World Coal Issue 2 2023

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An Efficient Future

Dr. Uwe König, Malvern Panalytical, the Netherlands, explains how materials analysis empowers the coal value chain.

25

Pro-Tips For Processing

Raymond Pietramale, Elgin Separation Solutions, USA, shares some essential maintenance tips for extending the lifetime of vibrating screens in coal processing plants. 28

Shooting For Control

Michael Kelley, BossTek, USA, outlines how to create a dust management plan for coal stockpiles.

34 The Future Of Coal Is Captured

Rebecca Long Pyper, Dome Technology, USA, reviews coal’s prospects for the future and how they could blossom thanks to new technology.

39 Conveying Wisdom

Mathew Cook, HAWK, Australia, considers conveyor health monitoring in the coal industry and how to ensure operational efficiency and safety.

44 The End Of An Era?

Pembroke Resources, Australia, explores whether the Olive Downs Complex will be the last of the large-scale greenfield steel making mines.

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DR. LARS SCHERNIKAU

Energy economist, commodity trader, author1, shareholder in HMS Bergbau AG

MANAGING EDITOR

James Little james.little@worldcoal.com

SENIOR EDITOR

Callum O’Reilly callum.oreilly@worldcoal.com

EDITOR

Will Owen will.owen@worldcoal.com

SALES DIRECTOR Rod Hardy rod.hardy@worldcoal.com

SALES MANAGER

Ryan Freeman ryan.freeman@worldcoal.com

PRODUCTION MANAGER

Kyla Waller kyla.waller@worldcoal.com

ADMINISTRATION MANAGER

Laura White laura.white@worldcoal.com

EVENTS MANAGER

Louise Cameron louise.cameron@worldcoal.com

EVENTS COORDINATOR

Stirling Viljoen stirling.viljoen@worldcoal.com

DIGITAL ADMINISTRATOR

Leah Jones leah.jones@worldcoal.com

DIGITAL CONTENT ASSISTANT

Merili Jurivete merili.jurivete@worldcoal.com

GUEST COMMENT

Understanding the cost of providing electricity to its citizens and industries is crucial for any nation. Power ministries are struggling not only with the cost of providing electricity, but also with reliability and sustainability; the three corner stones of energy policy or the ‘energy trilemma’.

Coal and gas generate approximately 60% of electricity worldwide and 50% of primary energy. The rise of low cost and reliable power from coal and gas over the past 150 years has led to an unprecedented reduction in poverty and increase in longevity and health. Coal and gas’ dominance is supposed to change with the energy transition towards ‘renewable’ wind and solar, based on the belief that such a transition will be beneficial economically, as well as environmentally.

Bloomberg2 recently issued their latest global levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) analysis with global media coverage. The company compares the historical LCOE of various ‘renewables’ with the cost of coal, gas, and nuclear. It misleadingly represents wind and solar as being cheapest. Reports and analyses, such as Bloomberg’s, which mirrored in message and content from the IEA, IRENA, IEEFA, IMF2 and others, are the basis for governments to conclude that the transition from coal and gas to wind and solar will save billions, if not trillions.2

This energy economic misunderstanding of ‘cheap renewable’ power is a crucial and detrimental one. The unpopular truth is that: (a) wind and solar will always be more expensive than coal and gas at grid scale; and

(b) total costs to an economy rise logarithmically with more wind and solar in the power system. That is why the global ‘transition’ will cost trillions, 7 – 10% of global GDP, and as per IPCC data supersedes the cost of a warming climate.2

The reasons are multi-fold, but at the core LCOE is a micro economic view which misses seven cost categories, and therefore should never be used by governments for energy policy decision. Only an estimate of the full cost of electricity (FCOE) will include all costs.2

Obvious costs not included in LCOE are caused by intermittency, low natural capacity factors, correlating wind and solar ‘availability’ across continents, and the locational disparity of demand and supply:

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ƒ Backup or long duration energy storage (LDES), which does not exist today – except for insufficient pumped hydro.

ƒ Network integration, including costs for interconnections, transmission, balancing, and conditioning. Not so obvious costs missing in LCOE at grid scale include:

ƒ Efficiency losses of backup and storage – more wind and solar means less asset utilisation of backup.

ƒ ‘Room’ costs driven by low energy density (per m2) of wind and solar.

ƒ Recycling costs, driven by low energy density (per kg) and short lifetime of wind and solar.

ƒ Environmental costs – i.e. damage to plant and animal life, negative effects on local climate systems (including from warming, wind extraction, and atmospheric changes).

ƒ Raw material and net energy inefficiency (eROI) – production, processing, transportation, upgrading, manufacturing, and recycling need to be considered.

We have to do everything in our power to reduce the environmental externalities of our existing energy systems, including from coal and gas. We need to invest in, not divest from, oil, coal, gas, and nuclear – which provide almost 90% of global primary energy – to improve their environmental efficiencies. The ‘transition’ to wind and solar will always increase the cost of energy and reduce reliability, with all its consequences for humans and industries.

References

1. SCHERNIKAU, L., and SMITH, W., ‘The Unpopular Truth… about Electricity and the Future of Energy’, (8 November 2022), www.unpopular-truth.com

2. Links to sources referenced in this article can be accessed here: www.unpopular-truth.com/LCOE-links.htm

Figure 1. Global – Levelised cost of Electricity Benchmark (LCOE), 2009 – 2023 (Source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) LCOE analysis)2

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WORLD NEWS

ZIMBABWE Contango announces new offtake arrangement

Contango Holdings Plc has entered into a new offtake arrangement with TransOre International FZE for the sale of up to 20 000 tpm of washed coking coal from its flagship Lubu Project in Zimbabwe, known as the Muchesu Project in country.

The TransOre Contract has been calculated with reference to the existing washing capacity at Muchesu, however, in the event Contango is able to increase washing capacity further, TransOre has indicated its willingness to expand the size of the contract. The TransOre Contract is expected to replace the non-exclusive contract with AtoZ Investments (Pty) Ltd previously reported by Contango on 14 June 2022, and is intended to complement the expected offtake arrangements being finalised with the global multi-national company (MNC), which is expected to complete its due diligence shortly. The contract is priced at the prevailing Minerals Marketing Corp. of Zimbabwe (MMCZ) coking coal price, currently at US$120/t.

TransOre will take the coal currently being produced from the upper seams at Muchesu at mine gate at the MMCZ price and handle all logistics and transport costs, through its affiliate African Rail International FZE (African Rail Co.), which has rail access, locomotives, and port access for export already in place. TransOre currently holds an allocation for exporting coal through the Dry Bulk Terminal at the Maputo Port, Mozambique. TransOre has also expressed its interest in taking any additional coal that becomes available, either in the event of mine expansion or if the expected contract with the MNC does not materialise.

Once steady state production is achieved in 3Q23, the company expects its operating costs to be approximately US$45/t of washed coal, although the company continues to explore additional options to reduce these operating costs further, whilst larger volumes are also expected to bring economies of scale.

AUSTRALIA TAKRAF celebrates DELKOR coal tailings thickener success

TAKRAF Australia has supplied, delivered, and commissioned a 30 m diameter DELKOR tailings thickener for the Moolarben coal handling and preparation plant (CHPP) in Australia.

The Moolarben complex, located on Australia’s east coast, is operated by Moolarben Coal Operations Pty. Ltd., which is a joint venture between Moolarben Coal Mines, Yancoal Moolarben Pty. Ltd. and a consortium of Korean power companies. The complex consists of four approved opencast mining areas, three approved underground mining areas, and other mining-related infrastructure.

Notwithstanding challenging global conditions due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the project kicked off in late 2021. Despite a variety of challenges surrounding the pandemic, the thickener was delivered in mid-2022, with installation taking place a few months later. A scant few months after installation and the thickener was successfully

commissioned in early 2023, with continued and successful operation ever since.

Raymond Leung, Sales Manager, DELKOR, commented: “Our DELKOR thickener is a proven performer across a variety of applications. The benefits of our DELKOR thickeners include their low capital cost, smaller footprint, effective use of flocculants, and advanced automation. One of the standout features of this project is the great collaboration between our DELKOR Product & Service Center in Bengaluru, our DELKOR specialists both at our client and at our various TAKRAF Australia office locations, and our committed suppliers. I would like to thank all stakeholders for their commitment in overcoming all challenges related to this project. This project again serves to underline our group’s global solutions capabilities and our ability to deliver, and will serve us in good stead as an important future thickener reference in Australia.”

DIARY DATES

Coaltrans Asia

24 – 26 September 2023

Bali, Indonesia

www.fastmarkets.com/coaltrans/coaltrans-asia/*

China Coal & Mining Expo

25 – 28 October 2023

Beijing, China www.chinaminingcoal.com

International Mining, Equipment, & Minerals Exhibition (IME 2023)

06 – 09 November 2023

Kolkata, India www.miningexpoindia.com

5th Annual India Coal Conference 2023

21 – 22 November 2023

New Delhi, India www.icc-2023.com

To stay informed about the status of industry events and any potential postponements or cancellations of events, visit World Coal’s website: www.worldcoal.com/events

WORLD NEWS

USA Peabody releases update regarding Shoal Creek Mine

Peabody has announced that Shoal Creek Mine, in coordination with MSHA, has safely completed localised sealing of two longwall panels in the J panel area of the mine impacted by a fire in March involving void fill material.

