Chapter 1 - Literature Review

1

Literaure Review

Introduction

This section gives the content aimed at defining the phenomenon of homelessness and explaining homeless profiles. There are approaches in defining this phenomenon, sometimes focusing on the inappropriateness of physical conditions and sometimes on individuals who experience homelessness. In all cases, many factors cause the problem of homelessness to be more complicated than it seems and make this problem intractable. Each individual has different identities and therefore different needs. Examining the classified profiles, instead of looking for solutions for the masses, is a more effective way of understanding the different needs. In previous studies, scholars have approached the classification and identification of the issues surrounding homelessness in different ways. One of these ways relates to the effects of the time spent on the street on homeless people and demographics that distinguish people's identities. With the guidance of these classifications, design requirements can be determined. Another issue addressed in this chapter is how the classification of homelessness is accepted on an international scale. An existing and improved version of this classification is provided. Also, the psychological damages and behavioral differences that come with the homelessness problem are included in this chapter. "Homelessness" means the absence of shelter and sleeping in public places. Robert E. Drake described homeless people as "any individual without a home" in 1991. Alternatively, in Peter Augustine Lawler’s approach, he emphasized that homeless people have been separated from society. According to this, homelessness was defined as "social marginalization and lack of proper settlement conditions" (Lawler, 2007).

Mossman and Perlin's study (1992: 951-957) characterised homeless people under three headings in a classification system according to the time spent outside the home;

a) Episodic Homeless: Those who are in this group are those who live below the poverty line and do not have a regular income and who are constantly at risk of becoming homeless.

b) Temporary Homelessness: This label is used to identify individuals who are at risk of homelessness over time. It is used to identify individuals with alcohol and drug addiction as well as anxiety, depression symptoms due to problems that arise especially in the family environment. Individuals with a place to shelter accept themselves as a part of society because they have a home in which they are in contact, while those who do not have a place to shelter do not consider themselves a part of society. We can see the homeless in this category existing on the streets, in parks, under bridges; some lifestyles are recognized by them and are not accepted by other individuals. In the interviews conducted with individuals in the study of Mossman and Perlin (1992) in this category,

individuals try to regain their jobs, homes, and social status in society when appropriate conditions are provided.

characterise this cohort are: c) Chronic Homeless People: Those who fit within this category of homelessness are people who live without shelter for a long time. It is used for individuals who have internalized the street as a way of life and do not try to change their current situation. In individuals with chronic homelessness, behavioural disorders are often seen

However, those people are examined in many typologies that do not fall within the scope of a single definition. Some of the intersectionalities that and they cannot exhibit confidence in others.

- Gender - Age - Race - Places people choose - Duration - Identities - Substance abuse - Mental illness - Dependent children

Figure 1

Source: Author's own graphic, based upon a classification of the data presented in Mossman and Perlin (1992).

Importance of Definition and Classification

The solution to a problem of such complex social dimensions that exists all over the world and that involves homeless people within different typologies can only be achieved through an accurate and detailed definition and classification.

A definition of homelessness can be properly judged if it allows for accurate and reliable identification and classification of homeless people so that policies can be developed to respond to different manifestations of homelessness and monitor the effectiveness of such interventions (Amore, Baker, and HowdenChapman, 2011). A typology called "European Typology of Homelessness and housing exclusion (ETHOS)" was developed and launched in 2005 to improve better understanding and measurement of homelessness in Europe and to provide a common "language" for transnational changes related to homelessness (feantsa, 2005). This typology, which is used for different purposes such as discussion framework, data collection purposes, policy objectives, monitoring purposes, and media, is important to learn how to address the homelessness policy in Europe and to understand a classification at the level of states policy. However, ETHOS has been considered as a classification that needs to be developed by some scholars, with missing and faulty sides and improved ETHOS has been presented.

ETHOS

Developed by FEANTSA (European Federation of National Organisations Working with the Homeless) and the European Observatory on Homelessness, ETHOS is both a definition and a typology (or classification) of homelessness; that is, it proposes how the homeless population should be identified and divides the population into discrete subgroups.

