Essentials of athletic injury management 10th edition

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Chapter 6 Selecting and Using Protective Sports Equipment

105

Safety Standards for Sports Equipment and Facilities 105 Legal Concerns in Using Protective Equipment 106 Using Off-the-Shelf versus Custom Protective Equipment 107 Head Protection 107 Face Protection 111 Trunk and Thorax Protection 114 Lower-Extremity Protective Equipment 118 Elbow, Wrist, and Hand Protection 123 Summary 124 Websites 126

Chapter 7 Understanding the Potential Dangers of Adverse Environmental Conditions

127

Hyperthermia 127 Hypothermia 134 Overexposure to Sun 135 Safety in Lightning and Thunderstorms Summary 137 Websites 138

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Summary 159 Websites 161

Chapter 9 Bloodborne Pathogens, Universal Precautions, and Wound Care

What Are Bloodborne Pathogens? 162 Dealing with Bloodborne Pathogens in Athletics 165 Universal Precautions in an Athletic Environment 166 Caring for Skin Wounds 169 Summary 172 Websites 173

Chapter 10 Wrapping and Taping Techniques 174 Elastic Wraps 175 Nonelastic and Elastic Adhesive Taping Common Taping Techniques 182 Kinesio Taping 188 Summary 189 Websites 190

Techniques for Treating and Managing Sport-Related Injuries 141 Chapter 8 Handling Emergency Situations and Injury Assessment

142

The Emergency Action Plan 142 Principles of On-the-Field Injury Assessment 145 Primary Survey 145 Conducting a Secondary Assessment 150 Off-Field Assessment 152 Immediate Treatment Following Acute Musculoskeletal Injury 153 Emergency Splinting 155 Moving and Transporting the Injured Athlete 156

191

Therapeutic Exercise versus Conditioning Exercise 191 Philosophy of Athletic Injury Rehabilitation 191 Basic Components and Goals of a Rehabilitation Program 192 Using Therapeutic Modalities 197 Criteria for Return to Full Activity 198 Summary 199 Websites 200

Chapter 12 Helping the Injured Athlete Psychologically

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The Athlete’s Psychological Response to Injury 201 Predictors of Injury 202 Goal Setting as a Motivator to Compliance 204 Providing Social Support to the Injured Athlete 204

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Chapter 11 Understanding the Basics of Injury Rehabilitation

PART III

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Return to Competition Decisions 207 Referring the Athlete for Psychological Help 207 Summary 208 Websites 209

PART IV

Recognition and Management of Specific Injuries and Conditions 211 Chapter 13 Recognizing Different Sports Injuries

212

Acute (Traumatic) Injuries 212 Chronic Overuse Injuries 219 The Importance of the Healing Process Following Injury 221 Summary 223 Websites 225

Chapter 14 The Foot and Toes 226 Foot Anatomy 226 Prevention of Foot Injuries 228 Foot Assessment 229 Recognition and Management of Foot Injuries 230 Summary 239

Chapter 15 The Ankle and Lower Leg 241 Ankle and Lower-Leg Anatomy 241 Prevention of Lower-Leg and Ankle Injuries 243 Assessing the Ankle Joint 245 Recognition and Management of Injuries to the Ankle 246 Assessing the Lower Leg 251 Recognition and Management of Injuries to the Lower Leg 251 Summary 255 Websites 257

Chapter 16 The Knee and Related Structures 258 Knee Anatomy 258 Prevention of Knee Injuries 261 Assessing the Knee Joint 262

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Recognition and Management of Injuries to the Knee 265 Recognition and Management of Injuries and Conditions Classified as Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome 272 Summary 275

Chapter 17 The Thigh, Hip, Groin, and Pelvis

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Anatomy of the Thigh, Hip, Groin, and Pelvic Region 277 Assessing Thigh, Hip, Groin, and Pelvis Injuries 278 Prevention of Injuries to the Thigh, Hip, Groin, and Pelvic Region 281 Recognition and Management of Injuries to the Thigh 281 Recognition and Management of Hip and Groin Injuries 284 Recognition and Management of Injuries to the Pelvis 288 Summary 290 Websites 291

Chapter 18 The Shoulder Complex 292 Anatomy of the Shoulder 292 Prevention of Shoulder Injuries 294 Assessing the Shoulder Complex 296 Recognition and Management of Shoulder Injuries 298 Summary 304 Websites 305

Chapter 19 The Elbow, Forearm, Wrist, and Hand

306

Anatomy of the Elbow Joint 306 Assessing Elbow Injuries 306 Prevention of Elbow, Forearm, and Wrist Injuries 308 Recognition and Management of Injuries to the Elbow 309 Anatomy of the Forearm 312 Assessing Forearm Injuries 313 Recognition and Management of Injuries to the Forearm 314 Anatomy of the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers 315

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Assessment of the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers 316 Recognition and Management of Wrist and Hand Injuries 316 Recognition and Management of Finger Injuries 320 Summary 323

Chapter 20 The Spine 325 Anatomy of the Spine 325 Preventing Injuries to the Spine 329 Assessment of the Spine 331 Recognition and Management of Cervical Spine Injuries and Conditions 333 Recognition and Management of Lumbar Spine Injuries and Conditions 335 Recognition and Management of Sacroiliac Joint and Coccyx Injuries 338 Summary 339 Websites 340

Chapter 21 The Thorax and Abdomen 341 Anatomy of the Thorax 341 Anatomy of the Abdomen 342 Preventing Injuries to the Thorax and Abdomen 343 Assessment of the Thorax and Abdomen 343 Recognition and Management of Thoracic Injuries 345 Recognition and Management of Abdominal Injuries 348 Summary 352 Websites 353

Chapter 22 The Head, Face, Eyes, Ears, Nose, and Throat

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Preventing Injuries to the Head, Face, Eyes, Ears, Nose, and Throat 354 Anatomy of the Head 354 Assessing Head Injuries 355 Recognition and Management of Specific Head Injuries 357 Anatomy of the Face 362 Recognition and Management of Specific Facial Injuries 362 Dental Anatomy 363

Preventing Dental Injuries 363 Recognition and Management of Specific Dental Injuries 363 Anatomy of the Nose 365 Recognition and Management of Specific Nasal Injuries 365 Anatomy of the Ear 366 Recognition and Management of Specific Injuries to the Ear 367 Anatomy of the Eye 368 Recognition and Management of Specific Eye Injuries 369 Recognition and Management of Injuries to the Throat 371 Summary 371 Websites 373

Chapter 23 General Medical Conditions and Additional Health Concerns

374

Skin Infections 374 Respiratory Conditions 378 Gastrointestinal Disorders 382 Other Conditions that Can Affect the Athlete 383 Cancer 387 Menstrual Irregularities and the Female Reproductive System 388 Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) 390 Summary 392 Websites 394

Chapter 24 Substance Abuse 395 Performance-Enhancing Drugs 395 Recreational Drug Abuse 399 Drug-Testing Programs 400 Summary 401 Websites 402

Chapter 25 Preventing and Managing Injuries in Young Athletes

403

Cultural Trends 403 Physical Maturity Assessment in Matching Athletes 405 Physical Conditioning and Training 406 Psychological and Learning Concerns 407 Coaching Qualifications 408

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Common Injuries in the Young Athlete Sports Injury Prevention 410 Summary 413 Websites 416

Appendixes Appendix A

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Employment Settings for the Athletic Trainer 417

409

Appendix B

Requirements for Certification as an Athletic Trainer 420

Appendix C

Directional Movements for Body Joints 422

Glossary Index

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434

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Preface WHO SHOULD USE THIS TEXT? The tenth edition of Essentials of Athletic Injury Management is written for those students interested in the fitness profession, kinesiology, coaching, or some aspect of sport science or physical education. The majority of students who take courses about the prevention and management of injuries that typically occur in an athletic population have little or no intention of pursuing athletic training as a career. However, it is also true that a large percentage of those students who are taking these courses are doing so because they intend to pursue careers in coaching, fitness, physical education, or other areas related to exercise and sports science. For these individuals, some knowledge and understanding of the many aspects of health care for both recreational and competitive athletes is essential for them to effectively perform the associated responsibilities of their job.

Other students who are personally involved in fitness, or training and conditioning, may be interested in taking a course that will provide them with guidelines and recommendations for preventing injuries, recognizing injuries, and learning how to correctly manage a specific injury. Thus, Essentials of Athletic Injury Management has been designed to provide basic information on a variety of topics, all of which relate in one way or another to health care for the athlete.

Essentials of Athletic Injury Management was created from the foundations established by another well-recognized textbook, Principles of Athletic Training, currently in its fifteenth edition. Whereas Principles of Athletic Training serves as a major text for professional athletic trainers and those individuals interested in sports medicine, Essentials of Athletic Injury Management is written at a level more appropriate for the coach, fitness professional, and physical educator. It provides guidance, suggestions, and recommendations for handling athletic health care situations when an athletic trainer or physician is not available.

ORGANIZATION AND COVERAGE The tenth edition of Essentials of Athletic Injury Management provides the reader with the most current information on the subject of prevention and

basic care of sports injuries. The general philosophy of the text is that adverse effects of physical activity arising from participation in sport should be prevented to the greatest extent possible. However, the nature of participation in physical activity dictates that sooner or later injury may occur. In these situations, providing immediate and correct care can minimize the seriousness of an injury.