Peabody has begun the process of resuming development coal production in the new L panel area where better mining conditions are anticipated.

Shoal Creek is in a ramp-up period throughout 2023 and expecting delivery of a new longwall kit at the end of the year. As a result, Peabody does not expect the current incident to have a material impact on the company’s 2023 financial results.

Shoal Creek is a production-stage underground longwall metallurgical coal mine located 35 miles west of Birmingham, Alabama, US. The mine extracts coal from the Mary Lee and Blue Creek coal seams at depths of 1000 – 1300 ft.

MALAYSIA Martin Engineering announces Malaysian business unit

Aglobal leader in bulk handling accessories and safety, Martin Engineering, is expanding its presence in the Asian Pacific market by opening a business unit in Malaysia.

Headquartered in the capital city of Kuala Lumpur – with a satellite office in Lumut – the Malaysian business unit will act as the main hub for providing products and solutions to the many industries Martin Engineering serves in the region. The benefit to customers will be more localised care from a team with a greater understanding of the region’s needs and challenges. This will result in faster response times, better logistics, closer relationships with customers, and an expansion of the portfolio of products and services available to help customers improve their bulk handling efficiency and safety.

Javier Schmal, the Area Vice President in charge of overseeing the expansion for

Martin Engineering, commented: “Our team in Australia has done a great job of serving this area, but we’ve come to realise that the Malaysian market deserves closer attention. This is an exciting opportunity to give existing and new customers a greater range of bulk handling options and innovations to choose from.

“The new Malaysian business unit will receive ample support from other business units. The foundation of assistance comes from Martin Australia through manufacturing products, sales expertise, engineering designs, and technical support.

“The Asia-Pacific market offers one of the best growth opportunities currently. This new business unit is part of Martin’s investment and strategic plan to improve our coverage and continue to offer the best service and customer support in the industry.”

The European Association for Coal and Lignite has members from 14 EU member states and other countries on paths towards EU membership. Here, the association gives an overview of the industry it represents and examines upcoming EU legislation of importance to the future of coal and lignite mining and use in Europe. With climate policies pushing towards coal phase outs, the article concludes with a look at how the EU is supporting coal regions during what will be a major transformation of the whole energy sector.

Prologue

In Ukraine, EURACOAL has two members –DTEK and Donetsksteel – and has enjoyed good co-operation over a decade or more. In July 2021, EURACOAL’s annual meeting was hosted by DTEK in Kyiv, followed by an international coal conference attended by Prime Minister Denys Shmyhal. Since Russia’s unwarranted invasion on 24 February 2022, DTEK has worked under the most difficult and dangerous of conditions to secure the country’s electricity supply. Coal has been essential. Now, with the war still in progress, the EU must live without Russian fossil fuels – coal and oil, but especially without Russian fossil gas. Against this background, this article will review last year’s coal production and imports, the sources of those imports, and the EU’s evolving policies towards

coal which must balance security of supply concerns with the climate imperative.

EU coal production and imports

As the COVID-19 pandemic receded, EU lignite production bounced back in 2021 by a massive 12.5%, followed by a further 7.1% in 2022 to 294 million t. Lignite is in demand again this year, with Germany as the largest producer followed by Poland, the Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece. The closure on 15 April of Germany’s last three nuclear power plants means demand for lignite will remain strong in the short to medium term.

Coal imports into the EU also enjoyed exceptional growth of 18.3% in 2022. At 127 million t, they were back to pre-COVID levels. Despite efforts to increase output from the EU’s underground hard coal mines in Poland and Czechia, indigenous production fell 4.5% in 2022 compared with 2021.

Even as demand for coal and lignite grows, most member states have decided to phase out coal for power generation. Lignite production has been on a downward trend since 1990 in Germany, Poland, and the seven other member states who use lignite – including Hungary, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Hard coal production has also declined since 1990 and is now dominated by Poland, after German hard coal production stopped at the end of 2018.

Brian Ricketts, EURACOAL, Belgium, discusses the European coal and lignite industry and the EU policies of importance that will shape its future.

EU coal policy during the energy crisis

At the political level, the European Commission remains committed to the European Green Deal and a 55% GHG emission reduction target for 2030, as laid down in the European Climate Law which came into force in July 2021. Much of the so-called ‘Fit for 55’ package has been adopted, and it can already be

seen how this threatens coal with revised rules for the EU Emissions Trading System. So, the coal industry will continue along its path of long-term structural change; a path that now requires transformation on a scale that EU funds can only partially address.

Figure 4 shows where the EU imported coal from in 2021. The international coal market is very diverse with many suppliers – there is no OPEC cartel in the world of coal, so no price fixing. Since 2011, Russia grew to dominate the supply of coal into the EU. That has now become a problem: under the fifth package of EU sanctions announced on 5 April 2022, Russian coal imports into the EU have been banned since 11 August 2022.

Figure 5 shows the impact of the EU ban on Russian coal. Imports into the EU fell to almost zero by last September. However, at the same time, exports of Russian coal to China grew; the coal that the EU was importing before the ban now finds its way to China. Although Russia must sell at a heavy discount, coal prices are still much higher than in the past, so the country’s revenues have barely changed.

Meanwhile, the price of fossil gas reached record levels of more than €300/MWh in March 2022 and again in August 2022 – fifteen times higher than normal. High fossil gas prices have pushed up coal prices; at times they have been above US$400/t for steam coal delivered to the ARA ports of northwest Europe (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp). Prices have since moderated, but remain high. These have been good times for anyone with coal to sell.

The response of the European Commission to the energy crisis was first outlined in a communication in March 2022. Then, on 18 May 2022, the Commission published its REPowerEU plan.

The Commission now sees scope for more coal to be used for power generation to displace 105 TWh of gas-fired generation and save up to 24 billion m3/yr of gas. This would require an investment of €2 billion to keep coal plants running while meeting the latest EU pollution standards. The displaced volume of gas represents 15% of imports to the EU from Russia in 2019 – the last ‘normal’ year when gas imports from Russia accounted for 41% of the 409 billion m3 consumed in the EU. It is also similar to what the International Energy Agency proposed in its 10-point plan to wean the EU off Russian gas. Together with a 15% reduction in fossil gas demand, more non-Russian LNG and pipeline gas imports, and fuel switching in the power sector, the REPowerEU plan aims to replace all Russian gas.

Fossil gas is used for many purposes and is sometimes difficult to replace; for households, heating plants, and the commercial and public sectors, it is not so easy to switch away from gas. However, for electricity generation, gas-to-coal switching is an option. Industry can also respond by fuel switching or by curtailing production. The big chemical and aluminium companies in

EU already have,

the

Figure 1. Coal in Europe 2022 – lignite production, hard coal production, and coal imports. Despite a strong recovery in 2021 and 2022, EU production and imports were below the pre-pandemic levels of 2019.

Figure 2. Production of lignite in the EU, 1990 to 2021 (million t).

Figure 3. Production of coal in the EU, 1990 to 2021 (million t).

because importing many secondary commodities is now cheaper than processing raw materials in the EU.

What does this all mean for the coal industry?

Firstly, the EU must replace the 50 million t of coal it imported from Russia in 2021. That switch has happened, with more coal coming from traditional suppliers: Indonesia, Australia, the US, Colombia, and South Africa. Secondly, over the next few years, more coal will have to be imported to help reduce demand for Russian gas. At the same time, output from Polish hard coal mines can be flexed upwards to add a small part of what is needed. Also, lignite miners

across Europe are looking at how to maintain higher production levels than previously planned.

The Russian shock is manageable. The Australian coal industry navigated a similar shock when China banned Australian imports late in 2020. However, the additional transport costs will make coal more expensive. In the Commission’s analysis for REPowerEU, it assumes a coal price of around US$90/t. In October 2021, coal prices rose to over US$200/t, then to over US$400/t in summer 2022. Today, they are back at around US$120/t. So, the Commission will have to rework its analysis and look at the impact of higher energy prices on the EU economy and on the individual member states.

Burning more coal and lignite would not dramatically change the EU’s leading position on climate: the share of coal and lignite in power generation was around 14% in 2020, well below the global average of 37%. There are of course EU countries, such as Poland, who are more heavily dependent on coal and other solid fuels – e.g. shale oil in the case of Estonia.

Even with the additional use of coal to replace gas-fired power generation, the EU can still be on track to meet its climate goals. It just means that the shape of the emission reduction curve becomes less steep in the next few years, but steeper towards 2030 as more and more renewable projects are connected to the grid, as required by EU law.

