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Introduction to Kinesiology Studying PhysicalActivity
Fifth Edition
Shirl J. Hoffman, EdD
University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Professor Emeritus
Duane V. Knudson, PhD
Texas State University
Editors
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher
The web addresses cited in this text were current as of June 2017, unless otherwise noted.
Acquisitions Editors: Myles Schrag and Bridget Melton
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Champaign, IL 61825-5076
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E7052
Contents
Preface
Goals of the Book
Organization
Updates in the Fifth Edition
Features of the Book
Instructor Resources
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Introduction to Kinesiology
DuaneV.KnudsonandShirlJ.Hoffman
Interest in the Discipline of Kinesiology
Physical Activity: The Focus of Kinesiology
Some Focuses of Physical Activity in Kinesiology
Wrap-Up
Part I: Experiencing Physical Activity
Chapter 2: Spheres of Physical Activity Experience
ShirlJ.Hoffman
Sphere of Self-Sufficiency
Sphere of Self-Expression
Sphere of Work
Sphere of Education
Sphere of Leisure
Sphere of Health
Sphere of Competition
Wrap-Up
Chapter 3: The Importance of Physical Activity Experiences
DuaneV.Knudson
Physical Activity as a Signature of Humanity
Factors That Influence Kinds of Experience in Physical Activity
Ways in Which Experience Can Affect Physical Activity
Identifying Critical Components of Physical Activity Experiences
Heredity and Experience
Subjective Experience of Physical Activity
Why Subjective Experiences Are Important to Kinesiology
Professionals
Components of Subjective Experience
Factors Affecting Our Enjoyment of Physical Activity
Watching Sport as a Subjective Experience
Wrap-Up
Part II: Scholarly Study of Physical Activity
Chapter 4: Philosophy of Physical Activity
ScottKretchmarandCesarR.Torres
Why Use Philosophical Thinking?
What Do Philosophers Do?
History of Philosophy of Physical Activity
Research Methods for Philosophy of Physical Activity
Overview of Knowledge in Philosophy of Physical Activity
Wrap-Up
Chapter 5: History of Physical Activity
RichardA.Swanson
Why Use History of Physical Activity?
What Do Historians of Physical Activity Do?
History of Kinesiology and Physical Activity
Research Methods for History of Physical Activity
Overview of Knowledge in History of Physical Activity
Wrap-Up
Chapter 6: Sociology of Physical Activity
KatherineM.Jamieson
Why Use Sociology of Physical Activity?
What Do Sociologists of Physical Activity Do?
History of Sociology of Physical Activity
Research Methods for Sociology of Physical Activity
Overview of Knowledge in Sociology of Physical Activity
Wrap-Up
Chapter 7: Motor Behavior
KatherineT.ThomasandJerryR.Thomas
Why Use Motor Behavior?
What Do Motor Behaviorists Do?
History of Motor Behavior
Research Methods for Motor Behavior
Overview of Knowledge in Motor Behavior
Wrap-Up
Chapter 8: Sport and Exercise Psychology
RobinS.Vealey
Why Use Sport and Exercise Psychology?
What Do Sport and Exercise Psychology Professionals Do?
History of Sport and Exercise Psychology
Research Methods for Sport and Exercise Psychology
Overview of Knowledge in Sport and Exercise Psychology
Wrap-Up
Chapter 9: Biomechanics of Physical Activity
KathySimpson
Why Use Biomechanics of Physical Activity?
What Do Biomechanists Do?
History of Biomechanics
Research Methods for Biomechanics
Overview of Knowledge in Biomechanics
Wrap-Up
Chapter 10: Physiology of Physical Activity
JenniferL.Caputo
Why Use Physiology of Physical Activity?
What Do Exercise Physiologists Do?
History of Physiology of Physical Activity
Research Methods for Physiology of Physical Activity
Overview of Knowledge in Physiology of Physical Activity
Wrap-Up
Part III: Practicing a Profession in Physical Activity
Chapter 11: Becoming a Physical Activity Professional
ShirlJ.Hoffman
What Is a Profession?
How Do Our Values Shape Our Professional Conduct?
How Are Physical Activity Professionals Educated for the Workforce?
Are You Suited for a Career in the Physical Activity Professions?
Wrap-Up
Chapter 12: Careers in Health and Fitness
WarrenD.Franke
What Is the Health and Fitness Profession?
Settings for Health and Fitness
Roles for Health and Fitness Professionals
Trends and Opportunities in Health and Fitness
Advice for Health and Fitness Students
Wrap-Up
Chapter 13: Careers in Therapeutic Exercise
ChadStarkey
What Is Therapeutic Exercise?