Overall, this text is designed to take the beginning student from general to specific concepts.

Each chapter focuses on promoting an understanding of the prevention and care of athletic injuries.

Essentials of Athletic Injury Management is divided into four parts: Organizing and Establishing an Effective Athletic Health Care System, Preventing Injuries in an Athletic Health Care System, Techniques for Treating and Managing Sport-Related Injuries, and Recognition and Management of Specific Injuries and Conditions.

Part I, Organizing and Establishing an Effective Athletic Health Care System, begins in Chapter 1 with a discussion of the roles and responsibilities of all the individuals on the “sports medicine team” who in some way affect the delivery of health care to the athlete. Chapter 2 provides guidelines and recommendations for setting up a system for providing athletic health care in situations where an athletic trainer is not available to oversee that process. In today’s society, and in particular for anyone who is remotely involved with providing athletic heath care, the issue of legal responsibility and, perhaps more importantly, legal liability is of utmost concern. Chapter 3 discusses ways to minimize the chances of litigation and also to make certain that both the athlete and anyone who is in any way involved in providing athletic health care are protected by appropriate insurance coverage.

Part II, Preventing Injuries in an Athletic Health Care System, discusses a variety of topics that both individually and collectively can reduce the chances for injury to occur. Chapter 4 emphasizes the importance of making certain that the athlete is fit to prevent injuries. Chapter 5 discusses the importance of a healthy diet, giving attention to sound nutritional practices and providing sound advice on the use of dietary supplements. Chapter 6 provides guidelines for selecting and using protective equipment. Chapter 7 looks at

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ways to minimize the potentially negative threats of various environmental conditions on the health of the athlete.

Part III, Techniques for Treating and Managing Sport-Related Injuries, begins with Chapter 8, which details how to assess the severity of an injury and then provides specific steps that should be taken to handle emergency situations. Chapter 9 provides guidelines that can help reduce the chances of spreading infectious diseases by taking universal precautions in dealing with bloodborne pathogens. Chapter 10 discusses the more common wrapping and taping techniques that can be used to prevent new injuries from occurring and old ones from becoming worse. Chapter 11 includes a brief discussion of the general techniques that may be used in rehabilitation following injury. Chapter 12 discusses the psychology of preparing to compete and proposes recommendations for how a coach should manage an injury.

Part IV, Recognition and Management of Specific Injuries and Conditions, begins with Chapter 13, which defines and classifies the various types of injuries that are most commonly seen in the physically active population.

Chapters 14 through 22 discuss injuries that occur in specific regions of the body, including the foot; the ankle and lower leg; the knee; the hip, thigh, groin, and pelvis; the shoulder; the elbow, forearm, wrist, and hand; the spine; the thorax and abdomen; and the head, face, eyes, ears, nose, and throat. Injuries are discussed individually in terms of their most common causes, the signs of injury you would expect to see, and a basic plan of care for that injury.

Chapter 23 provides guidelines and suggestions for managing various illnesses and other health conditions that may affect athletes and their ability to play and compete. Chapter 24 focuses specifically on issues related to substance abuse and the potential effects on the athlete.

Chapter 25 provides special considerations for injuries that may occur in young athletes.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

Chapter Changes and Additions Numerous changes and clarifications have been made in content throughout the entire text.

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Chapter 1 •

• • • •

Updated information on the roles and responsibilities of fitness professionals who may find themselves in positions that require them to have some knowledge of the athletic health care system.

Reorganized and updated the roles and responsibilities of athletic trainers according to the latest role delineation study.

Added new discussion for referring injured individuals to the appropriate health care professionals.

Reemphasized the role of the orthopedic physician in caring for the injured athlete.

Significantly updated the recommended references and the annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 2 • • • • • •

Updated information on hiring certified athletic trainers in secondary schools.

Added new discussion of the NATA consensus statement that discusses appropriate medical care for secondary school athletes.

Added new information on the 2013 Youth Sports Safety Alliance’s Secondary School Athletes’ Bill of Rights Added new information on the Pubertal Development Scale used to determine pubertal growth and development.

Added new drawing of an ideal athletic health care facility.

Significantly updated the recommended references and the annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 3 • • •

Added new information on the Affordable Care Act. Added a new Focus Box discussing key features and benefits of the Affordable Care Act. Updated the recommended references to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 4 •

Updated information on and recommendations for the warm-up.

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• •

• • • •

Calisthenic exercises are now referred to more correctly, as bodyweight exercises.

Added new photos that better illustrate the various exercises that may be done in a training and conditioning program to help prevent injuries.

Completely revised and updated information on calculating a target heart rate for improving cardiorespiratory endurance.

Added the new American College of Sports Medicine recommendation on training intensities.

Changed the term interval training to the more appropriately used term high-intensity interval training.

Significantly updated the recommended references and the annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 5 • • • • •

Added a discussion on how the body’s metabolism utilizes the various foodstuffs to produce energy.

Added new suggestions on foods that can provide energy during activity.

The Athletic Injury Management Checklist focuses on a nutritious diet for the athlete.

Added new information on binge eating as a newly recognized eating disorder.

Significantly updated the recommended references and the websites to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 6 • • •

• •

Replaced most of the photographs to show examples of the newest available equipment.

Updated the new NOCSAE warning label that must be placed on all football helmets.

Added an update on the latest in helmet technology that attempts to minimize the impact forces transmitted to the athlete’s head.

Added a discussion on the newest facemask fasteners.

Significantly updated the recommended references to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 7 • • • • •

Replaced the heat index chart with a new chart that is much easier to read.

Updated information on psychrometers used to monitor the heat index.

Updated information on using sunscreens.

Replaced photo of a lightning detector with the newest digital lightning detector.

Significantly updated the recommended references to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 8 • • • • • • • •

•

Added a new definition of an emergency.

Added a new Focus Box that provides a sample emergency action plan.

Reordered the life-threatening injuries in the emergency procedures flowchart.

Made slight adjustments in the CPR Summary table to clarify the procedures.

Replaced photos of football facemask fasteners.

Added a photo showing correct hand and finger placement for taking blood pressure.

Added a new photo and brief discussion of the head-squeeze technique for immobilizing the cervical spine.

Added the most current recommendations from an inter-association task force to consider removing the helmet and shoulder pads by trained personnel prior to transporting an athlete with a suspected cervical spine injury.

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 9 • • •

Replaced photos showing lacerations and incision skin wounds.

Clarified recommendations for cleaning wounds and using an occlusive dressing.

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 10 •

Added a discussion of kinesio taping and its efficacy as a treatment technique.

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Chapter 11 •

Added a discussion that clarifies the purpose of this chapter and gives a caution about who is legally able to suggest or supervise a program of rehabilitation for an injured athlete.

Chapter 13 •

Significantly updated the recommended references to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 14 • •

Added a definition of a tailor’s bunion or bunionette.

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 15 • • •

Added an updated photo of a new ankle brace.

Clarified the difference between Achilles tendinitis and Achilles tendinosis.

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 16 • • • • • •

Added an in-depth discussion of shoe type and its impact on preventing knee injuries on different playing surfaces.

Added a new discussion of anterior and posterior drawer tests and a new photo that demonstrates those tests.

Added new information that clarifies the mechanisms of injury for both noncontact and contact ACL injuries.

Added a new photo that more accurately shows the combination of forces that collectively cause ACL injury.

Redefined patellofemoral pain syndrome.

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 17 •

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Added in a new photo that will help explain piriformis syndrome.

• •

Clarified the information on the mechanism of injury for a hip pointer.

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 18 • • •

Updated photos showing acromioclavicular joint sprains with labels to clarify the different grades of injury.

Added a new drawing of biceps tenosynovitis that shows the location of the tendon and the most common area of inflammation.

Significantly updated the recommended references and websites to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 19 • • • • •

Added a new discussion of and new photos for lateral and medial epicondylitis tests.

Briefly mentioned dinner fork deformity to refer to a Colles’ fracture.

Added a new x-ray photo to clearly show an example of a forearm fracture of both the radius and the ulna.

Added a new drawing that shows the causes of carpal tunnel syndrome in the wrist.

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 20 • • •

Added a new x-ray photo that more clearly depicts a spondylolisthesis.

Deleted reference to sleeping on a waterbed.

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 21 • • •

Added a discussion of referred pain that often results from palpation of abdominal organs.

Identified noncardiac causes of sudden death syndrome in athletes.

Clarified the distinction between a sports hernia, which should be more correctly identified as athletic pubalgia, and an inguinal or femoral hernia.

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•

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Chapter 24 •

Chapter 22 • • • •

•

• •

•

Updated image of the brain with labels more clearly showing the different regions of the brain.

Added a section that clarifies the relationship between the terms mild traumatic brain injury and concussion.

Added a new discussion of the most recent definition of concussion and associated symptoms and signs.

Updated and added new information about evaluating concussions that currently uses the SCAT 3 as the most accepted evaluation tool.

Added new guidelines for caring for concussions including the new state laws that specify how concussions must be managed and return-to-play decisions.

Added a new table, the Graded Symptoms Checklist, that identifies the possible symptoms associated with concussion.