In that way, the historic trend of declining coal production in Europe will not change. Figure 10 shows the evolution of coal production as it powered the Industrial Revolution in Europe, with some global events that changed the course of an otherwise perfect, bell-shaped ‘Hubbert curve’ for the production of any finite resource exploited in a free-market economy. Today, we are concerned only with the tail end of this curve. Gas-to-coal switching may mean that coal phase-out plans are delayed a little, as in Greece, but the trend towards an end of coal use by 2040, or 2049 in the case of Poland, will continue.

Future EU legislation on coal

A proposed revision to the Industrial Emissions Directive would have an impact on coal use for power generation and other uses. The European Commission’s proposal would see the directive also apply to the mining sector for the first time. This file is now in the European Parliament, and EURACOAL member companies are actively lobbying with the association. The mining of energy commodities is specifically excluded, given that coal and lignite are being phased out anyway.

In December 2021, the Commission proposed a new methane regulation that would place enormous burdens on the coal industry. It could even force underground coal mines in Poland and Slovenia to close prematurely.

Figure 5. Russian coal exports, January 2020 to December 2022.

Figure 6. Coal and lignite in the REPowerEU Plan of 18 May 2022. Source: European Commission SWD (2022) 230 final.

Figure 4. EU coal imports, 2021.

Worldwide

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Last year’s tragedies at coal mines in Poland (Pniówek and Borynia-Zofiówka) and Türkiye (Amasra) remind us that the effective management of methane is critical. These were horrendous accidents and too many mineworkers perished or suffered injuries.

In the European Parliament, the new methane regulation has been debated and amendments tabled. Thanks to the efforts of MEPs, health and safety clauses have been added to balance the proposal’s focus on regulating the emissions of a greenhouse gas by banning the venting and flaring of methane from operating mines after 1 January 2025. For the coal industry, this is not acceptable. Not in Poland, nor in Slovenia – which has an underground lignite mine that could be forced to close under the Commission’s proposal. Amendments proposed by member states in the Council of the EU, and others by members of the European Parliament, will improve the proposal as the file enters ‘trilogue’ negotiations between the three EU institutions over the summer. The Spanish presidency will have to balance the triple challenge of keeping EU coal miners safe, reducing global methane emissions, and protecting jobs.

At the same time, EURACOAL supports the development and demonstration of new technologies to reduce coal mine methane emissions. It is not easy to capture the methane from ventilation air – from the huge volumes of air with a low concentration of methane. An EU-funded Research Fund for Coal and Steel project led by the Central Mining Institute (GIG) in Poland with Jastrzębska Spółka Węglowa S.A. (JSW) – a major producer of coking coal – is the first of many projects that hope to address this challenge.

A just transition

Under the Green Deal, the European Commission offers a ‘just transition’ for coal mineworkers. When mines close, miners should be compensated or offered other employment in new economic sectors. Last autumn, the Commission approved €1.64 billion in grants from the Just Transition Fund to support the Czech coal regions of Karlovarsky, Ústecky, and Moravskoslezsky: money for re-skilling and up-skilling of workers; investment in R&D, including innovation platforms and clusters; support for the circular economy and energy storage; as well as money to decontaminate industrial sites. In total, €25 billion is being made available under EU cohesion policy to soften the impacts of the energy transition on the coal regions. Much money has already been allocated, especially to local authorities.

The Just Transition Fund is a welcome and useful first step, but what will happen after 2027 – the end of the current EU budget? EURACOAL recommends a second support initiative will be needed. The Polska Grupa Górnicza S.A. (PGG or the Polish Mining Group), which is Europe’s largest coal mining company, would need approximately €40 billion to transform its business and capitalise on the value chains in the coal regions.

Where does EU climate and energy policy lead?

Figure 7, from a recent EU policy document, shows how wind and solar PV are expected to grow. By 2030, the installed capacity

of these two energy sources

Figure 7. Wind and solar PV in the REPowerEU Plan of 18 May 2022. European Commission SWD(2023) 58 final.

Figure 8. Coal and lignite in EU electricity generation, 2020. Source: Eurostat database nrg_bal_peh, last update 14 April 2022 (n.b. coal includes peat* and oil shale**).

Figure 9. Phase-out plans for coal, peat, and oil shale in EU member states.

Figure 10. European coal and lignite production 1800 to 2021 and forecast.

should be well over 1000 GW, which is roughly the total installed capacity of all types of generation in the EU today. A complete, new energy infrastructure must be built. For those with land and capital, the future looks good. How many jobs this brings to Europe is an open question – installation jobs, certainly, but not so many in manufacturing as much of the equipment is imported from China.

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Conclusion

These are uncertain times, with an horrific war taking place on European soil. Big political decisions are being taken at great speed with many directives and regulations concerning the energy sector being revised all at once. Meanwhile, the coal industry is doing everything it can to guarantee Europe’s energy security at a price citizens can afford.

Figure 11. Coal regions with Territorial Just Transition Plans approved by the European Commission. Source: European Commission Directorate-General for Regional and Urban Policy (DG REGIO), https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/funding/just-transition-fund/ just-transition-platform_en.

In almost all cases, mined rock needs to be crushed and sized before it becomes commercially viable. Crushing is the process of reducing large lumps of material into smaller sizes suitable for further handling downstream. It typically involves one or more stages, including: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary crushing.

Figure 1. A cone crusher. McLanahan Corporation, USA, evaluates the various types of downstream crushing options.

Primary crushing

Primary crushing is the first stage in the crushing process. In this stage, raw or run-of-mine material that has been blasted, mined, or otherwise extracted from the ground is crushed to a size that can be easily transported by a conveyor belt and handled by downstream processing equipment. Primary crushers can handle large feed lump sizes and typically include jaw crushers and gyratory crushers, but impact crushers may also be used as primary crushers if the material is easily crushed and not abrasive. After the primary crushing stage, further stages of crushing may be required to better control the size of the output and/or refine the shape of the product. This is where downstream crushing with secondary, tertiary, and quaternary stages comes in.

Secondary crushing

Secondary crushing (or intermediate crushing) accepts the material from the primary crushing stage and reduces it even further, whether for final product sizing or in preparation for final product sizing in the tertiary or quaternary stages.

Tertiary and quaternary crushing

The tertiary and quaternary crushing stages are used for the final sizing of products. Since quality

requirements for final products can be stringent, it is important to include a properly designed and engineered crusher system for the job.

Types of secondary crushers

Secondary crushers typically include (but are not limited to) cone crushers, horizontal shaft impactors, hammermills, and roll crushers. Occasionally, a jaw crusher may be applied as a secondary crusher.

Cone crushers

Cone Crushers are compression-type crushers, which reduce material as it advances downward through the chamber (with the help of gravity and the weight above) by means of squeezing the material between a moving piece of steel (mantle) and a stationary piece (liner). Eccentric rotation causes the main-shaft and the head to wobble. Rock is fed into the open top and gravity pulls it through the tapered crushing chamber. As the chamber gets tighter, the material gets smaller until it is small enough to pass through the cavity at the bottom of the crusher.

The gradation is controlled by adjusting the distance between the stationary concave and the moving mantle at their closest points. However, adjusting the closed-side setting tighter reduces the throughput capacity of the machine.

Cone crushers are well suited for hard to medium hard materials. They perform well in abrasive material with relatively low operating costs. In secondary applications, they typically provide a reduction ratio of 6:1, through 8:1 reduction ratios can be achieved with coarser applications.

Horizontal shaft impactors

Horizontal shaft impact crushers feature a horizontal spinning rotor equipped with hammers. As the material enters the crushing chamber, it is fractured at its weakest point upon its initial impact with the hammers on the spinning rotors. The fractured pieces are then flung toward the breaker plates inside the chamber, where they are fractured again perpendicular to the first break. Additional breakage occurs from the inter-particle collisions with the other material in the chamber.

Gradation changes are made by either changing speed of the rotating rotor and the gap setting between the adjustable curtains and the rotor. Faster speed results in finer output, while adjusting the curtains also affects the overall reduction. These impact-type crushers offer reduction ratios of 8:1 to 10:1 in secondary crushing applications. They are ideal for soft to medium hard, slightly abrasive materials.

Hammermills

Hammermills feature swinging hammers attached to a spinning rotor. Similar to horizontal shaft impactors,

Figure 2. Horizontal shaft impactor.

Figure 3. A hammermill.

the material shatters upon its impact with the swinging hammers.

The shattered particles break against the breaker plates lining the crushing chamber and are carried across a grate surface, where they are ground down into smaller sizes. Openings in the grating allow the release of appropriately sized material to ensure controlled product sizing. These crushers offer reduction ratios as high as 20:1. They are adept at handling less abrasive materials in aggregate and industrial applications.

Roll crushers

Roll crushers can be used in the primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary crushing stages. They are compression machines and work by crushing rock between a single or pair of rotating rolls equipped with teeth.

Depending on the configuration (single roll, double roll, triple roll, or quad roll), the material is crushed between the roll bodies and teeth on the two rolls or, in the case of single roll and the top stage of the triple roll crushers, between the roll and the crushing plate. Depending on the design, roll crushers have a reduction ratio of 6:1 (single roll and the top stage of the triple roll) and 4:1 (double rolls). They are great for handling soft to medium hard, slightly abrasive material that can be dry or wet and sticky.