Settings for Therapeutic Exercise
Roles for Therapeutic Exercise Professionals
Trends and Opportunities in Therapeutic Exercise
Advice for Therapeutic Exercise Students
Wrap-Up
Chapter 14: Careers in Teaching Physical Education
KimC.GraberandThomasJ.Templin
What Is the Teaching of Physical Education?
Settings for Teaching Physical Education
Roles for Physical Education Professionals
Trends and Opportunities in Teaching Physical Education
Advice for Physical Education Students
Wrap-Up
Chapter 15: Careers in Coaching and Sport Instruction
JosephA.LuxbacherandDuaneV.Knudson
What Are Coaching and Sport Instruction?
Settings for Coaching and Sport Instruction
Roles for Coaching and Sport Instruction Professionals
Trends and Opportunities in Coaching and Sport Instruction
Advice for Coaching and Sport Instruction Students
Wrap-Up
Chapter 16: Careers in Sport Management
G.ClaytonStoldtandMarkC.Vermillion
What Is Sport Management?
Settings for Sport Management
Roles for Sport Management Professionals
Trends and Opportunities in Sport Management
Advice for Sport Management Students Wrap-Up
Glossary
References
About the Editors
About the Contributors
Preface
Welcome to the fifth edition of IntroductiontoKinesiology. Let us introduce you to the goals, updates, and features of this new edition of an outstanding text. Along with the usual updating of content, this revision includes a blend of previous and new contributors, editors, and features. The result is a streamlined yet comprehensive introduction to the exciting and diverse discipline of kinesiology.
Goals of the Book
The primary goals of IntroductiontoKinesiologyare to give students a comprehensive overview of the discipline and to inspire them to pursue a major professional career related to it. In order to accurately summarize the diverse and growing discipline of kinesiology, we use a unique model that addresses both the sources of knowledge and the primary subdisciplinary fields of this area of study. The last six chapters highlight characteristics of professionals and several professional careers open to kinesiology graduates. We hope this book inspires you to continuously study physical activity and join us in promoting physical activity for the benefit of all people.
Organization
This fifth edition retains the three-part structure addressing the sources of kinesiology knowledge, the primary subdisciplines of kinesiology, and the major career areas for kinesiology graduates. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the book, offers key definitions, and presents the model on which the text is organized. Part I has two chapters that introduce seven spheres of physical activity experiences and explore the importance of such experience for participation in and knowledge of physical activity.
Part II reviews seven of the most common subdisciplines of kinesiology: philosophy, history, sociology, motor behavior, psychology, biomechanics, and physiology. Each chapter gives a brief overview of major historical events in the development of the subdiscipline; the research methods used in the subdiscipline; what professionals such as biomechanists, exercise physiologists, and others do in the course of their professional work; and how students’ current knowledge can form a foundation for more advanced study.
Each of these chapters also presents practical, real-world applications from the relevant subdiscipline and is organized to help readers understand why the subdiscipline is important and how it may relate to a variety of professional endeavors.
Part III presents characteristics of professionals, followed by a look at professional opportunities in five major career areas or clusters: health and fitness, therapeutic exercise, physical education, coaching and sport instruction, and sport management.
Updates in the Fifth Edition
Textbooks do not get to fifth editions unless they contribute meaningfully to the field and are well received by both students and faculty. The editors and contributors of this fifth edition have built on the strong foundation of the previous edition by listening to helpful feedback from instructors while determining how to update the content and adapt the features of the book and its ancillaries. As a result, this new edition is shorter even as it includes new content.
Each chapter includes the latest research and updated data (including more than 190 new or updated references) from the relevant subdisciplines or professions. For example, this edition addresses both recent expansion of kinesiology opportunities in public health and likely future changes in other allied health careers. In addition, the multiple sources of kinesiology knowledge emphasized in previous editions of the book have been supplemented in this revision to illustrate evidence-based practice and different styles of scholarship and reporting across subdisciplines and professions. New graphics have also been developed to illustrate the multidimensional model of kinesiology knowledge and the subdisciplinary lenses used to study physical activity. Moreover, this new edition includes two new features designed to help students see consistent themes across the subdisciplines and
professions of kinesiology and to picture themselves in future careers. The Professional Issues in Kinesiology feature highlights how knowledge from a given chapter contributes to the research and major problems addressed by kinesiology. The Kinesiology Colleagues feature provides engaging stories about real-world professionals and how their careers have been influenced by their mastery of kinesiology.
The textbook isn’t the only item to receive updates. The delivery of the instructor ancillaries is more robust, and the web study guide offers students more opportunities to engage with the content and assess understanding of the material.