Added a new Focus Box that details the procedures that should be followed on the sidelines for a player with a suspected concussion.

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

• •

Chapter 25 • •

• • • • •

Chapter 23 • • • • • •

Added updated recommendations for managing herpes simplex.

Added new photos showing how to correctly use a metered-dose inhaler.

Replaced photos for several dermatologic conditions to better show exactly what these conditions look like.

Updated treatment information for tinea pedis (athlete’s foot).

Added a discussion of contraceptive devices that are alternatives to birthcontrol pills.

Significantly updated the recommended references and annotated bibliography to make them as current as possible.

Based on reviewer consensus, expanded the discussion on abuse of recreational drugs including alcohol, abused illegal drugs, and abused prescription drugs.

Updated the Focus Box on drugs banned by the NCAA and the USADA. Significantly updated the recommended references, annotated bibliography, and websites to make them as current as possible.

Updated Youth Sports Safety Alliance statistics on injuries in youth sports.

Updated recommendations for youth strength-training programs from the American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness.

Added information on the USOC Coaching Education Department that supports the national governing bodies of 40 sports.

Updated the table on sports injury prevention tips from the American Academy of Pediatrics.

Updated the Sports Parents Safety Checklist from Safe Kids Worldwide.

Added a new table on the National Action Plan for Sports Safety from the Youth Sport’s Safety Alliance.

Significantly updated the recommended references, annotated bibliography, and websites to make them as current as possible.

Appendix A •

Updated the information on employment of certified athletic trainers in secondary schools.

PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES • •

Chapter objectives. Objectives are presented at the beginning of each chapter, to reinforce learning goals.

Focus Boxes. Important information is highlighted to provide additional content that supplements the main text.

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•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

• • •

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Margin information. Key concepts, selected definitions and pronunciation guides, helpful training tips, and illustrations are placed in margins throughout the text for added emphasis and ease of reading and studying.

Illustrations and photographs. Every illustration and photograph throughout the book is in full color, with over 40 new photographs that will help to enhance the visual learning experience for the student.

Critical thinking exercises. Included in every chapter, these brief case studies correspond with the accompanying text and help students apply the content just learned.

Solutions for each exercise are located at the end of the chapters.

Athletic Injury Management Checklists.

These checklists help organize the details of a specific procedure when managing athletic health care.

Chapter summaries. Chapter content is summarized and bulleted to reinforce key concepts and aid in test preparation.

Review questions and class activities. A list of questions and suggested class activities follows each chapter for review and application of the concepts learned.

Recommended references. All chapters have a bibliography of pertinent references that includes the most complete and up-to-date resources available.

Annotated bibliography. To further aid in learning, relevant and timely articles, books, and topics from the current literature have been annotated to provide additional resources.

Websites. A list of useful websites is included to direct the student to additional relevant information that can be found on the Internet.

Glossary. A comprehensive list of key terms with their definitions is presented at the end of the text.

Appendixes. For those students interested in learning more about athletic training, Appendixes A and B provide information about employment settings for the athletic trainer and the requirements for certification as an athletic trainer. Appendix C shows the directional anatomic motions of the joints discussed in this text.

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MATERIALS Computerized Test Bank

McGraw-Hill’s Computerized Testing is the most flexible and easy-to-use electronic testing program available in higher education. The program allows instructors to create tests from book-specific test banks. It accommodates a wide range of question types, and instructors may add their own questions.

Multiple versions of the test can be created. It is located in the Online Learning Center.

PowerPoint Presentation A comprehensive PowerPoint presentation accompanies this text, for use in classroom discussion. The PowerPoint presentation may also be converted to outlines and given to students as a handout. You can easily download the PowerPoint presentation from the McGraw-Hill website at www.mhhe.com /prentice10e. Adopters of the text can obtain the login and password to access this presentation by contacting their local McGraw-Hill sales representative.

INTERNET RESOURCES Online Learning Center

www.mhhe.com/prentice10e This website offers resources to students and instructors. It includes downloadable ancillaries, web links, student quizzes, additional information on topics of interest, and more. Resources for the instructor include: • • • •

Instructor’s Manual Test Bank Downloadable PowerPoint presentations Links to professional resources

Resources for the student include: • •

Review materials Interactive quizzes

MCGRAW-HILL CREATE™ Craft your teaching resources to match the way you teach! With McGrawHill Create, you can easily rearrange chapters, combine material from other content sources, and

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quickly upload content you have written such as your course syllabus or teaching notes. Find the content you need in Create by searching thousands of leading McGraw-Hill textbooks. Arrange your book to fit your teaching style. Create even allows you to personalize your book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course information. Order a Create book and you’ll receive a complimentary print review copy in 3 to 5 business days or a complimentary electronic review copy (eComp) via e-mail in minutes. Go to www.mcgrawhillcreate.com today, and register to experience how McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to teach your students your way.

As always he has provided invaluable guidance in the preparation of the tenth edition of Essentials of Athletic Injury Management and I cannot thank him enough for everything he does for me.

I would also like to thank the following individuals who served as reviewers for their input into the revision of this text:

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Finally, I would like to thank my family, Tena, Brian, and Zach, for always being an important part of everything I do.

Special thanks are extended to Gary O’Brien, my Development Editor and most importantly my “wing-man” on this and several additional projects.

Johannah Elliott Arizona Western College–Yuma Matthew Hamilton D’Youville College Carie Mueller San Jacinto College–South

William E. Prentice

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Applications at a Glance List of professional sports medicine organizations 4 Clarifying roles 8 Athletic injury management checklist 13 Looking to hire a certified athletic trainer? 18 Secondary School Student Athletes’ Bill of Rights 18 Rules and policies of the athletic health care facility 19 Suggestions for maintaining a sanitary environment 19 Cleaning responsibilities 20 Recommended health practices checklist 20 Orthopedic Screening Examination 24 Recommended basic health care facility supplies 27 Recommended basic field kit supplies 28 Athletic injury management checklist 30 Athletic injury management checklist 34 Key Features and Benefits of the Affordable Care Act 36 Athletic injury management checklist 39 Periodization training 45 Principles of conditioning 46 Guidelines and precautions for stretching 50 Techniques for improving muscular strength 60 Progressive resistance exercise terminology 62 Comparison of aerobic versus anaerobic activities 75 Rating of perceived exertion 79 Athletic injury management checklist 80 Vitamins 86 Major minerals 88 Most widely used herbs and purposes for use 93 Tips for selecting fast foods 97 Guidelines for weight loss 99 Recognizing the individual with disordered eating 100 Athletic injury management checklist 101 Equipment regulatory agencies 106 Guidelines for purchasing and reconditioning helmets 107 Proper football helmet fit 109 Rules for fitting football shoulder pads 115 Shoe comparisons 119 Athletic injury management checklist 124 WBGT index and recommendations for fluid replacement and work/rest periods 129

Summary and comparison of heat disorders, treatment and prevention 130 Recommendations for fluid replacement 133 Recommendations for preventing heat illness 133 Athletic injury management checklist 137 Sample emergency action plan 144 Consent form for medical treatment of a minor 145 CPR summary 147 Vital signs 151 Initial management of acute injuries 153 Athletic injury management checklist 159 Transmission of hepatitis B and C viruses and human immunodeficiency virus 164 HIV risk reduction 165 Bloodborne pathogen risk categories for sports 165 Glove removal and use 167 Suggested practices in wound care 170 Care of skin wounds 171 Athletic injury management checklist 171 Taping supplies 180 Athletic injury management checklist 188 Return to running following lower-extremity injury functional progression 196 What are therapeutic modalities used for? 197 Using ice versus heat? 198 Full return to activity 198 Athletic injury management checklist 199 Progressive reactions of injured athletes based on severity of injury and length of rehabilitation 202 Nine factors to incorporate into goal setting for the athlete 204 Things a coach or fitness professional can do to provide social support for an injured athlete 205 Athletic injury management checklist 208 Muscles of the foot 228 Caring for a torn blister 237 Managing the ingrown toenail 238 Muscles of the ankle joint 243 Technique for controlling swelling immediately following injury 249 Muscles of the knee joint 260 Muscles of the thigh, hip, and groin 280 Muscles of the shoulder complex 295 Muscles of the elbow 307 Muscles of the forearm 313

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Muscles of the wrist, hand, and fingers 318 Muscles of the spine 329 Recommended postures and practices for preventing low back pain 330 Muscles of the abdomen and thorax 342 When an athlete shows any signs of a concussion 358 The Graded Symptoms Checklist 359 Common viral, bacterial, and fungal skin infections found in athletes 375 Preventing the spread of MRSA 377 Basic care of athlete’s foot 378 Symptoms and management of the acute asthmatic attack 381 Using a metered-dose inhaler 382 Classifying blood pressure 386 Some infectious viral diseases 387 Identifying a woman at risk for female athletic triad 389

Sexually transmitted diseases 391 Identifying an individual who may be using performance-enhancing drugs 396 Examples of caffeine-containing products 396 Examples of deleterious effects of anabolic steroids 397 Banned drugs—common ground 400 Estimated number of young people ages 5–17 enrolled in specific categories of youth sports 404 Tanner stages of maturity 406 Guidelines for Youth Strength Training 407 Sports Safety Tips 411 Sports parents safety checklist 412 National Action Plan for Sports Safety 412 Athletic injury management checklist 413 Board of certification requirements for certification as an athletic trainer 420

Applications at a Glance

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PART I Organizing and Establishing an Effective Athletic Health Care System 1

Fitness Professionals, Coaches, and the Sports Medicine Team: Defining Roles

2

Organizing and Administering an Athletic Health Care Program

3

Legal Liability and Insurance

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1 Fitness Professionals, Coaches, and the Sports Medicine Team: Defining Roles ■ Objectives When you finish this chapter you will be able to: • Define the umbrella term sports medicine.