Types of tertiary and quaternary crushers

For fine sizing, tertiary, or even quaternary crushing stages may follow the primary and secondary stages. Cone crushers are the most common types of tertiary and quaternary crushers, though vertical shaft impactors and roll crushers can also be used depending on the application.

Shorthead cone crushers

Shorthead cone crushers are specified for many tertiary and quaternary crushing applications. Shorthead cone crushers work exactly like standard cone crushers, but they feature a smaller crushing cavity, making them ideal for finer crushing applications. The closed-side setting on a shorthead cone crusher can be adjusted tighter than a standard cone to improve final product size and shape. Shorthead cone crushers offer reduction ratios around 4:1.

Vertical shaft impactors

Vertical shaft impact crushers have a rotating vertical shaft with a table or rotor at the top. Rock is fed down a feed tube in the center of the machine and onto the rotor. The rotor accelerates the rock, throwing it sideways. The rock then impacts a stationary surface (metal shoes or rock shelf). The rock breaks and falls out the bottom.

These types of crushers are usually applied as tertiary or quaternary crushers with less than 2 in.

(75 mm) feed or smaller. Some vertical shaft impactors can be used as secondary crushers with larger feed.

Vertical shaft impactors are very application-specific. They are sensitive to abrasive materials and can experience very high maintenance and operating costs. Some of these machines are equipped with a rock shelf to reduce wear costs. The rock shelves improve the maintenance costs, but sacrifice in the amount of reduction achieved.

Choosing the right secondary crusher

Each of the crushing stages plays an important role in the production process, whether it be material reduction for further handling downstream or final product sizing. Selecting the right crusher for each stage of the crushing process depends on an understanding of the material to be crushed and the site’s production goals. Jaws and gyratories will most often be found in the primary crushing stage, while cones, impactors, and roll crushers are most often used in the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary crushing stages.

Knowing which crushers best fit in each stage, as well as ensuring a properly sized crusher for the task, will help a site achieve optimum crushing efficiency and overall profitability.

Figure 4. A roll crusher.

Figure 5. Standard vs shorthead crushing liners.

Dr. Uwe König, Malvern Panalytical, the Netherlands, explains how materials analysis empowers the coal value chain.

The pressure felt by businesses and industries worldwide to reduce environmental impact is especially intense for the coal industry. But, despite the advances made by renewable energy, coal remains foundational to current energy strategy for many countries. China’s industry continues to run on coal, and the geopolitical events of the last few years have seen Western European countries turn back to their coal plants to varying extents. As a result, efficiency has become a cornerstone of modern operations, as companies seek to extract the maximum value from their resources while minimising waste and emissions. Efficiency today means something much more detailed and granular than Henry Ford’s famous production line innovation. With modern analytical technology, it is already possible to achieve tight control over every process in the coal value chain, from mining to combustion and through to fly ash. This technology – soon to be exponentially augmented by automation and AI – enables the kind of immediate in-depth insight into materials and processes that would previously have needed experts in a laboratory to produce. Materials analysis provides critical insights into coal quality, enabling operators to optimise processing techniques, improve combustion efficiency, and reduce running costs. By understanding the elemental and mineralogical properties of their coal,

producers can tailor their extraction and processing methods to enhance productivity. Downstream, the construction industry can make better use of fly ash, reducing their own carbon footprint in the process.

The rich data provided by today’s analytical technology also makes it easier to comply with tightening regulations. The US’ Environmental Protection Agency’s ongoing update to its rules on mercury emissions are a good example of how rock-solid materials analysis will only become more valuable in years to come.

The power of connected thinking

However, for mines, plants and other stakeholders in the value chain, this might all be easier said than done. Mining, in particular, is not known for being an early-adopting industry – despite how technologically advanced it is compared with the earlier days in its long history. It is common for businesses to be running legacy instruments that provide the basics, assuming that an upgrade only means ‘bells and whistles’. But, at this time of change and transformation for coal, this could not be further from the truth.

Henry Ford’s production line falls down if it is only implemented in pieces. If you need to pass your completed section to your colleague and they are not there, the chain will break. Similarly, a robust analytical chain is critical to effective and efficient process control. While dropping analytical solutions into existing

workflows will give some benefits, its real power lies in holistic, connected systems.

A holistic analytical strategy seamlessly integrates materials analysis into every stage; from exploration and extraction, to processing and waste management. A thorough understanding of the elemental and mineralogical properties of materials at each step enables informed decision-making, optimised processes, and improved resource utilisation. This kind of ‘joined up’ strategy that starts inside the mine will see efficiency gains compound and multiply throughout the value chain, maximising overall operational efficiency and supporting better profitability, too.

And that is not all – these efficiency gains directly translate into lower environmental impact.

Optimising processes and reducing waste can minimise carbon emissions, water usage, and other ecological consequences associated with mining and processing activities. For this reason, bringing analytical strategy up to date is one of the most important ways businesses can futureproof and avoid falling behind in an evolving industry. As environmental regulations become more stringent, companies that have already established efficient and sustainable practices will be better positioned to adapt and comply. By anticipating and embracing stricter regulations, coal industry players can stay ahead of the curve, mitigating potential disruptions and avoiding costly retrofits.

Real-time, at-line process monitoring

The good news is that the techniques and methods used for this kind of process control are all familiar and well-established. X-ray analysis remains key as a fast, reliable way to monitor elemental composition and mineralogical properties – using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, respectively. Pulsed fast and thermal neutron activation (PFTNA) is a safer upgrade to earlier neutron methods that eliminates hazardous waste by using an electric neutron source.

The key term here is fast. Real-time, at-line monitoring is here to stay, and will only get better with automation. There are many great reasons to send samples to a laboratory for testing – but process control is no longer one of them. Routine measurements can be done safely, quickly and accurately by at-line machines, with either quick and easy sample preparation or no sampling at all. Built for high-throughput production environments, today’s solutions are very different from the instruments made with only a clean laboratory in mind.

Once real-time monitoring is in place, it is easy to see where the benefits come in. If the analytical results from the belt or the feed are as expected, then no time (or even sample material) was wasted. If not, adjustments can be made immediately without processing potential tonnes of off-spec material, or compromising combustion efficiency. More serious issues that could result in downtime can be mitigated or even avoided completely. Thinking in these terms, it can be difficult to put a cost saving on this type of process control – but the numbers are certainly big.

Applied bulk materials analysis

The coal mine is the best place to start with implementation. Ore sorting is a deceptively simple process that has a big impact in optimising coal yard management, managing blending and processing, measuring moisture content, and ultimately removing variability to streamline work downstream. Technology like PFTNA makes this very accessible, analysing bulk material in real time with its electric neutron source that can be easily switched off for transportation and maintenance.

Table 1. Table showing typical variation ranges for coal and lignite.

Figure 2. Malvern Panalytical solution CNA Pentos for coal.

But PFTNA is not just for the mine. Analysing and controlling different coal grades, or a blend of grades, for factors including gross calorific value, ash or sulfur content, volatile matter, moisture content, and ash fusion has multiple valuable applications throughout the production process.

Bulk material analysis has many further applications too, such as monitoring kiln or oven feeds for consistency in steel or cement plants. The benefits here are significant, as optimising combustion efficiency is a powerful lever for reducing energy consumption and environmental impact in these famously energy-hungry industries. This is how efficiency gains compound across the value chain –and why process control is so much more powerful in the transition toward greater sustainability than it might seem. One application is good, but more are better.

Trusted techniques brought up to date

Moving onto X-ray analysis, which is similarly versatile, one key application is in understanding the mineralogical composition of mined coal. Mineral content defines the ratio of coal to ash, which can be quickly and easily determined through non-destructive XRD analysis –much more easily and rapidly than through microscopic methods, for example. Alongside the coal/ash ratio, XRD can be used to optimise the milling process to find the most effective particle size for combustion, saving energy and costs. It is also frequently used to determine crystallite size and graphitisation to improve the performance of carbon elements, such as anodes, in aluminium smelters.

One significant advantage of XRD is the possibility of using the standardless Rietveld method, which enables the rapid determination of crystal phases, amorphous carbon content, and total ash content without standards, monitors, or calibration. When used together, the combination of XRD and quantitative Rietveld analysis provides a fast and accurate alternative to time-consuming older methods that is well-suited to industrial needs.

Elemental composition is equally important to characterise as mineralogical phase, and can be measured using the tried-and-true XRF method. This is especially useful for maintaining regulatory compliance, where highly accurate measurements of potentially low elemental concentrations are required. One good example is within the construction industry, where fly ash is used as an additive to create cementitious compounds in concrete and cement, or a filler in asphalt. By replacing other materials – such as gravel, clay, or sand – that would otherwise need to be mined at both a financial and environmental cost, fly ash actually contributes to lowering the footprint of the construction industry.