2 PARTS OF ETHOS APPROACH

MODEL CLASSIFICATION ETHOS focuses on the living conditions of a 'home'. This conceptual model was developed by scientists Bill Edgar, Joe Doherty, and Hank Meert. It was first published in the Second Review of Statistics on Homelessness in Europe (Edgar et al., 2003), further refined in the review of the following year, and has not changed since then (as per the most recent European Review of Statistics on Homelessness

"The importance of this model is, it is widely accepted and frequently quoted in almost all European countries” (BuschGeertsema, 2010, p. 21).

Figure 2

ETHOS model for defining living situations as homelessness, housing exclusion, or adequate housing according to physical, legal, and social domains

Source: adapted from Edgar, 2009, p. 16

*Circles were put by the author

(Edgar, 2009).

Figure 3

Source: Author's own graphic, based upon a analysis of the data presented in Edgar (2009).

Figure 4

ETHOS Classification

Source: adapted from FEANTSA (2007)

*Annotations were put by the author to indicate the points discussed in the study of Amore, Baker, and Howden-Chapman (2011)

Cultural exceptions* (Hospital, prisons)

Should be classified as homelessness*

Improving the ETHOS Classification

In their 2011 work, Amore, Baker, and HowdenChapman identified the points they deem necessary to be improved in the ETHOS classification, as this classification has been accepted and proposed by the European Union, thus, has more impact than any other classification. The first identified deficiency is the lack of relation between the concept model and the classification table. Also, they pointed out that the lack of "legal space-physical space" and "physical space-social space" in the concept model (see Figure 2, intersection 3-4) are considered as the exclusion of housing, not homelessness by ETHOS. Finally, they argue that the status of people residing in the penitentiary and medical institution (see Figure 4), whose prospects for the future are not clear, should be identified as culturally recognised exceptions, and should not fall under the category of homelessness. And people living in mobile homes, non-conventional buildings, temporary structures also should be classified as homeless. Accordingly, Amore, Baker, and Howden-Chapman have offered an improved classification based on their ETHOS study (2011).

People living in places of habitation that are below a minimum adequacy standard (living situations in which residents are excluded from two or more of these three essential domains) irrespective of which two they are excluded from, should be considered homeless, provided they also meet the ‘lack of access to adequate housing’ criterion (Amore, Baker, and Howden-Chapman, 2011).

The researchers in this study have stated that they were not trying to identify or classify the population at risk of housing exclusion or homelessness. Regarding this second category, they emphasize that the population at risk of homelessness should be specifically defined, measured and reported, including those that have been left to homelessness from institutions, and possibly other categories, as will be evacuated to homelessness (Amore, Baker and HowdenChapman, 2011).

Figure 5

Model for defining a population as homeless, housing excluded, or adequately housed, according to physical, legal, and social domains, and access to adequate housing Source: adapted from Amore, Baker and Howden-Chapman, 2011, p. 33.

Figure 6

Classification of the homeless population by living situation in the New Zealand context (provided the ‘lack of access to adequate housing’ criterion is also met)

Psychological Status of Homeless People

Anti-social behavior. This is defined as “behavior by a person that causes or is likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to one or more persons, not of the same household as the person" at Oxford City Council's website under the heading of "How we approach some of the issues arising from rough sleeping". It covers a wide range of unacceptable activities that blights the lives of many people on a daily basis. Often it makes victims feel helpless, and with a seriously low quality of life (Oxford City Council, 2019).

The problem of homelessness does not only make a person's life difficult about not having a space to live, but it also brings with it many psychological living conditions can make the situation much more compelling. Being unhealthy psychologically can affect both the person and the people around him/her. Anti-social behavior is one of the issues. But beyond that, one's psychological problems can prevent the person from managing their daily life. It should be remembered that in most cases, treatment for mental illnesses may be required for psychological problems, and sometimes even these diseases cannot be cured at all. Also, the effects on psychology are directly related to identity. Parsell referred to the work of Osbourne in 2002, saying that the "Homelessness identity is something tangible and even measurable."(Parsell, 2011, p. 445). Osbourne studied the very profound identity dilemma facing homeless people in his study in 2002. He mentioned that, like most people, homeless people who are motivated to maintain a stable and positive self-view, are blocked by the harsh and chaotic circumstances of street life. As part of the study, interviews and surveys were conducted with many homeless people, and researchers have reached two possibilities to maintain a stable identity while dealing with homelessness. The first one is to maintain the docile identity and do

problems. The individual's problems and the rough Figure 7 Source: Author's own graphic, according to identity of Parsell (2011), whatever it takes to get out of the street, and the other is to incorporate being homeless into one's identity (Osbourne, 2002).