Features of the Book
The fifth edition of IntroductiontoKinesiologyprovides several features to help students organize and understand essential knowledge about kinesiology and its professions. Readers will find key points, engaging sidebars, figures, and photos that contribute to an enjoyable reading experience. Each chapter begins with objectives and an opening scenario, which, taken together, provide a road map for the content. Take time to read the many sidebars sprinkled throughout the text. These features will stimulate your thinking and reinforce what you have learned by reading the previous paragraphs. Don’t miss the unique opportunity they offer for learning!
In addition, focus on the key points in every chapter. These points briefly summarize the most important points made in the preceding pages. Read each key point carefully and think about what you have read in the chapter. Similarly, when you reach the end of a chapter, a set of review questions will direct you to the most important concepts.
Another powerful resource is the web study guide. For students, this guide is essential to developing full understanding of course content and contributing to online or in person class discussions. For instructors, it allows you to grade and assess students’ progress and their comprehension of the material so that they are better prepared for exams and for further study. The web study guide provides a variety of interactive, multimedia experiences to help students learn, understand, and apply the information presented in the text.
Many activities use a variety of approaches—audio, video, dragand-drop activities, self-ratings, interviews, and more—to demonstrate various aspects of kinesiology and bring the content alive.
Sometimes you’ll be asked to search the web for specific information and then complete an associated activity that connects your online experience with what you’ve learned in the book.
The web study guide includes a key points activity in each chapter that tests how well you understand the material. You can also print out the key points as a study aid. After reading the Kinesiology Colleagues profile in the chapter, you can complete an associated activity in the web study guide to reflect on your own professional development with a short written response or contribution to a discussion forum. Understanding how to read and evaluate research will be critical as you continue your studies in kinesiology. Working in tandem with the Professional Issues in Kinesiology sidebars in the book, the web study guide activities expose you to actual research studies that contribute to the body of knowledge in kinesiology and guide professionals in their everyday practice. Practical Plug-Ins present you with a problem or challenge faced by a practicing professional. You’ll consider how the professional might handle the situation, then examine how he or she actually resolved it. Allow time to use these lessons as you go through the course and when you face similar situations or challenges in the field.
The web study guide is available at www.HumanKinetics.com/IntroductionToKinesiology.
Instructor Resources
In this fifth edition, IntroductiontoKinesiologyis again supported by a complete set of ancillaries: presentation package, image bank, instructor guide, test package, and chapter quizzes.
The presentation package provides more than 340 PowerPoint slides with selected illustrations and tables from the text.
The image bank contains all of the figures, tables, and content photos. You can use these images to supplement lecture slides, create handouts, or develop your own presentations and teaching materials.
The instructor guide contains information about how to use the various ancillaries; a syllabus; and chapter-by-chapter files that include chapter outlines with key points, additional student assignments, ideas for additional teaching topics and guest speakers, resources, and answers to the in-text review questions.
The test package contains more than 330 questions in a mix of true-or-false, multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and essay formats.
The ready-made chapter quizzes allow you to check students’ understanding of the most important chapter concepts.
All of these instructor ancillaries can be accessed at www.HumanKinetics.com/IntroductionToKinesiology.
Acknowledgments
A project of this sort involves the work of many hands, and we have been fortunate to play a central role in updating it. Our knowledgeable contributors, along with a team of highly competent professionals at Human Kinetics, have made this fifth edition into a streamlined, updated, and improved introduction to the diverse discipline of kinesiology.
Although this book features the work of many contributors, it is not an anthology or a compilation. To the contrary, it is a textbook in every sense of the word. It is organized around a central theme; structured to accomplish specific purposes; and integrated in its terms, concepts, objectives, and graphics. At the same time, each contributor brings to the project a unique professional and academic background and a track record of achievement in his or her respective specialization, thus creating the richness and breadth that are largely responsible for the book’s success. Achieving consistency and flow—and explaining what are sometimes difficult concepts from diverse perspectives—presented substantial challenges for the contributors, the editors, and the editorial staff at Human Kinetics.
At the risk of inadvertently omitting a name or two, we would like to give special acknowledgment to those who made key contributions in the production of IntroductiontoKinesiology. Our contributors caught the spirit of the project, sensed its importance, and produced highly readable and informative chapters. Special credit goes to Janet Harris, who shared editorial duties for the first edition and whose initial influence continues throughout this edition. The time investment required of the editors in guiding this project would not have been possible without support from our wives, Lois Knudson and Claude Mourot. We appreciate their support, as well as the support of numerous colleagues who have enriched our professional and personal lives.