However, it is carefully regulated. ASTM C618 covers the use of coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete, and both must conform to the prescribed chemical composition and physical requirements. This can be easily achieved with modern XRF spectrometers, capable of highly precise and repeatable measurements even in dusty and demanding environments. This application note demonstrates that stable, repeatable measurements are possible for coal fly ash, avoiding time-consuming recalibrations to maximise productivity and efficiency.1

Efficient today, futureproof tomorrow

In the face of ever-mounting pressure to reduce environmental impact, the coal industry must prioritise efficiency gains and futureproofing by making use of every powerful tool available. This includes a connected, end-to-end analytical strategy. By integrating analytical insights into every stage of the value chain, from mining to combustion and fly ash utilisation, coal industry players can maximise operational efficiency, minimise waste, and lower their environmental footprint. Real-time, at-line monitoring using trusted techniques – such as XRF and XRD – provides immediate, accurate data for informed and proactive decision-making across the value chain.

This approach makes regulatory compliance easier and positions coal industry players for greater stability and sustainable progress in an evolving industry. By implementing a multifaceted and holistic approach today, the coal industry can help to shape the future –rather than be shaped by it.

References

1. ‘Zetium – Routine analysis of coal fly ash’, Malvern Panalytical, (26 July 2017), www.malvernpanalytical.com/ en/learn/knowledge-center/application-notes/ AN20150306ZetiumRoutineAnalysisCoalFlyAsh?utm_ source=WorldCoal&utm_medium=editorial&utm_ campaign=Mining&utm_content=coal-editorial

Figure 3. Coal Ore on a conveyor belt for processing.

Raymond Pietramale, Elgin Separation Solutions, USA, shares some essential maintenance tips for extending the lifetime of vibrating screens in coal processing plants.

Vibrating screens play a vital role in today’s coal processing plants, facilitating various functions such as coal preparation, drain and rinsing, desliming, pre-wetting, and dewatering. To ensure efficient operation and longevity of these systems, regular maintenance is crucial. This article presents several pro tips recommended by Elgin Separation Solutions field

service team for maintaining vibrating screens in coal processing plants.

Exciter oil change

To maintain the performance and longevity of vibrating screen exciters, it is essential to adhere to a regular oil change schedule. Elgin recommends changing the oil every 800 hours

of operation, or as per the manufacturer’s standards. By following this guideline, operators can ensure that the exciters function optimally, reducing the risk of costly breakdowns and repairs.

Using the recommended oil type specified by the manufacturers is crucial for the effective lubrication and protection of the gear-set and bearings within the vibrating screen exciters. The manufacturers have carefully chosen the appropriate oil type based on the specific requirements of their equipment. Deviating from the recommended oil type can compromise the performance and longevity of the exciters, leading to potential damage.

When replacing the oil in vibrating screen exciters, it is essential to follow a proper procedure to ensure thorough drainage of exhausted

lubrication. Begin by opening the drain plug, allowing the exciter to empty completely of oil. In some cases, opening the fill plug may be necessary to release any pressure and facilitate complete drainage. Cleaning the drain plug thoroughly and securing it in place before adding fresh oil is important to maintain the integrity of the system.

Increased temperatures within the housing during operation serve as a vital indicator that the oil in the vibrating screen exciters needs to be changed. If the oil becomes exhausted or degraded, it loses its lubricating properties, resulting in increased friction and heat generation. Operating the exciters with exhausted oil poses a significant risk of damage to the gear-set and bearings, which can lead to costly repairs and downtime.

Suspension springs

Suspension springs play a crucial role in vibrating screens, particularly in mitigating G-force vibrations and preventing their transfer into the screen base and plant structure. To ensure efficient operation and prevent premature wear, routine inspection and maintenance of these suspension springs is essential.

Elgin advises regular inspection of suspension springs and prompt replacement if any noticeable signs of breakage are observed. Over time, due to continuous vibrations and heavy usage, these springs may develop wear or even break. By conducting routine inspections, operators can identify any damaged or worn springs and replace them promptly to maintain optimal performance.

In addition to inspecting the suspension springs, it is equally important to routinely clean the area surrounding them. Material buildup around the springs can cause premature wear and hinder their ability to function properly. Regular cleaning helps prevent such issues, and ensures that the springs remain free from debris or other substances that may compromise their performance.

When replacing suspension springs on a corner of the vibrating screen, it is crucial to replace the springs on the opposite corner as well. This practice ensures continuous performance and helps maintain the balance and stability of the screen. By replacing the springs in pairs, operators can ensure that the screen remains properly supported and functions as intended.

If suspension spring failures occur on a regular basis, it is necessary to examine the levelness of the floor steel in the plant. Over time, ground settling or consistent vibration forces can cause the floor steel to become unlevel. Such conditions can adversely affect the performance of the vibrating screen and lead to increased wear on the suspension springs. Operators can check the levelness using tools, such as a transit or water level, to identify and rectify any floor steel levelness issues.

Figure 1. Screen exciter.

Figure 2. Suspension springs.

Screen media

Elgin emphasises the significance of regularly inspecting all screen media for damage. Vibrating screens are subject to wear and tear due to the abrasive nature of the materials being processed. As a result, screen panels may develop cracks, tears, or other forms of damage over time. Routine inspection allows operators to identify and address these issues promptly. Damaged screen panels should be replaced as needed to maintain optimal performance and prevent operational inefficiencies.

During drain and rinse or desliming applications, polyurethane media is commonly used. It is crucial to measure the screen opening on polyurethane media regularly. Over time, wear and material friction can cause the screen opening to expand, leading to a decrease in operational performance. By monitoring the screen opening, operators can identify when it has reached a point where replacement is necessary to maintain the desired screening efficiency and throughput.

For horizontal or multi-slope screens, it is equally important to inspect the dams for signs of wear and replace them as needed. Dams serve to retain the processed material on the screen and ensure proper distribution across the screen surface. Over time, the dams can experience wear due to the constant flow of material and abrasion. Damaged or worn dams can compromise the screening process by allowing material to bypass or accumulate unevenly. Regular inspection and replacement of dams are vital to maintain efficient operation and accurate particle separation.

Conclusion

In conclusion, to ensure maximum performance and longevity of vibrating screens in coal processing plants, routine inspection and maintenance are key. Implementing a regular inspection schedule and providing proper training to operators on essential maintenance tasks will result in reduced downtime

and optimal performance. By following the pro-tips recommended by Elgin’s field service team, coal processing plant operators can achieve efficient operation and extend the lifespan of their vibrating screens.

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Figure 3. Screen media.

Michael Kelley, BossTek, USA, outlines how to create a dust management plan for coal stockpiles.

Whether kicked up by wind or disruption, dust emissions from stockpiles of raw and processed material – such as coal, aggregate, scrap, slag, ash, etc. – are heavily regulated, and sites that receive complaints from the local community can be investigated without the knowledge of the operator. This is often done by inspectors searching for nearly invisible airborne particulate matter (PM) smaller than

10 micrometres (PM10). These particulates are tiny enough to bypass the body’s natural defenses and cause chronic breathing issues over time. To avoid violations, fines and potential forced downtime, operators are encouraged to create a dust management plan (DMP). Very specific to the industry and application, a coal terminal’s DMP, for example, will likely look quite different from a slag handler’s DMP. Coal contains high quantities

of respirable crystalline silica (RCS), which commonly has more stringent emissions rules for both particle quantity and size. Slag handling, on the other hand – a residual of the steel production process – can involve superheated stockpiles that need to be stored for long

periods and churned to facilitate cooling, which requires dust suppression.

What both industries have in common is that the most practical and cost-effective storage is outdoors, which means they both need airborne dust suppression. Currently, the most effective airborne dust control method is atomised mist cannons.

Types of stockpiled material and dust

Gravimetric meters or personal dust monitors are used to measure dust. Calculated using the ASTM-C-136 method (a standard sieve test recommended by the American Society for Testing and Materials) to measure the particulates that pass through a 200 mesh screen, this approach captures particulates 75 micrometres (µm) or less in size. Using this method, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) assessed particulate samples from stockpiles taken in 2019 and compiled the data into size ranges and average particulate sizes based on the mean sample size.

Surface suppression vs airborne suppression

Although surface suppression does work, some substances like coal are hydrophobic and do not agglomerate to form a protective shell over the stockpile. Environmentally safe foams can be practical for many operations, but equipment disruption and a constant flow of material makes foam impractical for some bulk handlers. Atomised mist dosed with a surfactant can offer balanced coverage over the entire surface of a storage pile with less runoff and product loss than hoses or sprinklers.

Once particulates are airborne, there are no current methods for outdoor suppression beyond water to keep the dust from causing workplace violations and leaving the site line. Field tests have shown that atomised mist is far superior at airborne dust suppression than hoses or sprinklers. Beyond being autonomous and saving labour from holding hoses or driving sprinkler trucks, the differences between hoses, sprinklers, and atomised mist cannons comes down to droplet size.