Going beyond showing homeless identities, contemporary researchers who both define the individual characteristics of different types of a homeless person and explain homelessness have shown how the homelessness experience shapes identity. In fact, even when not initially embraced, homeless identities are taken on as homelessness becomes long-term. Thus, although people have been shown to express agency in their capacity to take on or avoid a homeless identity, this identity is presented as one-dimensional and real (Parsel, 2011).

Historically, the homeless identity was associated with assumed personal inadequacies (Jordan 1965; Linsell 1962). They were defined by their problematic attributes. In the UK and the USA, this was often with a focus on their fecklessness and laziness (Kyle

definition of homeless 2005; Pleace 1998).

Osbourne (2002).

According to this study, when homeless people received charity, their behaviours were observed:

Cameron Parsell's (2011) Homeless Identities article examines homeless people and their identities based on an ethnographic field study with people living in Brisbane, Australia. In a point of departure from much work in this area, homeless identity is not presented as measurable or necessarily meaningful. which people's identities are ascribed and how the elements of the self can be enacted. Rather, attention is paid to the way in

- Passive meek homeless people were generally appreciated and respectful with little or no expression on their faces. They were not demanding or insisting, they were displaying gratitude, inferiority, docility.

- Some participants of the research group were intoxicated, loud, and disturbing.

- Others maintained their physical distance from intoxicated people. And some children exhibited disrespectful and undesirable behavior (Parsell, 2011).

Figure 8

Source: Author's own graphic based on an analysis of the observation results made in Parsell's Homeless Identity Study (2011). Observations conducted while volunteering at a charitable outreach service.

PERFORMATIVE THEORY

Identity Enactment Context of Place

Figure 9

Source: Author's own graphic based on an analysis of the data presented in Parr and Philo (1995).

Impact of Places

Previous examples show how behavioral disorders affect not only the person but also those around them. However, people can be influenced not only by the behavior of others but also by the place where they live (see Figure 9). Parr and Philo (1995: 203) showed how people with mental illnesses are not only expected to display certain behaviours in psychiatric institutions, but these institutions are ‘key sites in which people learn to be mad’.

Preferences of Homeless People

When designing for a solution to the problem of homelessness, it is important to know the preferences of users and what they need most. Addressing these needs first can enable users to respond to the solution and continue to progress to manage other important needs. Many studies have been conducted so far to understand these needs. One of these is Acosta and Toro's "Let's ask the homeless people themselves: a needs assessment based on a probability sample of adults" in 2000.

Figure 10 Source: adopted from Acosta, Toro (2000)

Conclusion of Chapter 1

This Literature study can be seen as a preliminary study for the closer recognition of the problem of homelessness, which is a complex, difficult-to-solve, and repetitive social problem. Many reasons trigger the

As a method of the study of Acosta and Toro (2000), 301 homeless adults from Buffalo, NY, were followed over 6 months to document the utilization of a variety of community services, examine services desired, and identify factors associated with service utilization, preference, and satisfaction. As seen in the table in Figure 10, the participants in this study mostly used shelter and soup services. We can see that the biggest needs here are nutrition and a place to live. The third most used service is homeless agencies. This indicates that they need advice or support. The table in Figure 11 contains an analysis of important and difficult-to-reach needs. Physical security was considered to be of the highest importance, then it was surprising that education was taken even further, which seems to be only the

Figure 11 Source: adopted from Acosta, Toro (2000)

fourth concern as affordable housing. problem, and these reasons can be diverse as they can be sourced from individual reasons affecting the person.

In this study, I learned how people differ from each other, how conditions affect identity and behavior. Apart from this, the conditions to be met to know who is considered homeless and what a person must have not to be considered homeless also determine the profile and design requirements to some extent. Finally, it was revealed in this study that the relationship between space and human and mental disorders it will cause should be taken into consideration at every stage.