Only those who have been fortunate enough to author books published by Human Kinetics can appreciate the talents of its publication teams. Those specifically involved with this book are listed on the copyright page, and each did his or her work superbly.
Chapter 1 Introduction to Kinesiology
DuaneV.KnudsonandShirlJ.Hoffman
The authors acknowledge the contributions of Janet C. Harris to this chapter.
Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, we will help you appreciate the pervasiveness and diversity of physical activity in human life; introduce you to ways of defining and thinking about physical activity; discuss the discipline of kinesiology and its relationship to physical activity; familiarize you with the types of knowledge about physical activity that are acquired through physical activity experience, scholarly study, and professional experience; and help you gain a preliminary understanding of what a profession is and of the career possibilities centering on physical activity.
Opening Vignette
Darryl Dennis/Icon Sportswire
Professional computer gaming is a growing spectator sport; it is also big business. Although some people have difficulty seeing computer gamers as athletes pursuing a sport, their activities require considerable mental and physical skill, as well as strategy, and in some cases teamwork—for example, when a group competes with another team in, say, LeagueofLegends. From this perspective, computer gaming constitutes a sport. Even though it does not involve much whole-body movement or energy expenditure, it does involve physical activity through the use of fast perceptual and fine motor skills. As a result, it may also apply to the use of other kinds of computer-controlled systems, such as those found in construction, materials handling, and national defense settings.
The wide variety of expressions of physical activity means that numerous opportunities exist for kinesiology professionals. The scholarly discipline of kinesiology focuses on creating a body of knowledge about physical activity—that is, about voluntary human movement performed intentionally in order to achieve a goal.
You may not have fully appreciated it until now, but performing physical activity consumes most of your daily life. Even if you don’t go to the gym or athletic field or engage in hard labor on a given day, you will probably get out of bed, walk to the bathroom, brush your teeth, get dressed, eat breakfast, and make your way to class. After your morning classes, you will probably eat lunch, visit the library, go back to your room, and perhaps surf the web. All of these are forms of physical activity.
If you take a moment to reflect on how physically active you are, you will see that your life involves an endless variety of physical activity. You walk, reach, run, lift, leap, throw, grasp, wave, push, pull, move your fingers and toes, adjust your head for a better line
of vision, adjust your posture, and perform thousands of other movements as part of living a normal human existence. As a result, physical activity is essential in your work, whether you perform hard physical labor or low-energy tasks. We also use physical activity to express ourselves in gesture, art, and dance.
Indeed, physical activity is part of human nature. It is an important means by which we explore and discover our world. Linking movement with complex cognitive plans helps us define ourselves as human beings. A significant part of our lifetime is spent in learning to master a broad range of physical activities, from the earliest skills of reaching, grasping, and walking to enormously complex skills such as hitting a baseball, performing a somersault, or playing the piano. Most of us master a broad range of physical activities at a moderate level of competence. Others concentrate on a limited number of skills, and this focus can lead to extraordinary performances. For example, NBA star Steph Curry’s ability to sink three-point shots consistently from 30 feet (9 meters) away is the result of intense practice and motivation, as is Yo Yo Ma’s skill in positioning the bow on the cello’s strings or a pilot’s ability to land a fighter jet on the runway of an aircraft carrier that is being tossed by the sea.
In this chapter, we talk about physical activity in general terms and explain its relation to the field of kinesiology, which is a discipline or body of knowledge focused on physical activity (Newell, 1990a). Taking time to read the chapter carefully will help you appreciate the complexity and diversity of physical activity, as well as its importance to human life. The chapter will also help you understand how the discipline of kinesiology is organized. If you’ve been physically active throughout your life, you already have some knowledge of physical activity. This background will be of enormous benefit to you as you roll up your sleeves and begin to probe the depths of knowledge of kinesiology. However, prior experiences can also hinder your understanding, especially when you are required to think about those experiences in new ways. At times, therefore, you will have to set your assumptions aside so that you can examine physical activity
from a fresh and exciting point of view. This endeavor may sometimes be more challenging than you might imagine.
Interest in the Discipline of Kinesiology
Because people are now more aware than ever of the importance of physical activity, enrollment in college and university curriculums devoted to the study of physical activity has been on the rise. According to one study, the number of undergraduate students majoring in kinesiology increased by 50 percent between 2003 and 2008 (Wojciechowska, 2010), which made it one of the fastestgrowing majors in higher education; in fact, in some universities, the kinesiology department is one of the largest academic units on campus. This surge in interest has resulted from two major reasons. First, career opportunities have expanded greatly for college-trained professionals who possess in-depth knowledge of the scientific and humanistic bases of physical activity. Before the 1990s, most departments of kinesiology (then referred to as “physical education”) were designed primarily for preparing physical education teachers and coaches. Now, however, kinesiology serves as the academic base for a diverse assortment of careers, such as physical education teaching and coaching, physical therapy, cardiac rehabilitation, sport management, athletic training, fitness leadership and management, public health, and more.