Dust sizes and the slipstream effect

Dust particles or PM are measured by diameter in microns (µm). To remain suspended by normal ambient air currents, particles can be as large as 200 µm. The smaller they get, the less visible they are to the naked eye, becoming barely visible at 100 µm.

Airborne suppression of outdoor emissions is typically accomplished using water. Tests conducted over two decades reveal that droplets need to be approximately the same size as the airborne particulates to be effective. Hoses and sprinklers create droplets between 200 µm and

Figure 1. Mobile dust cannons can be easily adjusted based on the direction of the prevailing wind.

Figure 3. Hierarchy of dust control methods.

Figure 2. The slipstream effect and atomised mist.

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1000 µm, compared to atomised mist which is sized in the range of 15 µm to 200 µm for particle management. Droplet sizes greater than 200 µm are only adequate for wetting surfaces, but do not offer airborne dust suppression. This is due to the slipstream effect.

The mass of the large falling droplet creates a swift air current that moves around it, called a slipstream. Particles can get caught in the slipstream and either move around the droplet, avoiding it altogether, or it could even give the smallest particles lift, worsening the issue. In contrast, atomised droplets travel on air currents with the particles, absorbing them, and the collective mass drives both to the ground (Figure 1).

What makes droplets from hoses and sprinklers so large? Hoses and sprinklers depend on high water pressure to propel the droplets long distances. A massive volume of water pushed through a narrow space is needed to propel the water over the distance needed and this creates larger droplets. An atomised misting cannon relies on a powerful fan to propel tiny droplets created by specialised misting nozzles, using far less water and offering more complete coverage.

What is a dust management plan?

The length depends on the size of the site and the scope of the project. The DMP should be directed by an environmental specialist and maintained by internal resources. Essential sections include:

Introduction

This is a narrative for the report from an environmental and workplace safety perspective. State the nature of the operations and the organisation’s air quality goals. Highlight the collection of data and reasoning behind the chosen solutions.

Project/site information

Consider constructing this section with a short history, a description of the surrounding area, nearby communities, challenges, and industrial activities around the site that may contribute to lower air quality.

Environmental evaluation

Likely using the environmental site assessment as a resource, this is an examination of the existing air quality and contributing sources of particulate load entering and leaving the site. It may also cover several topics, such as geology, soil quality, ecology, water quality, seismology, weather, and an environmental impact statement.

Figure 4. Although the storage area has an adequate wind barrier, the dock remains exposed.

Figure 5. A misting ring closes the emission gap between discharged material and the cargo hold.

Table 1. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2020.

Okay

Policy evaluation

From an air quality standpoint, this should review fugitive particulate data, regulatory policy, permit details, and assessment methodology.

Dust control measures

A wide range of industries refer to the Hierarchy of Control Methods, the least effective being personal protective equipment (PPE) and the optimum being ‘eliminated by design’. Without diligent maintenance, training and monitoring, PPE is ineffective and only protects the wearer (Figure 2).

Monitoring

This section defines what is being tested, the testing methods, and frequency on a chart also showing ongoing testing results. It should, on a regular schedule (quarterly, bi-annually, or annually), provide insight into the effectiveness of the measures and offer recommendations.

Case Study – Hendricks River Logistics (HRL)

Located on the Mississippi River, the high-volume coal transshipping company handles 1.6 to 1.7 million tpy of coal from the Powder River Basin (PRB) in Wyoming. The coal is stored in a massive 14 acre stockpile.

Trains carrying sub-bituminous coal unload approximately 3500 tph into the receiving area, where it’s then conveyed to the stockpile. Coal is directly

discharged onto the stockpile through a 54 in misting ring, a stainless steel circular manifold containing 38 nucleating nozzles. The nozzles fracture pressurised water into atomised mist that forms a curtain around the cargo stream. Cross winds that cause fugitive dust also carry the tiny mist droplets, which interact with the particulates and quickly pull them to the ground. The misting ring is mounted on the conveyor 3 ft under the discharge point, pumping 23.94 gpm (90.62 lpm) of atomised water.

The conveyor leading from the stockpile to the dock is 1100 ft (335 m) long, loading barges at a rate of 1500 tph. HRL has fleeting for 80 barges. At the dock, it employs two atomised misting rings, a 48 in. (1219 mm) diameter unit on the smaller loading area and a large 72 in. (1828 mm) ring on the main loading area. These rings mitigate dust emissions along the river’s edge and help keep the dock, equipment and barges cleaner, with less fugitive material settling on the water.

Conclusion

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Rebecca Long Pyper, Dome Technology, USA, reviews coal’s prospects for the future and how they could blossom thanks to new technology.

Figure 1. Menkeqing coal storage.

Coal’s future is at a crossroads, and the view could not be more divergent depending on where you stand. In the US, latching onto wind and solar as the answer for electricity has meant little consideration for new technologies capable of producing dependable, pollution-controlled energy from traditional fossil fuels. Dome Technology, however, is an exception to the rule. The company, which is located in the western US and has built 14 coal-storage domes worldwide, is exploring innovative ideas that combine coal and climate protection – and it is not alone.

Indeed, Tom Porterfield, Farnham & Pfile Engineering President, is an unapologetic believer that what made America great was use of coal for dependable, inexpensive energy. He advocates for the use of technology to create energy with coal while minimising pollution and taking advantage of CO2 capture. A necessity he believes, in light of international sentiment regarding coal not being consistent with that of the US – China and India are quickly moving ahead of the US with regards to building coal-fired power plants, in fact China is building 60+ plants per year.

The future of coal in the US will hinge on out-of-the-box thinking. Porterfield and Dome Technology are collaborating to explore a carbon-negative project with the Department of Energy that will burn waste fuel, sorbent, and biomass under pressure to create inert pressure for power. Specifically, Porterfield’s team is developing this idea, dubbed ‘pressurised fluidised bed combustion’, within a power plant. If successful and embraced, this concept could change energy nationwide – exactly what Porterfield is hoping for. By introducing a combined energy policy, the US could reduce pollution and have dependable energy to compete with the rest of the world. In the meantime, it exports more coal than it keeps. For companies needing to store coal in a conditioned, controlled atmosphere now, domes provide product protection, customised reclaim, and pile management.

Coal storage

Of the 14 coal-storage domes Dome Technology has built, six can be found in China – built for China Coal. The company contracted Dome Technology to provide bulk-storage for two sites, one in Menkeqing (Figure 1) and the other in Hulusu (Figure 2). Each site features three coal domes capable of storing 60 000 t apiece.

At both sites, dome one houses coal arriving fresh from the mine. As coal exits the dome, it passes through a cleaning and washing process before being milled to achieve the right-sized pieces. From there, coal is dumped via conveyor into domes two and three, where it later exits the structures in one of three tunnels on its way to trains waiting outside.

Domes make more storage possible within a smaller footprint, so China Coal can store more in a smaller footprint than warehouses or flat storage would allow. Product can also be stacked deeper within a dome, meaning that for many companies, one dome might accommodate the same amount of material as multiple flat-storage structures.

The storage space available on a relatively small piece of land was one of the most significant dome advantages, but storage was not the only consideration. If the project were to be a success, China Coal also needed speed in reclaim and safety solutions.

If China Coal’s domes were going to deliver on speed and necessary throughput, selecting the right reclaim system was a must. In each dome, the reclaim workhorse is a 100% live-reclaim full-hopper system, similar to a series of funnels situated side by side, through which coal flows under its own weight, rather than being moved by loader or other mechanical equipment. A system providing full cleanout without mechanical parts is an ideal option. Other systems that achieve 100% reclaim cost significant money to run and are prone to mechanical breakdown. This is why gravity reclaim is preferable.

The full-hopper floor system is controlled with gates on the hoppers so site superintendents can meter flow to the belts. The floor’s design allows each dome to be emptied every three days, meeting the company’s handling needs. According to Dome Technology CEO, Bradley Bateman, China Coal was looking for high throughput without any mechanical cleanup, and this hopper floor system allowed it to achieve its goal. The model is ideal for lower-volatility coal, like that stored by China Coal, because the product’s shelf life is long enough to be safely stored in this environment. This solution is pretty new, as until now scale has been a limiting factor.

The full-hopper system provides first-in, first out reclaim desirable with types of coal prone to spontaneous combustion. Since self-combustion is mainly dependent on time, the longer coal sits, the more likely it will combust. Storage structures with just one central tunnel will reclaim a portion of the bottom cone of product, but everything off to the side comprises a static pile. Until that portion of the pile is drawn down and moved via loader, aging in pile is a real concern.

Dust control: The benefits of a sealed envelope

A reinforced-concrete storage dome is a natural choice for companies eager to minimise

environmental impact. Dust is a concern with many stored products, but it cannot escape a monolithic concrete dome, since joints or seams do not exist. Inside, the truss-free interior discourages dust build up, and a host of dust-control systems exist in the marketplace to manage dust production. Automatic dust-collection systems can be designed to convey dust back into the product stream.