• Identify various sports medicine organizations.

• Contrast athletic health care in organized versus recreational sports activities.

• Discuss how fitness professionals, including personal fitness trainers and strength and conditioning coaches, relate to the sports medicine team.

• Describe the role of an individual supervising a recreational program in athletic injury management.

• Analyze the role of the athletic administrator in the athletic health care system.

M

illions of individuals in our American society participate on a regular basis in both organized and recreational sports or physical activities. There is great demand for well-educated, professionally trained personnel to supervise and oversee these activities. Among those professionals are coaches, fitness professionals such as strength and conditioning specialists and personal fitness trainers, recreation specialists, athletic administrators, and others interested in some aspect of exercise and sports science.

Ironically, participation in any type of physical activity places the “athlete” in situations in which injury An athlete is an individual who is likely to engages in and is proficient in occur. Athletes sports and/or physical exercise. who engage in

• Describe the role of the coach in injury prevention, emergency care, and injury management.

• Identify the responsibilities of the athletic trainer in dealing with the injured athlete.

• Describe the role of the team physician and his or her interaction with the athletic trainer.

• Explain how the sports medicine team should interact with the athlete.

• Identify other members of the sports medicine team and describe their roles.

organized sports and/or recreational activities have every right to expect that their health and safety will be a high priority for those who supervise or organize those activities. Thus it is essential to have some knowledge about how injuries can best be prevented or at least minimized. Should injury occur, it is critical to be able to recognize that a problem exists, to learn how to correctly provide first-aid care, and to then refer the athlete to the appropriate medical or health care personnel for optimal treatment.

However, it must be emphasized that these welltrained professionals are NOT health care professionals. In fact, attempting to provide health care to an injured or ill athlete is in most states illegal and likely violates the practice acts of several different professional health care provider groups licensed by the state to give medical care to an injured athlete.

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Sp

M e dic s t r o Performance Enhancement

Exercise Physiology Biomechanics Sport Psychology Sports Nutrition Strength & Conditioning Personal Fitness Training Coaching Physical Education

WHAT IS SPORTS MEDICINE? The term sports medicine refers generically to a broad field of health care related to physical activity and sport. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) has used the term sports medicine to describe a multidisciplinary approach to health management or achievement of full potential, including the physiological, biomechanical, psychological, and pathological phenomena associated with exercise and sports. The clinical application of the work of these disciplines is performed to improve and maintain an individual’s functional capacities for physical labor, exercise, and sports. It also includes the prevention and treatment of diseases and injuries related to exercise and sports. The field of sports medicine encompasses under its umbrella a number of more specialized aspects of dealing with the physically active or athletic populations that may be classified as relating either to performance enhancement or to injury care and management (Figure 1–1).

Those areas of specialization that are primarily concerned with performance enhancement include exercise physiology, biomechanics, sport psychology, sports nutrition, strength and conditioning, personal fitness training, coaching, and physical education.

Areas of specialization that focus more on health care and injury/illness management specific to the athlete are the practice of medicine (physicians and physician assistants), athletic training, sports physical therapy, massage therapy, dentistry, osteopathic medicine, orthotists/prosthetists, sports chiropractic, sports podiatry, and emergency medical specialists.

Certainly, some of the specializations listed under this umbrella could be concerned with both performance enhancement and injury care and management (for example, sports nutrition).

Sports Medicine Organizations A number of professional organizations are dedicated to the field of sports medicine and dictate the

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The intent throughout this text is to provide students who intend to become coaches, fitness professionals, recreation specialists, athletic administrators, physical education teachers, exercise physiologists, biomechanists, sport psychologists, or sports nutritionists with an introduction or exposure to a variety of topics that relate to athletic injury management. This chapter introduces the members of the sports medicine team with whom these professionals are likely to interact throughout their careers. Specific roles and responsibilities of each member of the sports medicine team in managing the health care of the athlete are discussed in detail.

Injury Care & Management

Practice of Medicine (Physicians, Physician’s Assistants) Athletic Training Sports Physical Therapy Sports Massage Therapy Sports Dentistry Osteopathic Medicine Orthotists/Prosthetists Sports Chiropractic Sports Podiatry Emergency Medical Specialists

FIGURE 1–1 Areas of specialization under the sports medicine “umbrella.”

roles that members of their organizations play in providing health care to an injured patient. Professional organizations have many Many professional organizations goals: (1) to upare dedicated to achieving grade the field health and safety in sports. by devising and maintaining a set of professional standards, including a code of ethics; (2) to bring together professionally competent individuals to exchange ideas, stimulate research, and promote critical thinking; and (3) to give individuals an opportunity to work as a group with a singleness of purpose, thereby making it possible for them to achieve objectives that, separately, they could not accomplish. Addresses and websites for these organizations are listed in Focus Box 1–1.

Many of the national organizations interested in athletic health and safety have state and local associations that are extensions of the larger bodies.

National, state, and local sports organizations have all provided extensive support to the reduction of illness and injury risk to the athlete.

ATHLETIC HEALTH CARE IN ORGANIZED VERSUS RECREATIONAL SPORTS ACTIVITIES The system or methods by which athletic health care is delivered by members of the sports medicine team largely depend on whether the activity is organized or recreational. An organized activity

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FOCUS BOX 1–1 List of professional sports medicine organizations • American Academy of Pediatrics, Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness, 141 Northwest Point BoulevardElk Grove Village, IL 600071098 www.aap.org • American Board of Physical Therapy Specialists, American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314 www .abpts.org/Certification/Sports/ • American College of Sports Medicine, 401 W. Michigan St., Indianapolis, IN 46202-3233 www.acsm.org • American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine, Suite 202, 70 West Hubbard, Chicago, IL 60610 www.sportsmed.org • National Athletic Trainers’ Association, 1620 Valwood Parkway, Suite 115, Carrollton TX 75006 www.nata.org

• National Collegiate Athletic Association, Competitive Safeguards and Medical Aspects of Sports Committee, 700 W. Washington St., P.O. Box 622, Indianapolis, IN 46206-6222 www .ncaa.org • National Federation of State High School Athletic Associations, 11724 Plaza Circle, P.O. Box 20626, Kansas City, MO 64195 www .nfhs.org • National Strength and Conditioning Association, P.O. Box 38909, Colorado Springs, CO 809378909 www.nsca-lift.org • American Osteopathic Academy of Sports Medicine, 7600 Terrace Ave., Middleton, WI 53562 www.aoasm.org

refers to a situation that is generally competitive in which there is some type of team or league involvement, as would be the case with secondary school, collegiate, and professional athletic teams. With organized sports activities, the primary players on the sports medicine team are employed on either a fulltime or part-time basis by a school or organization and include the coach, the athletic trainer, and a physician who is designated as a “team” physician.

At the collegiate and professional levels, a strength and conditioning coach, a sports nutritionist, a sports massage therapist, and a sport psychologist are also usually involved. In organized sports activities, the athletic health care system is generally well organized and comprehensive, and in many instances the sports medicine coverage would be considered highly sophisticated.

Certainly a recreational sports activity can be competitive. However, a recreational activity is one that is done more for leisure and free time enjoyment and involves a much less formal structure, with many of the organizers being primarily volunteers. These include city- or community-based recreational leagues and teams. Many individuals choose to engage in fitness-oriented exercise activities such as running or weight training as a recreational activity. These “recreational athletes” may decide to hire personal fitness trainers to help them with their fitness programs. Should injury occur, they are likely to consult their family physician, an athletic trainer, a sports chiropractor, or a sports physical therapist. Athletic health care for

recreational athletes is generally provided on a feefor-care basis.

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THE PLAYERS ON THE SPORTS MEDICINE TEAM Providing health care to the athlete requires a group effort to be most effective.38 The sports medicine team involves a number of individuals, each of whom must perform specific functions relative to caring for the injured athlete.5,12

How Does the Fitness Professional Relate to the Sports Medicine Team?

Earlier in this chapter, the term fitness professional was used to refer collectively to strength and conditioning coaches, personal fitness trainers, and others interested in exercise and sport sciences. In this group we may also include physical education teachers, exercise physiologists, biomechanists, sport psychologists, and sports nutritionists. If we consider the “sports medicine umbrella” model, the focus of this group is on improving performance.

Certainly an argument can be made that if athletes achieve a high level of fitness through training and conditioning, they are not only more likely to perform athletically at a higher level but they are also less likely to sustain some type of activity-related injury. Therefore, there is a relationship between those areas that specialize in performance enhancement and those that focus on health care in that both groups are concerned with injury prevention.