The growth in kinesiology also derives from increasing awareness of the importance of physical activity and the realization that it deserves to be studied just as seriously and systematically as do other disciplines in higher education, such as biology, psychology, and sociology. No doubt you’ve heard the word discipline,but you may not fully understand what it means in this context. A discipline is a body of knowledge organized around a certain theme or focus (see figure 1.1); it embodies knowledge that learned people consider
worthy of study. The focus of a discipline identifies what is studied by those who work in the discipline. For example, biology focuses on life forms, psychology on the mind and mental and emotional processes, and anthropology on cultures. Although debates continue about the focus of kinesiology, it is now generally regarded as the discipline that focuses on human physical activity.
Figure 1.1 The disciplines of science each focus on knowledge of one topic, and kinesiology focuses on the topic of human physical activity.
Physical Activity: The Focus of Kinesiology
In your college courses, you may have noticed that disciplines are not all learned or studied in the same way. Art, for example, may be studied through reading, writing, and experimentation with studio projects. People learn history, literature, and philosophy largely through reading, writing, memorization, and discussion. The same activities are important when learning chemistry and biology, but these disciplines also involve active participation in laboratory exercises.
People learn kinesiology in three different but related ways (see figure 1.2), one of which is through physical activity experience. Just as students in art and music learn to appreciate their disciplines in part by watching, listening, and performing, you can develop your understanding of kinesiology in part through the direct personal experience of watching or performing physical activity. A second way of developing an understanding of kinesiology is through scholarship of physical activity. This way of learning involves researching, reading about, studying, and discussing with colleagues both theoretical and practical aspects of physical activity; it also involves laboratory experiences. These forms of study are necessary
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the ribs, producing the same effect as if the bullock had been stuck through.
Ripping and Leg Breaking.
—In this operation care should be exercised to see that the first cut is made exactly where the sticker left off, opening the breast and hide in the center the full length of the animal, in a straight line. Uncover the gam only sufficient to reach the joint, leaving the hide over balance of shank to protect it. In this way you get very much better shanks than if skinned too low. Cut closely to hoofs so all hide possible comes off around the feet, but that none of the cords are left on the hide.
Flooring Cattle.
—This expression describes rimming over and siding the bullock. The special object of this operation is to attain a smooth hide without scores or cuts, smooth work on the bullock, which consists in saving the fell very carefully, clearing the rose on shoulder fully, also the saving of the fell back of the elbow and the
FIG. 39. VIEW SHOWING DOUBLE-BED KILLING FLOOR IN A MODERN SLAUGHTER HOUSE.
forward shoulder The latter part is a very particular point, as if the fell is not left it shows black upon chilling.
Breast Sawing.
—In sawing the breast, it should be done centrally, holding saw at same angle as that at which the animal is lying, otherwise the saw works toward one side, and makes a very badlooking brisket on one side of the beef. Saw where marked, otherwise it will become necessary to trim meat from the neck, if the marks have not been followed.
Caul pulling consists in taking out the caul in a tidy, cleanly condition, keeping same off the floor, and putting it into a box. Care should also be taken not to cut or tear the intestines, and if so, that they are immediately skewered.
Fell Cutting. Rumping.
—Fell cutting consists in skinning the hide off the hind legs when animal is on the first hoist. The points to be carefully looked after in this work is to see that smooth work is done both on the hides and on the beef itself.
—This operation requires very skillful work, and calls for a great deal of attention. Points to be attained are a smooth hide free from scores or cuts, and smooth work on the beef. Care must be used in this work to see that the rumper keeps very close to the hide on outside of the leg, in order that the fell-beater may do good work. If the rumper is careless and breaks through the fell, it is impossible to carry this down smoothly. In working around the tail, care must be taken not to cut into the lean meat, especially on thin cattle, where there is comparatively little covering.
Fell Beating.
—If the floorman and rumper do their work properly, it is comparatively easy to do a good job at fell beating. The fellbeaters should then use care to see that they do not tear through, and, in marking with the chopper, to mark in such a way that they tear back instead of cutting off.
Gutting.
—The objects sought for in this particular work are: First, cleanliness, and next, to save the fat smooth and without tearing it around the bones. The liver should be taken out without tearing. Special care should be used in cutting between kidneys, to open in the center without cutting tenderloin. Also to leave all tenderloin in the bullock, for, if any comes out with the “pluck” it is wasted. The
workmen should also be careful about cutting intestines or weasands.