Sealed and seamless, a dome keeps product inside and prevents interaction with the environment. This envelope is multi-layered; a dome is built using the shotcrete method, so concrete is sprayed in place without any construction joints. On the exterior, a high-strength PVC membrane covers the entire structure. Between the membrane and the concrete, urethane foam protects the life of the structure as well as the stored product.

The PVC membrane ensures complete waterproof protection for the reinforced concrete shell and, consequently, the material stored within. A mould-resistant UV-protective resin coats both sides of the membrane, providing long-term protection from these two common sources of degradation. This exterior requires almost zero superficial maintenance.

Domes are always built without rivets, fasteners, or mechanical connections found in other storage – thus eliminating potential sources for leaks and rust. This comprehensive approach to waterproofing promises long-lasting protection for stored product and the structure itself.

The double curvature of a dome provides strength at all points of the structure, even near the apex. With strength at the top, a coal company has no problem securing adequate space for dust-collection systems.

Structural strength

The dome itself can survive a disaster other types of storage might not, and will likely reward companies with insurance-premium savings. A dome has inherent strength other bulk-storage structures do not. Should an earthquake, tsunami, hurricane or tornado occur, the structure has a better chance of survival than a traditional building.

In a deflagration event, a dome’s round shape channels energy out with less structural damage. Historically, square and rectangular explosion venting has been the norm in storing products prone to deflagration, but Dome Technology’s team has pioneered a round hybrid model that began to be installed on projects in 2016. Whether a pre-manufactured rectangular panel or a metal cladding piece, a squared-off panel creates a weak spot. Round panels are preferable because there are no sharp corners for stress concentration in the structure. This allows for a release of pressure, protecting the structure.

The proprietary explosion vents are comprised of a circular geodesic steel lattice covered with the same PVC fabric used in the dome construction process.

The panel is anchored to the dome with explosion-venting relief screws that remain secure during the design dead, live, and wind loads. However, in the event of a deflagration event, the screws release the panel and allow for the release of the excessive internal pressure. The system is watertight and meets the required operational design loads.

When an explosion occurs, the fabric accepts the load and transfers it uniformly around the ring’s circumference. According to Jason South, Dome Technology Vice President of Engineering, Research, and Development because it is circular the load going to each of the fasteners can be predicted with great accuracy. If it were rectangular, the pressure going to each fastener could be different and more difficult to estimate.

Each explosion vent is unique to each project. Dome Technology’s engineering team uses discrete finite element modelling and computational fluid dynamics to model the potential explosion event and determine the amount of open area required for the blast panels, such that the pressure only gets to a certain level before fasteners release.

Conclusion

Dome Technology was built on innovative design and continues to embrace new ideas, such as pressurised fluidised bed combustion, in order to encourage stewardship of the environment, while providing the storage companies need to provide power. As more companies reconsider coal, and as more countries require coal piles to be covered for environmental reasons, the storage model is being reconsidered.

On-Belt Real Time Coal Analysers

Figure 2. Hulusu coal storage.

Mathew Cook, HAWK, Australia, considers conveyor health monitoring in the coal industry and how to ensure operational efficiency and safety.

Conveyor systems play a vital role in the coal mining industry, facilitating the efficient transportation of coal from extraction sites to processing plants and ultimately to power generation facilities. The reliability and continuous operation of these conveyor systems are crucial for maintaining a steady supply of coal. However, the harsh operating conditions and heavy loads associated with coal conveyors make them susceptible to various types of

failures and breakdowns, leading to costly downtime and safety risks.

It is extremely important to properly monitor conveyor health in the coal industry. There are several challenges associated with maintaining conveyor system integrity, as well as various techniques and technologies available for effective monitoring.

The coal industry heavily relies on conveyor systems to transport coal efficiently and

cost-effectively. Conveyor systems offer numerous advantages, including high capacity, long-distance transportation capabilities, and the ability to automate material handling processes. However, the complexity and scale of conveyor systems pose significant challenges in terms of health monitoring, as failures can lead to costly production interruptions, increased maintenance costs, and, most importantly, potential safety hazards for personnel. Therefore, implementing effective conveyor health monitoring strategies is essential to ensure optimal operational efficiency and safety.

Conveyor systems in coal mining operations face a range of challenges that affect their health

and performance. These challenges include abrasive and corrosive materials, heavy loads, extreme temperatures, excessive vibration, misalignment, and belt slippage. Moreover, the size and complexity of conveyor systems make it difficult to inspect and diagnose potential issues manually. Identifying and addressing these challenges require comprehensive monitoring techniques that provide real-time data on the health of the conveyor system components.

Visual inspection remains a fundamental technique for detecting early signs of wear, damage, or misalignment in conveyor components. Regular inspections can help identify issues such as belt wear, damage to rollers and pulleys, and abnormal material spillage. However, visual inspection alone is not sufficient for comprehensive monitoring, as it relies on human observation and can be time-consuming and subject to human error.

Vibration analysis is an effective technique for monitoring the health of conveyor components – such as motors, bearings, and gearboxes. By analysing vibration patterns, it is possible to detect abnormalities indicative of mechanical faults, misalignment, or imbalances. Vibration sensors strategically placed along the conveyor system can provide real-time data for predictive maintenance, enabling proactive repairs before critical failures occur.

Temperature monitoring is crucial in identifying abnormal heating patterns that can lead to component failure or fires. Thermal sensors can be used to monitor the temperature of bearings, motors, and other critical components. Deviations from normal temperature ranges can indicate issues – such as inadequate lubrication, overloading, or electrical faults – allowing for timely intervention to prevent catastrophic failures.

Belt misalignment and slippage can cause significant damage to conveyor systems, resulting in downtime and potential hazards. Monitoring techniques, such as laser alignment systems and belt wander detectors, can quickly identify misalignment issues, while belt slippage detectors can provide early warning signs of belt slip or excessive tension. These techniques allow operators to take corrective actions promptly, preventing further damage and reducing unplanned downtime.

Thankfully, there is a solution to monitoring conveyor health. Over the years, technology has progressed, and new types of sensors and data analysis techniques have developed to the point that autonomous monitoring of moving and vibrating conveyor components are now available. The limitation now lies in the practicality of installing, commissioning, and maintaining sensors over long expanses of overland conveyors.

Normally this limitation means that critical pulleys at the head, tail, and return take up are monitored with a smattering of other instruments used at different locations of interest. However, the majority of moving

Figure 1. HAWK’s Praetorian fibre optic sensing system on a conveyor belt.

Figure 2. HAWK’s Praetorian conveyor health monitoring system (CHMS) is a plant and site wide single solution for detecting when critical parts of the idler are beginning to fail.

components (idlers) are not actively monitored and still rely on manual daily inspections (sometimes called belt walks), in order to determine ongoing wear and replacement needs.

Distributed sensing systems are a disruptive technology to multiple ongoing monitoring applications including but not limited to conveyor belts. They are more accurate and reliable than the existing manual inspections. There are many benefits that come with installing a single passive sensing element that continuously monitors all the carry and return idlers on a belt. But, first, it is best to learn how fibre optic sensing works.

The general principle of operation of fibre optic sensors can be best described as a combination of time of flight for determining signal origin (similar to a radar or sonar) and backscatter diffraction. In simplistic terms, the energy from vibration and temperature changes the properties of the glass within the fibre optic cable, which changes the way that light is refracted at that point in the fibre. By analysing the time of flight and the change in the diffraction pattern, it is possible to determine what is happening at any point along the fibre optic cable with no need for further sensing elements.

Distributed sensors come in a couple of different configurations; however, this article will focus on fibre optic sensing using a state of the art fibre optic sensing system. HAWK’s Praetorian

fibre optic system utilises distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) for detection of idler vibration and distributed temperature sensing (DTS) for overhead heat and fire detection when used for conveyor monitoring applications.

When determining the best option for autonomous conveyor monitoring, consideration should be given to the combination of a DAS/DTS hybrid system capable of acting as a condition monitoring and emergency monitoring system. Primarily a pair of fibres mounted to the stringers of the conveyor monitor idler vibration, and a single catenary supported fibre sits above the material under the weather shield to monitor for a

Figure 3. No need to manually walk conveyor belts anymore. The Praetorian’s early detection warnings allow operators to control down time and avoid catastrophic costly unplanned shutdowns.

localised increase in air temperature caused by fire on the belt.

By installing these fibres within HAWK fibre casing, the amount of vibrational energy detectable with the fibre is increased, leading to earlier detection. The fibre is protected mechanically from both interference, impact, and the ongoing build-up of dust and other materials.

Subsequently, by utilising just a few fibre optic cables, a single system can monitor

kilometres of conveyor belt in an autonomous and continuous fashion, determining both the quality of operating condition and monitoring for emergency conditions. This is all done from a single powered unit with a single point of input to DCS or SCADA systems in a simple to understand priority (traffic light) based system. It also uses GPS tag positions and historical data that is ready at the touch of a button.

Additionally, HAWK’s user geographical information system graphical user interface is accessible from any mobile connected device allowing inspectors to look up the date alarm information in the field during their normal duties. Operators and managers can also look at the condition of the belts and place their orders for replacement idlers appropriate to their measured future needs.