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Strength and Conditioning Coaches The responsibility for making certain that an athlete is fit for competition depends on the personnel available to oversee this aspect of an athletic program. At the professional level and at most colleges and universities, a full-time strength and conditioning coach is employed to conduct both team and individual training sessions. Many, but not all, strength coaches are certified by the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA).24 This association has more than 30,000 members. It is the responsibility of the strength and conditioning coach to communicate freely and work in close cooperation with both the athletic trainers and the team coaches to ensure that the athletes achieve an optimal level of fitness.9 All strength and conditioning coaches should be certified in CPR/AED (cardiopulmonary resuscitation/automated external defibrillator) by the American Red Cross, the American Heart Association, or the National Safety Council. They should also be certified in first aid by the American Red Cross or the National Safety Council.

If an athlete is injured and is undergoing a rehabilitation program, it should be the strength and conditioning coach’s responsibility to communicate with the athletic trainer as to how the conditioning program should be limited and/or modified.22 The athletic trainer must respect the role of the strength and conditioning coach in getting the athlete fit. However, the responsibility for rehabilitating an injured athlete clearly belongs to the athletic trainer. The athletic trainer should be allowed to critically review the training and conditioning program designed by the strength and conditioning coach and to be very familiar with what is expected of the athletes on a daily basis. The athletic trainer should dictate what an injured athlete can or cannot do when engaging in a strength and conditioning program.41 In the majority of high school settings, a strength and conditioning coach is not available.

In this situation either the athletic trainer or team coach often assumes the role of a strength and conditioning coach in addition to his or her athletic training or coaching responsibilities. The athletic trainer or coach frequently finds it necessary not only to design training and conditioning programs but also to oversee the weight room and to educate young, inexperienced athletes about getting themselves fit to compete. The athletic trainer must cooperate with team coaches in supervising the training and conditioning program.

Personal Fitness Trainers A personal fitness trainer is responsible for designing comprehensive exercise

or fitness proFitness professionals include: grams for an • strength and conditioning coaches individual cli• personal fitness trainers ent based on • coaches that person’s • others associated with exercise and health history, sport sciences capabilities, and objectives for fitness.18 Once thought of as a service for the rich and famous, people from all income levels are using personal fitness trainers to increase their fitness levels and to get advice about living a healthy lifestyle.13 There are around 300,000 personal trainers in North America, who offer their services to a variety of people and businesses. Although associations and certification agencies can count the number of personal fitness trainers in their organization, many personal fitness trainers have one or more certifications and belong to more than one professional organization, making it almost impossible to accurately assess the number of certified personal fitness trainers in the United States.

Unfortunately, no single standard qualification is required before a person can practice as a personal fitness trainer.7 Washington D.C. is the only jurisdiction in the United States where personal fitness trainers must be registered. About 400 organizations in the United States offer certification to personal fitness trainers. Of that number, only a few are considered legitimate by most professionals. Among the most respected are the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), the National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM), the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), and the American Council on Exercise (ACE).21 These organizations have specific requirements based on tested and practical knowledge, mandatory retesting at renewal periods, and continuing education.

A recent trend by some of these organizations is to require that their certified personal fitness trainers have a formal educational degree in exercise science or a related field.23 However, the requirements for other organizations are not so strict.

Some award certification after a person takes a correspondence course over the Internet or attends as little as a weekend or single-day training session. Individuals who hire personal fitness trainers should check qualifications and certifications. All personal fitness trainers should be certified in CPR/AED by the American Red Cross, the American Heart Association, or the National Safety Council. They should also be certified in first aid by the American Red Cross or the National Safety Council.

Personal fitness training is without question the strongest growth segment of the fitness industry, and

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this trend is expected to continue as personal fitness trainers are beginning to offer a variety of services that go beyond a general exercise program.18 Personal fitness trainers are increasingly providing services in postrehabilitation training, sports conditioning, special medical needs, and weight management to a variety of specific client populations including prenatal women, adolescents, and older persons.

How Does a Recreation Specialist Relate to the Sports Medicine Team?

Recreation specialists organize, plan, and oversee leisure activities and athletic programs in local recreation, camp, and park areas; playgrounds; health clubs and fitness centers; the workplace; and theme parks and tourist attractions. An essential responsibility for any individual overseeing a recreational program is to ensure that the recreational environment is as safe as possible to minimize the risk of injury. Should injury occur to a participant, the recreation specialist should be able to provide immediate and correct first aid and then refer the injured person to appropriate medical personnel. All recreation specialists should be certified in CPR/ AED by the American Red Cross, the American Heart Association, or the National Safety Council. They should also be certified in first aid by the American Red Cross or the National Safety Council.

Recreation and parks directors serve as advisors to local and state recreation and park commissions and manage comprehensive recreation programs in a variety of settings. They are responsible for developing budgets for recreation programs. Recreation supervisors serve as liaisons between the director of the park or recreation center and the recreation leaders. They plan, organize, and manage recreational activities to meet the needs of a variety of populations and oversee recreation leaders. Recreation supervisors with more specialized training may also direct special activities or events or oversee a major activity such as aquatics, gymnastics, or performing arts. Recreation leaders are primarily responsible for the daily operation of a recreation program. They organize and direct participants; schedule use of facilities; lead and give instruction in dance, drama, crafts, games, and sports; maintain equipment; and ensure appropriate use of recreation facilities. Activity specialists provide instruction and coach groups in specialties such as swimming or tennis. Camp counselors lead and instruct campers in outdoor-oriented forms of recreation, such as swimming, hiking, horseback riding, and camping.

A recreational therapist may be considered a health care provider. Recreational therapists work in acute health care settings, such as hospitals and

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rehabilitation centers, or in long-term and residential care facilities. Their job is to treat and rehabilitate individuals with specific health conditions, usually in conjunction or collaboration with physicians, nurses, psychologists, social workers, and physical and occupational therapists. Recreational therapists use leisure activities—especially structured group programs—to improve and maintain their clients’ general health and well-being. They also provide interventions that help prevent the client from suffering further medical problems and complications related to illnesses and disabilities.

The Role of the Athletic Administrator in the Sports Medicine Team Without question, an athletic administrator, overseeing both collegiate and secondary school athletic programs, has a significant role with the sports medicine team. The athletic administrator should have input in hiring personnel who will make up the sports medicine team, including the coaches, the strength and conditioning coach, the athletic trainer, the team physician, a sports nutritionist, and a sport psychologist.

It is essential for the athletic administrator to make certain that each individual hired has the appropriate credentials and that he or she is willing and able to work in close cooperation with the other members of the sports medicine team. The athletic administrator should make certain that policies and procedures, a risk management plan, and emergency action plans are developed for the athletic health care system.

The administrator is also responsible for establishing a budget for funding all aspects of an athletic health care program, including salaries, supplies, and equipment, and purchasing necessary insurance (see Chapter 2). The consistent support and commitment to an athletic health care program on the part of an athletic administrator can have a tremendous impact on the success of the athletic program.

The Role of a Coach in the Sports Medicine Team It is critical for the coach to understand the specific roles and responsibilities of each individual who could potentially be involved in the sports medicine team. This becomes even more critical if there is no athletic trainer to oversee the health care and the coach is forced to assume this responsibility. It must be stressed that individual states differ significantly in the laws that govern what nonmedical personnel can and cannot do when providing health care. Coaches have the responsibility to clearly understand the limits of their ability to function as a health care provider in the state where they are employed.

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The coach is directly responsible for preventing injuries by seeing that athletes have undergone a preventive injury conditioning program. The coach must ensure that sports equipment, especially protective equipment, is of the highest quality and is properly fitted. The coach must also make sure that protective equipment is properly maintained.38 A coach must be keenly aware of what produces injuries in his or her particular sport and what measures must be taken to avoid them (Figure 1–2).

A coach should be able, when called on to do so, to apply proper first aid. This knowledge is especially important in serious head and spinal injuries. All coaches (both head and assistant) should be certified in CPR/AED by the American Red Cross, the American Heart Association, or the National Safety Council.

Coaches should also be certified in first aid by the American Red Cross or the National Safety Council. 30 For the coach, obtaining these certifications is important in being able to provide correct and appropriate first aid and emergency care for the injured athlete. But it is also true that not having these certifications can potentially have some negative legal implications for the coach and his or her employer.

It is essential that a coach thoroughly understand the skill techniques and environmental factors that may adversely affect the athlete. Poor biomechanics in skill areas such as throwing and running can lead to overuse injuries of the arms and legs, whereas overexposure to heat and humidity may cause death. Just because a coach is All head and assistant coaches should be certified in CPR/AED and first aid.

FIGURE 1–2 The coach is directly responsible for preventing injuries in his or her sport.

experienced in coaching does not mean that he or she knows proper skill techniques. Coaches must engage in a continual process of education to further their knowledge in their particular sport through organizations such as the American Sport Education Program (ASEP) or the National Council for Accreditation of Coaching Education (NCACE).

When a sports program or specific sport is without an athletic trainer, the coach very often takes over this role.

Coaches work closely with athletic trainers; therefore both must develop an awareness and an insight into each other’s roles and responsibilities so that they can function effectively. The athletic trainer must earn the respect of the coaches so that his or her judgment in all medical matters is fully accepted.14 In turn, the athletic trainer must avoid questioning the abilities of the coaches in their particular fields and must restrict opinions to athletic training matters. To avoid frustration and hard feelings, the coach must coach, and the athletic trainer must conduct athletic training matters. In terms of the health and well- being of the athlete, the physician and the athletic trainer have the last word. The decisions made by the athletic trainer on matters related to health care should always be supported by the athletic administrators.