Backing.
—The objects to be attained in this particular work, are: First, smooth hides, free from scores or cuts, at the same time leaving no fat on the hide, and next, particular care should be taken in the work required in the dropping of the hide to see that the fat is not removed from the loins.
Tail Sawing. Beef Spreaders.
—The point in this work is to see that the saw is absolutely in the center, and that the first bone is sawed centrally. Better work can doubtless be done by sawing the tail from the rear, “popping” it twice.
—In slaughtering cattle it was formerly the custom to use an ordinary spreader as shown in Fig. 40, which spread all carcasses, large or small, a certain distance and kept them spread from the time they were hung until finished splitting. The spring beef spreader illustrated in Fig. 41, is a great improvement over this old spreader. When the cattle are first hung on this appliance the center piece is raised up, allowing the hooks to hang in a normal condition proportionate to the size of the animal which is hung on them. Hanging in this shape, the rumper is given a chance to do his work better.
FIG. 40. ORDINARY BEEF SPREADER.
Splitting.
—Great care should be exercised in this particular work, especially on “hard-bone” cattle. They should split the bone down centrally, the entire length of the carcass. Great care should be taken to see that they split the short fin-bone in the neck, thereby giving the neck-splitter a chance to start centrally with his work.
FIG. 41. SPRING BEEF SPREADER.
—Care should be exercised to see that these are in the very best condition to do the work. They should be ground as thin as possible, yet not so thin that they will shatter. If the splitters do not break a chopper occasionally, it is evidence that these are not ground as thin as they should be, and, unless they are, it is impossible to do good work in splitting. The workmen should, however, have choppers ground different thicknesses for different boned cattle, and never use thin-ground choppers on cows or hard-boned steers.
Clearing Out and Hide Dropping.
—In clearing the shanks the workmen should look carefully to see that they do not score the hide, or make any miscuts in the meat. They should also save the veins in the under side of forward shoulder, for when these are cut they continue to purge, making bad-looking shanks. In hide dropping care should be used to see that the workmen do not score or cut hides, make miscuts in the neck, or leave any unnecessary fat on the hide. They should also skin hides as low down as possible on the necks.
FIG 42 VIEW SHOWING BEEF CARCASSES BEING SPLIT AND HUNG ON TROLLEY
Neck Splitting.
—This should be done carefully, splitting the neck fairly in the center. The last bone, or “deacon” joint, in the neck should be broken centrally, in order to give equal weights and appearance to the beef.
Bruise Trimming.
—This is a very essential feature in the dressing of cattle, and one in which good judgment must be exercised. It is, therefore, very hard to lay down any set rules further than the following: The object of trimming bruises is to take off all blood accumulations, and at the same time leave all the fat possible on the hips, etc., to be bleached out by using hot water and thorough wiping. The great danger, generally speaking, is that they are trimmed too much and scrubbed too little. These are points which require very careful attention.
Skirt Trimming.
—Skirt trimming consists in cutting off the edge of the skirts evenly on native cattle without exposing the lean meat. On western cattle and thin stock, the skirts should be trimmed high enough so that they will expose the lean meat, which gives a chance for all moisture which has gathered under the film to escape, making the beef dryer than if otherwise trimmed.
Washing Cattle.
—It will be noted that the carcasses are then separated into two pieces and should be thoroughly washed and scrubbed with fountain brushes to insure absolute cleanliness in every part. The washing and wiping should be carefully performed, and incidental to the washing is the scraping of slime from the back and shoulders previous to wiping. Many slaughter floors are now equipped with centrifugal wringers for wringing out boiled cloths and cleanliness is made paramount in handling beef.
In the washing of beef the work should start at the hind legs, the step-ladder men being the first to use water on the beef after it is split. Next, the back washers and wipers; after these, the neck and rib washers, the policy being to start at the top and clean the beef as they go along. The washers should be kept close up, handling the beef promptly, running it into the cooler as fast as it is dressed.
Fountain Brushes.
—A convenient apparatus for washing carcasses is the fountain brush. It consists of an ordinary brush with a spray attachment on the front of it, as shown in Fig. 43. To this is
attached a hose which supplies hot water from the vat above. When the men are ready to scrub the beef a valve is turned on, the water gravitating through the hose to the meat. In wetting it continuously the blood or discoloration which may be gathered on the meat is rapidly taken off, leaving it in a bright, clean condition. The beef is then wiped with a cloth made of ten or twelve thicknesses of very coarse cheese cloth which rapidly absorbs the moisture.