Conveyor health monitoring is essential for ensuring the reliable operation of conveyor systems in the coal industry. By implementing effective monitoring techniques and advanced technologies, operators can detect early signs of wear, misalignment or component failure, enabling proactive maintenance and minimising costly downtime. The installation of smarter technologies, such as fibre optic sensing systems, are valuable tools that can enhance conveyor health monitoring capabilities. Continuous advancements in monitoring technologies will further contribute to improved efficiency, safety, and productivity in coal conveyor systems.

Figure 4. HAWK’s Praetorian fibre optic sensing detects abnormalities in conveyor idler performance that other technologies cannot.

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THE END OF AN ERA?

Pembroke Resources, Australia, explores whether the Olive Downs Complex will be the last of the large-scale greenfield steelmaking mines.

Seven years since acquiring a collection of coking coal exploration leases, Pembroke Resources’ billion-dollar Olive Downs Complex, a large-scale, world class steelmaking coal mine located in the Bowen Basin of Queensland approximately 40 km southeast of Moranbah, is in the final stages of construction.

Mining operations began in June, and first coal sales are anticipated by the end of the year. When fully developed, Olive Downs

Figure 1. Pembroke – Sheldon Bridge – Olive Downs Complex.

will be one of the world’s largest steelmaking coal mines, boasting over 500 000 t of opencast reserves, an impressive mine life of 79 years, and, under the current approvals, the capacity to produce up to 20 million t (ROM) annually.

Amidst the prevailing ESG and investment landscape, Olive Downs stands as a rare project. It deviates from the conventional trajectory of major mining companies that are tending to steer clear of large greenfield coal developments.

The success of Pembroke’s development could lead one to conclude the path has been straightforward. Yet, even with a world class project such as Olive Downs, with strong investment and financial backing, along with superior environmental credentials and almost exclusively steelmaking coal, there have been numerous challenges to get this world class project to production.

History

Pembroke Resources, established in 2014 by Executive Chairman and CEO, Barry Tudor, and supported by prominent global private equity firm Denham Capital, holds full ownership of the Olive Downs Complex. The investment strategy was straightforward. The focus was on coking coal due to its indispensable role in steel production, via a world class asset that was capable of development without the need for excessive infrastructure.

The Olive Downs Complex perfectly aligned with this strategy. Previously under the ownership of Peabody and, prior to this, part of Macarthur Coal’s asset pipeline, it had initially caught the attention of Tudor and Pembroke’s Chief Operating Officer, Mark Sheldon, who were both executives at Gloucester Coal in 2009 when Gloucester Coal and Peabody were in the process of merging on the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX).

Pembroke’s acquisition of Olive Downs ticked all the boxes with a huge resource of high-quality coking coal in the world’s best coal basin, surrounded by multiple and mature rail and port options. Another key attribute of any potential asset was that it was ‘uncontroversial’.

Tudor’s experience of operating a mine in the Gloucester basin provided valuable insights into emerging ESG trends. The Gloucester basin stood out from the Hunter Valley region, as it was close to a National Park and nearby to town and numerous hobby farms. It was subject to exceptionally rigorous environmental regulations for its time. Consequently, it had to consistently meet and surpass environmental and social expectations to retain its environmental and social licence.

Construction and firsts

Pembroke has outlined plans to swiftly double the production capacity, emphasising that the mine was designed and engineered with a modular approach, facilitating future expansions in a timely manner. So, although the current construction phase will achieve annual production of six million t, several project components have been developed to support the approved capacity of 20 million tpy.

The infrastructure investments, exceeding AUS$500 million, encompass a range of key components, such as:

ƒ An electrified 19 km rail line and loop, establishing a connection between the operations and the Norwich Branch line.

ƒ A 24 km water pipeline to facilitate the necessary water supply.

ƒ An advanced two-stage coal processing plant with a capacity of 800 tph.

ƒ Multiple road and rail bridges for efficient transportation.

ƒ A 44 km 66 Kv electricity line and a dedicated communications tower, supporting the operations of the automated haulage system.

The mine will also employ a fleet of Caterpillar autonomous-ready 794 AC haul trucks, and it is also the pioneering site to integrate both autonomous trucks and drills.

A unique opportunity to generate superior outcomes

In spite of the considerable obstacles associated with the approval and construction of a greenfield coal mine in the current environment, Pembroke recognised the significant potential for showcasing a fresh approach to mining that aligns with contemporary values concerning the environment, conservation, emissions, social responsibility, and governance.

Olive Downs is recognised as being the first mine approved under the Queensland Strong and Sustainable Communities Act, offering employees genuine options to reside within the local community. And the mine is also first in implementing three-phase clearing protocols and establishing a dedicated programme and clinic for the conservation of Koalas and Greater Gliders.

Pembroke was fully aware of the challenges involved in developing a new coal mine in the 2020s. It understood from the outset that true success would not come from merely meeting the minimum requirements, but rather by surpassing them and establishing new benchmarks. The objective was to establish new industry standards for mining in 2023.

The complex redefines the traditional concept of mine construction and development. It introduces the idea of a campus that embodies a comprehensive approach to resource mining, a first of its kind. This holistic approach was embraced from the very beginning, starting with the decision to go beyond the necessities of mining operations by acquiring over 40 000 hectares of agricultural land within and adjacent to the resource development zone. While not mandatory for mining purposes, this choice was made to facilitate the responsible implementation of these objectives for the development of the complex.

Sustainability and technological advancements are propelling innovation within the resource industry, and the Olive Downs Complex represents a comprehensive and interconnected development that embodies this ethos. Pembroke believe it is a mining approach that can only be realised through a steadfast commitment to exceptional outcomes, and the establishment of new standards well in advance of commencing operations onsite.

The integrated mining concept

The Olive Downs Complex encompasses a diverse range of components, including:

ƒ Over 20 000 hectares of designated conservation areas dedicated to preserving fauna and ecological habitats.

Figure 2. Coal handling and preparation plant.

ƒ A specialised clinic for Koalas and Greater Gliders, staffed by expert veterinarians and wildlife ecologists; offering ground-breaking research, protection, and conservation.

ƒ Pioneering fauna tracking programmes, bolstered by veterinary assistance and community education initiatives.

ƒ A 10 ha. solar farm and green energy project designed to offset power demand and promote sustainable practices.

ƒ 20 000 ha. of pastoral activities, fostering agricultural pursuits and land utilisation.

ƒ An indigenous cultural centre dedicated to celebrating and promoting the rich indigenous history of the region.

ƒ An eco-village that adheres to world’s best practices in construction and minimises environmental impact, incorporating sustainability considerations from the design stage and fostering development for the wider community.

ƒ The Olive Downs open cut mine, featuring state of the art automation technology for key mining equipment, ensuring heightened safety and efficiency.

Over the past two decades, the Australian mining industry has witnessed notable advancements

in specific areas. However, many existing mines face limitations in their overall effectiveness due to lingering residual or legacy issues, impeding their ability to fully integrate and offset their environmental impact.

Most mining projects prioritise the rapid attainment of production and revenue targets, often neglecting other crucial considerations. This approach can lead to operations burdened with legacy issues, posing challenges in achieving sustainable outcomes.

Figure 3. The 19 km rail loop connecting Olive Downs to the Norwich Branch line.

One example of how Pembroke is dealing with these issues differently at Olive Downs can be seen in its approach to the protection of native wildlife during clearing operations. In contrast to conventional mining practices that may result in substantial harm to wildlife inhabiting vegetated areas, Olive Downs has implemented a three-stage protocol. This protocol involves three thorough checks for wildlife before clearing each tree, employing specially trained ‘spotter catchers’, drones, and elevated work platforms.

This unique approach showcases the mine’s commitment to minimising the impact on wildlife and ensuring their well-being throughout the clearing process. Similarly, the purpose-built Koala and Greater Glider clinic is utilised to conserve and protect native wildlife, and the integrated fauna tracking programme creates research data for the protection and study of native wildlife.

Steelmaking coal – demand and supply Coking coal remains indispensable in the production of high-quality steel, and there is currently no viable substitute available and so it seems that the reliance on coking coal will

persist for several decades. Given its vital role in numerous aspects of people’s lives – including consumer goods, transportation, construction, infrastructure, and the transition to renewable energy – the significance of steelmaking coal cannot be understated.

While the demand for coking coal, particularly in rapidly developing regions like Southeast Asia, remains robust, the supply side will face constraints. During this phase of the market cycle, new producers would usually enter the market, expanding capacity through large-scale projects. However, the challenges encountered in bringing Olive Downs into production are even more formidable for new entrants, resulting in a scarcity of such projects.

At a time where investors and lenders are reluctant to commit to a long-term project, given the uncertainties around ESG and government policy, many jurisdictions are unlikely to approve major new coal mines. While existing mines are depleting, it is easy to understand why the Australian Financial Review reported recently that the Olive Downs Complex may be the last of the large-scale greenfield steelmaking mines.

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