the potential manifestations of OUD, increasing pain and despair, further loss of self-worth/esteem, and/or an elevated sense of disconnection or abandonment, potentially culminating in significant suicide risk and lethal outcome. As pain management providers, it is important to acknowledge, study, and learn from data. It is also imperative to act on them through the prism of patient-centered care, taking into consideration the impact on the individual, and the need for an individualized, holistic care plan. Taken in whole, our review heralds the necessary adoption of the biopsychosocial model to meet complex patient needs, harkening to Howe and Sullivan’s assertion that psychiatry is the “missing P” in chronic pain care.47
Acknowledgments
We thank Bridget Matarazzo for her feedback on drafts of this paper, Justina Wu for her editorial assistance, and acknowledge the sacrifices of men and women who have served in the US military.
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