The Roles and Responsibilities of the Athletic Trainer It is essential for a coach or other fitness professional who is working with an athletic trainer to gain an appreciation of the roles and responsibilities that an athletic trainer assumes in caring for the athletes (Figure 1–3).6 If the coach does not have an athletic trainer, many of those responsibilities may fall on the coach.

FIGURE 1–3 Coaches should work closely with athletic trainers and physicians to provide health care for the injured athlete.

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FOCUS BOX 1–2 Clarifying roles The terms training and athletic training are often confused.

Historically, training implies the act of coaching or teaching. In comparison, athletic training has traditionally been known as a field within the allied health care professions that is concerned with prevention, management, evaluation, and rehabilitation of injuries related to physical activity.42 Recently, there has been confusion in the general public among the terms trainers, certified athletic trainers, personal fitness trainers, and strength and conditioning coaches. A trainer refers to someone who trains dogs or horses. A certified athletic trainer (certified by the Board of Certification) is a highly educated allied health care professional who is a credentialed specialist in athletic training.

These individuals hold the credential ATC. Certified athletic trainers play a major role in the health care of physically active individuals in general and the athlete in particular.20,33 Personal fitness trainers may also have some level of certification from any one of at least 400 existing certifying organizations. They are primarily concerned with developing fitness and wellness and improving levels of physical conditioning in a healthy population. Strength and conditioning coaches (certified by the National Strength and Conditioning Association) work primarily with athletes at the professional or collegiate levels to enhance their levels of physical conditioning and optimize performance.

Of all the professionals charged with injury prevention and health care provision for the athlete, perhaps none Employment settings for is more inathletic trainers: timately involved with the • Schools • School systems athlete than • Colleges and universities the athletic • Professional teams trainer.38 The • Clinics/hospitals athletic trainer • Corporations is the one in• NASCAR, NASA, military, etc. dividual who • Performing arts deals with the athlete from the time of the initial injury, throughout the period of rehabilitation, until the athlete’s complete, unrestricted return to practice or competition.38 The athletic trainer is most directly responsible for all phases of health care in an athletic environment, including preventing injuries from occurring, providing initial first aid and injury management, evaluating and diagnosing injuries, and designing and supervising a timely and effective program of rehabilitation that can facilitate the safe and expeditious return of the athlete to activity.31,32,40 Athletic trainers are employed by schools and school systems, colleges and universities, professional athletic teams, sports medicine clinics, corporations in industry, and less “traditional” organizations such as the performing arts, NASCAR, NASA, the military, medical equipment sales/support, and the like19,29,44 (see Appendix A).

The athletic trainer must be knowledgeable and competent in a variety of sports medicine specialties if he or she is to be effective in preventing and treating injuries to the athlete.15,31 The Board of Certification has established specific requirements that must be met for

an individual to become certified as an athletic trainer.31 These requirements include a combination of both academic coursework and clinical experience in athletic training settings (see Appendix B).3 Once these requirements for certification have been met and the individual passes a certification exam, that person earns the credential ATC. (In this text all references to athletic trainers imply that this individual has met the requirements for certiATC Credential of an fication set forth by the individual who is certified Board of Certification.) as an athletic trainer.

Focus Box 1–2 further clarifies the differences between an athletic trainer and a personal fitness trainer. The specific roles and responsibilities of the athletic trainer will differ and, to a certain extent, will be defined by the situation in which he or she works.17,32 Different states have different requirements as to who can call themselves an athletic trainer. It should be reemphasized that athletic trainers working with athletes should be certified athletic trainers (ATC).

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Injury/Illness Prevention and Wellness Protection A major responsibility of the athletic trainer is to educate the athletes and manage risks by making the competitive environment as safe as possible to reduce the likelihood of injury. The Roles and Responsibilities of the athletic trainer Athletic Trainer is responsible • Injury/illness prevention and for organizing/ wellness protection arranging phy• Clinical evaluation and diagnosis sical exami• Immediate and emergency care nations and • Treatment and rehabilitation preparticipa• Organizational and professional tion screenhealth and well-being ings to identify

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conditions that predispose an athlete to injury (see Chapter 2), and educating parents, coaches, and athletes about the risks inherent to sports participation.

Injury prevention includes (1) ensuring appropriate training and conditioning of the athlete (see Chapter 4); (2) monitoring environmental conditions to ensure safe participation (see Chapter 7); (3) selecting, properly fitting, and maintaining protective equipment (see Chapter 6); (4) explaining the importance of proper nutrition (see Chapter 5) and having a healthy lifestyle; and (5) using medications appropriately.

1–1 Critical Thinking Exercise

Clinical Evaluation and Diagnosis The athletic trainer must be skilled in recognizing the nature and extent of an injury through competency in injury evaluation. The athletic trainer must be able to efficiently and accurately evaluate an injury (see Chapter 8). The athletic trainer is responsible for referring the injured athlete to appropriate medical care or support services.

Immediate and Emergency Care Once the initial onthe-field assessment is done, the athletic trainer then must assume responsibility for administering appropriate first aid to the injured athlete and for making correct decisions in the management of acute injury (see Chapter 8).8,36 Thus the athletic trainer must possess sound skills not only in the initial recognition A basketball player and evaluation of posuffers a grade 2 ankle tentially serious or lifesprain during midseason threatening injuries but of the competitive also in emergency care. schedule. After a 3-week The athletic trainer course of rehabilitation, is required to be cermost of the athlete’s tified in CPR/AED pain and swelling has been eliminated. The and should be certiathlete is anxious to get fied in first aid by the back into practice and American Red Cross competitive games as or the National Safety soon as possible, and Council. subsequent injuries to other players have put pressure on the coach to force this player’s return.

Unfortunately, the athlete is still unable to perform functional tasks (cutting and jumping) essential in basketball.

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Who is responsible for making the decision regarding when the athlete can fully return to practice and game situations?

Treatment and Rehabilitation An athletic trainer must be proficient in designing and supervising rehabilitation and reconditioning protocols that make use of appropriate rehabilitative equipment, manual (hands on) therapy techniques, or therapeutic modalities (see Chapter 12). In certain settings the athletic

trainer may work closely with physical therapists and/ or strength and conditioning specialists in designing functional return to play activities.

Athletic trainers should also recognize patients that may exhibit abnormal social, emotional, and mental behaviors. They should also be able to recognize the role of mental health in injury and recovery, and use intervention strategies to maximize the connection between mental health and restoration of participation. If the athletic trainer recognizes that a problem exists, he or she should refer the patient to the appropriate medical personnel for intervention.28 Organizational and Professional Health and Well-Being The athletic trainer is responsible for the organization and administration of the athletic training program, including maintaining health and injury records for each athlete, developing emergency action plans, requisitioning and maintaining an inventory of necessary supplies and equipment, submitting insurance information to insurance companies, supervising assistants, athletic training students and establishing policies and procedures for day-to-day operation of the athletic training program (see Chapter 2).

The athletic trainer must educate the general public, in addition to a large segment of the various allied medical health care professions, as to exactly what athletic trainers are and what their roles and responsibilities are. This education is perhaps best accomplished by holding professional seminars, publishing research in scholarly journals, meeting with local and community organizations, and, most important, doing a good and professional job of providing health care to the injured athlete.34

Responsibilities of the Team Physician The team physician assumes a number of roles and responsibilities with regard to injury prevention and the health care of the athlete.1,2,4,27 Compiling Medical Histories The team physician should be responsible for compiling medical histories and conducting physical examinations for each athlete, Team physicians must both of which have absolute authority in can provide critdetermining the health status ical information of an athlete who wishes that may reduce to participate in the sports the possibility program.

37 of injury. Preparticipation screening by both the athletic trainer and physician is important in establishing baseline information

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supervises the athletic trainers.

to be used for comparison should injury occur during the season.

Diagnosing Injury The team physician should assume responsibility for diagnosing an injury and should be keenly aware of the program of rehabilitation as designed by the athletic trainer following the diagnosis39 (Figure 1–4). The physician is ultimately responsible for deciding when an injured athlete may return to full activity.26 Deciding on Disqualification The physician should determine when an athlete should be disqualified from competition on medical grounds and must have the final say in when an injured athlete may return to activity. The physician’s judgment must be based not only on medical knowledge but also on knowledge of the psychophysiological demands of a particular sport.15 Attending Practices and Games Under the most ideal circumstances, a team physician should make an effort to attend as many practices, scrimmages, and competitions as possible. This attendance obviously becomes very difficult at an institution with 20 or more athletic teams.16 It is essential that the team physician promote and maintain consistently high-quality care for the athlete in all phases of the sports medicine program.10,25 The team physician may work closely with the athletic trainer and must rely on their abilities as a health care provider.43

The Relationship Between the Sports Medicine Team and Athlete If a coach has an athletic trainer and/or a physician who work together in providing health care, the relationships that exist can significantly affect the success of that team or athletic program.35 The major concern of everyone on the sports medicine team should always be the athlete. If not for the

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1–2 Critical Thinking Exercise

FIGURE 1–4 In treating the athlete, the physician

athlete, the coach, athletic trainer, and team physician would have nothing to do in sports. All decisions made by the physician, coach, and athletic trainer ultimately affect the athlete. It should be clear that the physician working in cooperation with the athletic trainer assumes the responsibility of making the final decisions about medical care for the athlete from the time of injury until full return to activity.11 The coach must defer and should always support the decisions of the medical staff in any matter regarding health care for the athlete.

This is not to say, however, that the coach should not be involved with the decision-making process.

For example, during the time the athlete is rehabilitating an injury, there may be drills or technical instruction sessions that the athlete can participate in that will not exacerbate the existing problem.

Thus the coach, the athletic trainer, and What are some things the team physician that a coach working should be able to nein cooperation with an gotiate what the athathletic trainer can do lete can and cannot to help minimize the do safely in the course chances of injury? of a practice.

Athletes are frequently caught in the middle between coaches who tell them to do one thing and medical staff who tell them something else.

Close communication between the coach and athletic trainer is essential so that everyone is on the same page.

Any personal relationship takes some time to grow and develop. The relationship between the coach and the athletic trainer is no different. The athletic trainer must demonstrate to the coach his or her capability to correctly manage an injury and guide the course of a rehabilitation program. It will take some time for the coach to develop trust and confidence in the athletic trainer. The coach must understand that what the athletic trainer wants for the athlete is exactly the same as what the coach wants—to get an athlete healthy and back to practice as quickly and safely as possible.

The injured athlete must always be informed and made aware of the why, how, and when factors that collectively dictate the course of an injury rehabilitation program. Both the coach and the athletic trainer should make it a priority to educate student-athletes about injury prevention and management. Athletes should learn about

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techniques of training and conditioning that may reduce the likelihood of injury. They should be well informed about their injuries and about listening to what their bodies are telling them to prevent reinjury.

The Importance of the Family in the Sports Medicine Team In a high school or junior high school setting, the coach, the athletic trainer, and the physician must also take the time to explain to and inform the parents about injury management and prevention.3 With an athlete of secondary school age, the parents’ decisions regarding health care must be of primary consideration.

In certain situations, particularly at the high school and middle school levels, many parents will insist that their child be seen by their family physician rather than by the individual who may be designated as the team physician. It is also likely that the choice of a physician will be dictated by the parents’ insurance plan (e.g., health maintenance organization [HMO], preferred provider organization [PPO]). This creates a situation in which the athletic trainer must work and communicate with many different “team physicians.” The opinion of the family physician must be respected even if the individual has little or no experience with injuries related to sports.

The coach, athletic trainer, and team physician should make certain that the athlete and his or her family are familiar with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), which regulates how individuals who have health information about an athlete can share that information with others and not be in violation of the privacy rule. HIPAA was created to protect a patient’s privacy and limit the number of people who could gain access to the athlete’s medical records.

HIPAA regulations will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.

Other Members of the Sports Medicine Team In certain situations, an injured athlete may require treatment from or consultation with a variety of both medical and nonmedical services or personnel other than the athletic trainer or team physician. After the athletic trainer consults with the team physician about a particular matter, either the athletic trainer or the team physician can arrange for appointments and refer the athlete as necessary. When referring an athlete for evaluation or consultation, the athletic trainer must be aware of the community-based services available to that athlete.

A sports program may use a number of support health services. Those people may include a nurse; physicians in specialties such as orthopedics, dentistry, and podiatry; physician’s assistants; strength and conditioning coaches; nutritionists; sport psychologists; exercise physiologists; biomechanists; physical therapists; equipment personnel; and referees.

Nurse/Nurse Practitioner As a rule, the nurse is not usually responsible for the recognition of sports injuries. Education and background, however, render the nurse quite capable in the Support personnel concerned with athletes’ health and safety: recognition of skin disease, • Nurse infections, and • Physician • Dentist minor irrita• Podiatrist tions. The nurse • Sports chiropractor works under the • Orthotist/prosthetist direction of the • Physician’s assistant physician and in • Strength and conditioning coach liaison with the • Sport psychologist athletic trainer • Sports physical therapist and the school • Exercise physiologist health services. • Biomechanist A nurse practi- • Nutritionist tioner (NP) is a • Massage therapist • Emergency medical specialist registered nurse • Equipment personnel with advanced • Referee education and clinical training.

NPs diagnose and treat common acute and chronic problems, and prescribe and manage medications.

Physicians A number of physicians with a variety of specializations can aid the sports medicine team in treating the athlete.

Orthopedist The orthopedist is responsible for treating injuries and disorders of the musculoskeletal system. Many colleges and universities have a team orthopedist on their staff.

Dermatologist A dermatologist should be consulted for problems and lesions occurring on the skin.

Gynecologist A gynecologist is consulted in cases where health issues in the female athlete are of primary concern.

Family Medicine Physician A physician who specializes in family medicine is concerned with supervising or providing medical care to all members of a family. Many team physicians in colleges and universities and particularly at the high school level are engaged in family practice.

Internist An internist is a physician who specializes in the practice of internal medicine. An internist

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Neurologist A neurologist specializes in treating disorders of and injuries to the nervous system.

Consultation with a neurologist is warranted in certain common situations in athletics, such as cases of head injury or peripheral nerve injury.

Ophthalmologist Physicians who manage and treat injuries to the eye are ophthalmologists. An optometrist is an individual who evaluates and fits patients with glasses or contact lenses.

Osteopath An osteopath emphasizes the role of the musculoskeletal system in health and disease, using a holistic approach to the patient. An osteopath incorporates a variety of manual and physical treatment interventions in the prevention and treatment of disease.

Pediatrician A pediatrician is concerned with the practice of caring for or treating injuries and illnesses that occur in young physically active children and adolescents.

Psychiatrist Psychiatry is a medical practice that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illness.

Dentist The role of team dentist is somewhat analogous to that of team physician. He or she serves as a dental consultant for the team and should be available for first aid and emergency care. Good communication between the dentist and the coach or athletic trainer should ensure a good dental program. The team dentist has three areas of responsibility: 1. Organizing and performing the preseason dental examination 2. Being available to provide emergency care when needed 3. Fitting mouth protectors Podiatrist Podiatry, the specialized field dealing with the study and care of the foot, has become an integral part of sports health care. Many podiatrists are trained in surgical procedures, foot biomechanics, and the fitting and construction of orthotic devices for the shoe. Like the team dentist, a podiatrist should be available on a consulting basis.

Physician’s Assistants Physician’s assistants (PAs) are trained to assume some of the responsibilities for patient care traditionally done by the physician. They assist the physician by conducting preliminary patient evaluations, arranging for various

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hospital-based diagnostic tests, and dispensing appropriate medications. A number of athletic trainers have also become PAs in recent years.

Strength and Conditioning Coaches Most colleges and universities and some high schools employ fulltime strength coaches to advise athletes on training and conditioning programs. Athletic trainers should routinely consult with these individuals to advise them about injuries to a particular athlete and exercises that should be avoided or modified relative to a specific injury.

A new high school has hired a coach to establish and develop the football program. Unfortunately, the school does not have enough funds to also hire an athletic trainer. Thus the coach must assume the responsibility of creating a safe playing environment for the athletes.

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What considerations should the coach make to ensure that his athletes will be competing under the safest possible conditions?

1–3 Critical Thinking Exercise

treats diseases of the internal organs by using measures other than surgery.

Sport Psychologists The sport psychologist can advise the athlete on matters related to the psychological aspects of the rehabilitation process. The way the athlete feels about his or her injury and how it affects his or her social, emotional, intellectual, and physical dimensions can have a substantial effect on the course of a treatment program and how quickly the athlete may return to competition.

The sport psychologist uses different intervention strategies to help the athlete cope with injury.

Sports Physical Therapists Some athletic trainers use sports physical therapists to supervise the rehabilitation programs for injured athletes while the athletic trainer concentrates primarily on getting a player ready to practice or compete. A number of athletic trainers are also physical therapists.

The individual who achieves both certification as an athletic trainer and licensure as a physical therapist is extremely well qualified to function in various sports medicine settings, including both the private clinic and the colleges and universities.

Sports Chiropractors Chiropractors emphasize diagnosis and treatment of mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, thinking that these disorders affect general health by way of the nervous system. They make use of spinal and extremity manipulations in their treatments.

Orthotists/Prosthetists These individuals custom fit, design, and construct braces, orthotics, and support devices based on physician prescriptions.

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Exercise Physiologists Exercise physiologists monitor and assess cardiovascular and metabolic effects and mechanisms of exercise, replenishment of fluids during exercise, and exercise for cardiac and musculoskeletal rehabilitation.

Biomechanists Biomechanists are scientists who study and investigate how athletes move. They analyze movement techniques, using mathematical models, and make corrections and adjustments that can potentially increase efficiency of movement, thus improving performance.

Nutritionists Increasingly, individuals in the field of nutrition are becoming interested in athletics.

Some large sports programs engage a nutritionist as a consultant who plans eating programs that are geared to the needs of a particular sport. He or she also assists individual athletes who need special nutritional counseling.