Dressing Cattle.
—The mechanical labor of dressing cattle is about the same whether slaughtering ten or ten hundred, except in the former case the work would be performed by one man and in the latter by probably one hundred and thirty. The facilities for doing the work vary with the quantity and style of beds. Some beds are burdened with mechanical appliances where the apparatus more than counteracts any possible labor saving that can be effected. Common sense in this instance would indicate simplicity, as conveyors and mechanical appliances are costly for installation and for upkeep.
Dressing Conveyors.
—Dressing conveyors to take the animal after siding would, however, appear advantageous, since it permits
FIG. 43. THE FOUNTAIN BRUSH.
of the concentration of the viscera for inspection and manipulation, and makes for facilities where the same can be handled to meet the regulations and avoid the troubles of food products touching the floor on being trucked. These conveyor systems can be simple or complicated and each house requires treatment comparable with the quantity of business performed.
The type of killing beds, where the pens range across the building with one pen for each two beds, and a waiting pen where the drive can be moved forward for knocking, is, in the writer’s opinion, the least costly for standard operation, particularly if an automatic hanging-off arrangement is provided.
CHAPTER X DRESSING YIELDS AND CATTLE CUTTINGS.
Y C Y T - N C Y
F - T C Y T H C Y
T - C P V C B C
D C G L R R C P , S F B B
Yields of Cattle.
—The following are carefully prepared calculations made from data obtained in operation, showing yields of different products on several different lots of cattle. These were choice cattle in each instance and the average yield of the products is generally larger than would be the case with the ordinary run of cattle slaughtered. A perusal of the different tests given in the following pages will give the reader the average yield in different lines from the cattle handled, together with the value of the different items at time tests were made.
The prices were in vogue at the time of the original publication and while now obsolete are left for comparative purposes. The quantities and percentages would remain and can be used as a basis for present computations.
Yield from Twenty-Two Native Cattle.
—The following tables show the yield in beef, hides and tallow and value of offal of twentytwo native cattle, the first in each test showing the weight and percentage of yield of beef, hides and tallow.
The yield of sweetbreads of twenty-two cattle was twenty-two pieces, weighing six pounds, valued at 20c per pound, total value $1.20. The yield in tripe was twenty-two pieces, weighing 420 pounds, valued at ¹⁄₂c per pound, total value $2.10. Total value of sweetbreads and green tripe, $3.30.
The product sent to tank room was 1,675 pounds green weight, the average per head being 76.14 pounds.
In figuring the value of the offal in the different tests the materials sent to the tank room are not taken into consideration. The blood from the twenty-two cattle was eight pounds per head of dry blood; total, 176 pounds; value, at the rate of $33.00 per ton, equals $2.90.
The sinews from the twenty-two lot was 1.93 pounds per head; total weight, 42 pounds; value at the rate of $19.00 per ton, equals 40c.
The fat from the twenty-two native cattle showed the following yield in oleo stock: 1,391 lbs. tallow = { 1,122 lbs. No. 1 stock = 80.00 per cent. 193 lbs. scrap tallow = 13.88 per cent. 76 lbs. waste = 5.46 per cent.
00 per cent
The 1,122 pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and stearine:
IN OLEO OIL AND STEARINE.
The total value of the offal of the twenty-two native cattle, including the tallow, was $182.67, an average per head of $8.30.
Yield from Fifty-Nine Texas Cattle.
—The following table shows the yield in beef, hides and tallow and the value of offal of fifty-nine fed Texas cattle:
PERCENTAGE OF YIELD OF BEEF, HIDES AND TALLOW.
The yield in sweetbreads was 59 pieces, weight 20 pounds, value 20c per pound; total, $4.00.
The output of tripe was 59 pieces, weighing 1,080 pounds, valued at ¹⁄₂c per pound; total value, $5.40. Total value of sweetbreads and green tripe, $9.40.
TRIMMINGS FROM FIFTY-NINE TEXAS CATTLE.
YIELD IN CASINGS FROM FIFTY-NINE
52 sets round guts
sets middles
59 pcs. bungs
46 pcs. bung gut skins
50 pcs weasands
43 pcs bladders
YIELD IN HEADS AND FEET FROM FIFTY-NINE CATTLE.
The yield in the tank room of fifty-nine Texas cattle was 4,466 pounds green weight to tanks, the average per head being 75.70 pounds.
The yield in blood of fifty-nine Texas cattle was eight pounds per head of dry blood; total, 472 pounds; value, at the rate of $33.00 per ton, equals $7.78.
