wirelessly to Earth in a safe and controlled manner, either as a microwave or laser beam. With the groundwork for distributing solar power already established on Earth, the opportunity to develop space-based solar power is within reach.

As new developments and ideas emerge, they bring both goals and opposition. This endeavor would be costly and substantial, presenting numerous challenges to tackle. Some argue it’s not practical, citing the longstanding discussion about space-based solar panels with minimal progress.

Despite the high costs associated with these alternative energy sources, the commercialization of the industry demonstrates that private funding can sustain such expensive projects, particularly as launch costs decrease.

Astronaut Nicole Stott, who holds a deep passion for the subject, points out that $200 billion was earmarked for the 2022 World Cup, with an estimated $500 billion set

WHY SPACE?

aside for the 2025 Olympic Winter Games in Saudi Arabia. Given these figures, one might consider allocating a fraction of these funds towards launching solar panels into space to fulfill our alternative energy needs on Earth.

CONTINUING TO DEVELOP TECHNOLOGIES

We need innovation not just to tackle existing problems, but also to address new challenges that arise. Constantly evolving technologies play a crucial role in enhancing our readiness for unforeseen hurdles.

As we saw during the Covid pandemic, there was an outsized role for space based on past investments in the industry. We moved to all remote connections and communications, we relied on GPS to deliver goods and services, and there was the emergence of telemedicine and distant education.

Space economist expert Kevin O’Connell emphasizes the importance of continued investment in space. He underscores that it’s essential not only for addressing anticipated needs but also for meeting unforeseen challenges.

As many different industries are beginning to rely more heavily on technology, such as agriculture, health, and education, for example, space is going to be a big dependent factor for this development. O’Connell states, “We are in a Transition right now: starting to recognize that space is perhaps one of, if not the, platform through which we are going to really drive many of the innovations that we both need and expect in the next couple of decades”

Furthermore, space technology, particularly satellites, holds immense promise for addressing environmental concerns. Satellites can aid in monitoring global warming

and rising sea levels by providing accurate data and imagery for scientists to analyze. They can be instrumental in identifying and tracking poachers, helping to protect endangered wildlife populations. Satellites equipped with advanced sensors can monitor changes in land use and vegetation, aiding in environmental conservation efforts.

By leveraging space technology, we can better understand and combat environmental challenges, safeguarding our planet for future generations.

CONTINUING HUMANITY’S NEED FOR CURIOSITY

Throughout human history, our gaze has often turned upwards, filled with awe, wonder, and curiosity. This curiosity is evident in the works of ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, who pondered celestial mysteries centuries ago, as well as in the inquiries of figures such as Newton in the 1700s, who sought to unravel the secrets of astronomy. The early 1900s witnessed the emergence of individuals like Wernher von Braun, driven by a fervent desire to propel objects into space, culminating in the historic launch of Sputnik and igniting the Space Race. Today, our curiosity remains undiminished, urging us to continually expand upon our existing knowledge of space.

Space exploration not only piques our curiosity but also offers practical solutions. It has unraveled mysteries like the mechanics of tides and facilitated the development of time systems linked to the sun’s orbit. Moreover, it has enabled us to deploy communication satellites, revolutionizing global connectivity and navigation capabilities.

In the 1960s and 70s, we achieved the remarkable feat of landing on the Moon. Instead of resting on our laurels and declaring ‘mission accomplished,’ let’s ask: ‘What’s next?’

Atlas V rocket launches on the Department of Defense’s Space Test Program 3 (STP-3) mission.

Image credit: NASA

China and Russia are aggressively targeting U.S. space infrastructure, with Russia’s recent advancements in nuclear space weapons raising alarm. As the space race 2.0 intensifies, the United States faces escalating threats, prompting increased defense budget allocations and a call for comprehensive strategies to safeguard national security and space exploration.

Space Race 2.0

As we look up to the stars and see wander and possibility, it is important to recognize the need for policy, regulation, and defense to keep the stars open for freedom for exploration, and freedom from war.

China and Russia are deliberately targeting the United State’s infrastructure in space. Just this February, the United States was warned about the approaching success of Russia’s capability to launch nuclear weapons into space, ultimately to target and destroy many of our communication satellites.

This may sound pretty familiar: Russia, in a period of conflict and war, builds a rocket capable of carrying a nuclear weapon, sounding the alarm for America to invest heavily in innovation and defense, igniting stiff competition. However, dissimilar to this original Space Race of the mid 1900s, the strife between Russia and the U.S. today includes more resources, better intelligence, and higher stakes.

Satellites are indispensable for our daily routines. Consider life without GPS on your phone or access to accurate timekeeping. Many people don’t realize

DEFENSE

how much we as individuals rely on space, let alone how important it is for the military’s defense. John Plumb, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Space Policy of the U.S., emphasizes the significance at a conference in April, “Russia and China both know that space is essential to the U.S. way of war, and they have developed a variety of means to attack our satellites.”

It is perhaps the reason Russia decided to invest in experiments targeting our space infrastructure in the first place, in violation of the Outer Space Treaty to which more than 130 countries have signed up to, including Russia. If Russia had the ability to shut off communication between Ukraine’s military and the U.S., for example, they would immediately achieve military advantage.

In a White House press briefing in February, National Security Communications Advisor John Kirby confirms Russia’s developments of anti-satellite weapons, posing a threat to the U.S from a multitude of angles. He lists: communications, command and control, transportation, meteorological concerns, financial, commercial concerns. “I don’t want to minimize the potential here for disruptions should there be an antisatellite capability of any significance,” he states. “It could affect services here on Earth. There’s no question about that. That’s why we are taking this so seriously.”

It isn’t just Russia that we should be on the lookout for. This space race has a third player: The Peoples Republic of China PRC. In 2007, the PRC conducted its first successful direct-ascent anti-satellite ASAT weapons test, launching a rocket targeting and destroying another satellite in orbit, creating an incredible amount of extremely harmful space debris. In 2022, China launched a satellite with a robotic arm into space, where it successfully grabbed hold of another satellite giving it the ability to manipulate the location of the satellite and relocate it into a dead zone. This mission was claimed to be or space debris mitigation, but given its classified nature may indicate that China is developing an on-orbit offensive capabilities.

on Important Strategic Satellite Navigation Cooperation” where they integrated their satellite systems to have an advantage navigation system over the U.S.. Since then, multiple cooperative missions have been established, from agreement to cooperate on deep space missions to data-sharing and joint development.

Although unsure of the exact level of cooperation amongst the two countries, the U.S. Department of Defense has acknowledged the increasing threats to our national security posed by their cooperative efforts in space. As a result, the DoD has allocated significant budget resources to space defense, including the formation of the “Space Force”.

To put it in perspective, the FY24 defense space budget of $33.3 billion reflects a substantial 15% increase from FY23, indicating the strategic importance of maintaining U.S. superiority in space capabilities and the increasing threat against our national security.

“Russia and China both know that space is essential to the U.S. way of war, and they have developed a variety of means to attack our satellites.”

From 2019 to 2023, China doubled its number of annual space launches and more than tripled how many satellites (both commercial and military) it put into orbit. Now, under project Guowang, China plans to build a network of 13,000 satellites to rival Musk’s Starlink network of 5,000. According to the Department of Defense’s Space Force, many of China’s Investments are specifically focuses on positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT), to ensure warfighting potential.

The United States is aware of China’s increase in space investments, as well as their ongoing cooperation with Russia. Since 2014, the two U.S. adversaries have established joint space agreements, beginning with the “China Russia Commission

Although many civilians may not understand the significant reliance we have on space, Russia and China do. And beyond the sci-fi seeming threats of missiles and robotic arms, the biggest threat the Space Force accounts for are threats relating to electronic warfare, cybersecurity, and IP theft.

In confronting the escalating threats to national security in space, the DoD takes a multifaceted approach. This entails bolstering offensive capabilities, strategically allocating resources for space defense, enhancing satellite infrastructure for greater resilience, and continuing to focus on partnerships with allies and commercial entities.

As we look up to the stars and see wander and possibility, it is important to recognize the need for policy, regulation, and defense to keep the stars open for freedom for exploration and freedom from war.

Understanding the need to stay ‘in the fight’ during both peacetime and conflict, the Space Force is “committed to protecting America and our Allies in, from, and to space.. Now and into the future.”

What is the Space Force?

TheUnitedStatesSpaceForce,establishedonDecember20, 2019,isabranchoftheU.S.ArmedForcesdedicatedtospace warfareoperations.ItsprimarypurposeistoprotectU.S. interestsinspaceandensurefreedomofoperationforU.S. spacecraft.Today,theUnitedStatesSpaceForcecontinuesto developandimplementadvancedtechnologiesforspace-based defensesystems,includingsatelliteprotectionandanti-satellite capabilities,tosafeguardU.S.assetsintheincreasinglycontested domainofspace.

The Earth

looms below, a breathtaking orb hanging in the vastness of space.

Astronaut Charlie Duke can see the Arctic Circle, Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Central America. He sees the three colors of Earth: the brown of the land, the crystal blue of the ocean, and the white of the snow in the clouds. “Boy, it’s just beautiful up here, looking out the window. It’s just really fantastic.”

Boundaries- the lines we have created to organize land- but more often serve as catalyst for cultural division, vanish from sight. From this ‘out of this world’ perspective, we are not separated by nations or ideologies, but united as one species, inhabitants of a fragile blue planet suspended in black space.

Spaceflight, with its infinite possibilities and borderless map, draws out the best within us. It ignites curiosity, fosters a spirit of collaboration and reminds us we are one. The journey into space, from the exploitation of immigrants during the Cold War era to the collaborative effort to reach the lunar surface, and from the harmonious assembly of nations aboard the International Space Station to the celebration of diversity within today’s NASA teams leading us back to the Moon with Artemis, continues to reflect the underlying essence of humanity.

Beginning with the curiosity and brilliance of a young deaf boy named Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who first showed us how to launch from Earth, every advancement represents a significant achievement. And with each achievement, we stand poised to confront the next great challenge, and to journey further into the stars, as one.

SC: Okay, GOrdy, thank yOu. We GOt anOther SpeCtaCular vieW Of the earth dOWn here, the pOlar iCe Cap and We Can See the WhOle Sphere and the united StateS iS abSOlutely SpeCtaCular.

CapCOM: hOW abOut that?

SC: and the Other Side We GOt a CreSCent MOOn. In faCt yOu Can See lake Meade, GOrdy, very Clearly.

CapCOM: nO kiddinG?

paO: apOllO COntrOl hOuStOn, 4 hOurS 17 MinuteS GrOund elapSed tiMe. apOllO 16 nOW 15 039 nautiCal MileS aWay frOM the earth. velOCity nOW readinG 15 272 feet per SeCOnd.

end Of tape

PAO, Public Affairs Officer. The Public Affairs Officer was a MOCR position that played a tremendous part in the space program. The PAO was the voice of Mission Control to the public. SC, Spacecraft.