Sports Massage Therapists Qualified massage therapists have training and experience in all areas of

massage. They may use their skills primarily in the precompetition and postcompetition phases of an athletic event.

Emergency Medical Specialists (EMS) These individuals are indispensable in providing transport to the injured athlete to a medical care facility.4 Equipment Personnel Sports equipment personnel are becoming specialists in the purchase and proper fitting of protective equipment. They work closely with the coach and the athletic trainer.

Referees Referees must be highly knowledgeable regarding rules and regulations, especially those that relate to the health and welfare of the athlete.

They work cooperatively with the coach and the athletic trainer. They must be capable of checking the playing facility for dangerous situations and equipment that may predispose the athlete to injury. They must routinely check athletes to ensure that they are wearing adequate protective pads.

ATHLETIC INJURY MANAGEMENT CHECKLIST The following checklist contains things the sports medicine team can do to minimize the chance of injury. ❏ Arrange for physical examinations and preparticipation screening. ❏ Ensure appropriate training and conditioning of the athlete. ❏ Monitor environmental and field conditions to ensure safe participation. ❏ Select and maintain properly fitting protective equipment.

❏ Educate parents, coaches, and athletes about the risks inherent in sports participation. ❏ Teach proper techniques. ❏ Be certified in CPR/AED. ❏ Be certified in first aid.

SUMMARY • The term sports medicine has many connotations, depending on which group is using it. The term encompasses many different areas of sports related to both performance enhancement and injury care and management.

• Athletic health care is delivered differently in organized and recreational sports activities.

• Both personnel who concentrate on performance enhancement (such as fitness professionals and coaches) and personnel who focus on health care are concerned with injury prevention.

• Providing health care to the athlete requires a group effort to be most effective.

• The coach must ensure that the environment and the equipment that is worn are the safest possible,

that all injuries and illnesses are properly cared for, that skills are properly taught, and that conditioning is at the highest level.

• The athletic trainer is responsible for preventing injuries from occurring, providing initial first aid and injury management, evaluating injuries, and designing and supervising a program of rehabilitation that can facilitate the safe return to activity.

• The team physician is responsible for preparticipation health examinations; diagnosing and treating illnesses and injuries; advising and teaching athletic trainers; attending games, scrimmages, and practices; and counseling the athlete about health matters.

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• Other members of the sports medicine team may include nurses, physicians in specializations such as orthopedics, dentists, podiatrists, physician’s assistants, strength and conditioning coaches,

nutritionists, sport psychologists, exercise physiologists, biomechanists, physical therapists, chiropractors, equipment personnel, and referees.

SOLUTIONS TO CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISES 1-1 Ultimately, the team physician is responsible for making that decision. However, that decision must be based on collective input from the coach, the athletic trainer, and the athlete. Remember that everyone in the sports medicine team has the same ultimate goal—returning the athlete to full competitive levels as quickly and safely as possible.

1-2 To help prevent injury, the athletic trainer should (1) arrange for physical examinations and preparticipation screenings to identify conditions that predispose an athlete to injury; (2) ensure appropriate training and conditioning of the

athlete; (3) monitor environmental conditions to ensure safe participation; (4) select and maintain properly fitting protective equipment; and (5) educate parents, coaches, and athletes about the risks inherent to sports participation.

1-3 The coach should be responsible for designing an effective conditioning program and ensuring that protective equipment is of the highest quality, properly fitted, and properly maintained; able to apply proper first aid; certified in CPR/ AED and first aid; and aware of the environmental factors that may adversely affect the athlete.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES 1. What areas of specialization are encompassed under the general heading of sports medicine?

2. List some of the professional sports medicine organizations.

3. How should the sports medicine team work together to provide optimal health care for the athlete?

4. What are the responsibilities of a coach or fitness professional who becomes responsible for caring for an athlete when an athletic trainer is not available?

5. What are the specific roles of the athletic trainer in overseeing the total health care of the athlete?

6. Discuss the role of the team physician as an important member of the sports medicine team.

7. What special impact can other members of the sports medicine team have in providing health care for the athlete?

RECOMMENDED REFERENCES 1. American College of Sports Medicine. 2014.

ACSM’s resources for the personal trainer.

Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.

2. American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine. 2008. Athletic health handbook: A key resource for the team physician, athletic trainer, and physical therapist.

Chicago, IL: AOSSM. 3. Andersen, J. 2010. Professional behaviors for athletic training students. Athletic Therapy Today 15(4):13.

4. Boyd, J. 2007. Understanding the politics of being a team physician. Clinics in Sports Medicine 26(2):161.

5. Brukner, P., & Khan, K. 2010. Sports medicine: The team approach. In P. Brukner (ed.), Clinical sports medicine, 2nd rev. ed.

Sydney: McGraw-Hill.

6. Brumels, K. 2008. Professional role complexity and job satisfaction of collegiate certified athletic trainers. Journal of Athletic Training 43(4):373.

7. Ciccolella, M. 2008. A public at risk: Personal fitness trainers without a standard of care. Professionalization of Exercise Physiology 11(7):10.

8. Courson, R., et al. 2014. Inter-association consensus statement on best practices for sports medicine management for secondary schools and colleges. Journal of Athletic Training 49(1):128–137.

9. Duehring, M. 2010. Profile of high school strength and conditioning coaches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 24(2):538.

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10. Dunn, W. 2007. Ethics in sports medicine.

American Journal of Sports Medicine 35(5):840–844.

11. Grant, M. 2014. Developing expertise in strength and conditioning coaching. Strength and Conditioning Journal 36(1):9–15.

12. Hajart, A. 2013. The financial impact of an athletic trainer working as a physician extender in orthopedic practice.

Journal of Medical Management Practice 29(4):250–254.

13. Halvorson, R. 2010. Fast, furious and functional: Three trends shaping today’s fitness landscape. IDEA Fitness Journal 7(5):36.

14. Hayden, L. 2011. The role of ATs in helping coaches to facilitate return to play. International Journal of Athletic Therapy & Training 16(1):24.

15. Henry, T. 2009. Desirable qualities, attributes, and characteristics of successful athletic trainers—A national study. Sport Journal 12(2):1.

16. Herring, S., Kibler, W., & Putukian, M. 2013.

Team physician consensus statement: 2013 Update. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 45(8):1618–1622.

17. Hoffman, J. 2011. NSCA’s guide to program design (science of strength and conditioning). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

18. Howley, E., & Thompson, D. 2012. Fitness professionals handbook. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

19. Kirkland, M. 2005. Increasing diversity of practice settings for athletic trainers. Athletic Therapy Today 10:5:1.

20. Kutz, M. 2008. Leadership factors for athletic trainers. Athletic Therapy Today 13(4):15.

21. Lofshult, D. 2004. Personal fitness trainer certification. IDEA Health & Fitness Source 22(3):15.

22. Malek, M. H., Nalbone, D. P., Berger, D. E., & Coburn, J. W. 2002. Importance of health science education for personal fitness trainers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 16(1):19–24.

23. Massey, C. D., Maneval, M. W., Phillips, J., Vincent, J., White, G., & Zoeller, B. 2003.

An analysis of teaching and coaching behaviors of elite strength and conditioning coaches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 16(3):456–460.

24. Massey, C. 2009. An analysis of the job of strength and conditioning coach for football at a Division II level. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 23(9):2493.

25. Matheson, G. 2005. Advocating injury prevention: The team physician’s role. Physician and Sports Medicine 33(8):1.

26. Matheson, G. 2011. Return-to-play decisions: Are they the team physician’s responsibility? Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine 21(1):25.

27. McLeod, T., & Bliven, K. 2013. The national sports safety in secondary schools benchmark (N4SB) study: Defining athletic training practice characteristics. Journal of Athletic Training 48(4):483–492.

28. Mensch, J., & Miller, G. 2008. The athletic trainer’s guide to psychosocial intervention and referral. Thorofare, NJ: Slack.

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller, without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who, as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.

FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” (Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley, some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing, but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature, from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,

or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.

Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?

The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both “off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the craving for tobacco in the tropics.

Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to

an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and lemon-juice.

Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment, that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.

Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.

My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari; consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had

bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding, consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us, seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten years to come.

Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch: Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9 × 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.

How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his mutilated finger-tips.

Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.

The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface, however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day such a fire is a grand sight.

Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.

Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush, and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the

western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.

It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process

may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe— not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more, between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them— cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes, perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.

This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the secondary bush.

After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact, receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains, where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were accustomed to rule.

But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and

lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible, impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and come back to his starting point.

The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.

According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast, to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however, correct.

The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau, instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks and springs of the low country.

“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.

He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a stillborn child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which

was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In course of time, the couple had many more children, and called themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams, for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest wateringplace; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”

The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?

Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short, woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood, ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia, Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably) would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded

by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.

The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.

Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.

This knowledge is crystallized in the ancestral warning against settling in the valleys and near the great waters, the dwelling-places of disease and death. At the same time, for security against the hostile Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted that every settlement must be not less than a certain distance from the southern edge of the plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the present day. It is not such a bad one, and certainly they are both safer and more comfortable than the Makua, the recent intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain, especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the

most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.

The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.

It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of “Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have

two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise, come in for a blowing-up.

The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala, shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.

Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde bush:—