The yield in sinews of fifty-nine Texas cattle was 1.87 pounds per head; total weight, 110 pounds; value, at the rate of $19.00 per ton, equals $1.04.
The fat from the fifty-nine Texas cattle showed the following yield in oleo stock: 3,896 lbs. tallow = {
lbs. No. 1 stock = 81.34 per cent. 539 lbs. scrap tallow = 13.84 per cent.
The above 3,169 pounds of stock showed in oleo oil and stearine:
YIELD IN OLEO OIL AND STEARINE.
The total value of the offal of fifty-nine Texas cattle, including tallow, was $531.78; average per head, $9.103.
Yield from Twenty Heavy Cattle.
—The following tables show the yield in beef, hides and tallow, and the value of offal of twenty cattle, eight hides, classified as natives and twelve as spreadies.
The yield in sweetbreads from twenty cattle was: 20 pieces weighing seven pounds, valued at 20c per pound; total value, $1.40. The yield in tripe was 20 pieces weighing 420 pounds, valued at ¹⁄₂c per pound; total value, $2.10. Total value of sweetbreads and green tripe, $3.50.
The product sent to tank room was 1,626 pounds green weight to tanks, the average per head being 81.3 pounds.
PERCENTAGE OF YIELD IN BEEF, HIDES AND TALLOW.
YIELD IN TRIMMINGS FROM TWENTY CATTLE
YIELD IN CASINGS FROM TWENTY CATTLE
The yield in blood from twenty cattle was 8.35 pounds per head of dry blood; total, 167 pounds; value at the rate of $33.00 per ton, equals $2.75.
Yield in sinews of twenty cattle was two pounds per head, total weight 40 pounds; value at the rate of $19.00 per ton, equals 38c.
YIELD FROM HEADS AND FEET OF TWENTY CATTLE.
The fat from twenty cattle produced a yield in oleo stock of 1,552 lbs. fat = {
The above 1,265 pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and stearine:
The total value of the offal of above twenty cattle, including the tallow, was $203.61, an average per head of $10.1805. —The following table shows the yield in beef, hides and tallow and the value of offal of thirty-four cattle:
Yield from Thirty-Four Cattle.
PERCENTAGE OF YIELD IN BEEF, HIDES AMD TALLOW.
YIELD FROM TRIMMINGS OF THIRTY-FOUR CATTLE.
The yield in tripe was 34 pieces, weighing 710 pounds, valued at ¹⁄₂c per pound; total value, $5.35.
The yield in tank room of same thirty-four cattle was 2,665 pounds green weight to tanks, the average per head being 78.38 pounds.
Yield in blood of same thirty-four cattle was as follows: 8.6 pounds per head of dry blood; total, 292 pounds; value at the rate of $33.00 per ton equals $4.82.
The yield in sinews of thirty-four cattle was 1.44 pounds per head; total weight, 49 pounds; value at the rate of $19.00 per ton equals 46c.
The fat from the thirty-four cattle showed the following yield in oleo stock:
2,666 lbs fat = { 2,189 lbs No 1 stock = 82 11 per cent 383 lbs scrap tallow = 14 37 per cent 94 lbs. waste = 3.52 per cent. 100.00 per cent.
The above 2,189 pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and stearine:
IN OLEO AND STEARINE
The total value of the offal of these thirty-four cattle, including the tallow, was $356.80; an average per head of $10.497.
The foregoing records of tests will show the reader the actual value of the by-products figured at the time these tests were made. Owing to changes in the market prices, these figures are not correct for present conditions, but the percentage of yield and different items
are correct, and the reader can take any one of these tests and by substituting the market prices of today obtain figures of value. These tests also give the percentage of the hide and tallow. The latter, as will be noted, is quite high, as it will be seen that the tests were made on a fairly fat grade of cattle.
Percentage of Various Cuts of Beef.
—Nearly every large city has its special ways and peculiarities of cutting meats, consequently the percentage of the different cuts varies largely. The following table is a record of results from a cutting test and shows the percentage of “Chicago cut” meat with square cut chucks:
The following table shows percentage on cattle cut Chicago style, with the exception of a “Kosher chuck” the latter consisting of five-rib, four-quarter cut-off from the side of the beef: New York
Cuts
Cuts (Natives)
The following table shows the percentage on cattle cut Philadelphia style:
Cuts
and round
(chuck, plate, brisket and shank)
and loins
00
The following table gives the result of tests and shows in detail the percentages in cutting canner cattle. As will be understood, for canning purposes, a light grade of animals is always used; cattle that are too light or too thin are always used for other purposes. In such cases the meats are always boned-out and the different cuts of the meat are here enumerated, showing their percentages:
