KNOWLEDGE COMMUNICATION - 10 YEARS ON

10 Years of Knowledge- Communication.org Results, Insights, Perspectives Review of a Research Initiative August 2012 www.knowledge-communication.org Prof. Martin J. Eppler

Š =mcminstitute

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Intro: Conveying what we know “The problem with communication is the illusion that it has been accomplished.”

George Bernard Shaw “Everything that can be said at all, can be said clearly.”

Ludwig Wittgenstein “ What matters is that we make ourselves understood.”

Karl Popper

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Reviewing our Research: 2002-2012 In the last ten years, we have witnessed...

 influential knowledge communication research in management, education, applied linguistics, computer science and public policy studies,  the creation of several competence centers focusing on knowledge communication,  several conferences dedicated to the topic,  the creation of a chair in knowledge communication,  at least 6 publicly funded research projects on knowledge communication in different contexts.

→ It is time to review the progress in our initiative and in the knowledge communication field.

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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A look back and ahead in five steps 1. What is our topic and why is it relevant?

2. What have we learned about communicating knowledge?

3. What was our impact?

4. What are we currently working on?

5. What remains to be done?

Appendix: Typical knowl. comm. problems Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Our research motivation – 10 years on and still timely As organizational decision making is increasingly complex and dynamic, the collboration of decision makers and experts becomes an ever more critical component for the quality of decision making in management.

Knowledge Communication Experts

Decision Makers Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Our main focus area: Collaborative knowledge work contexts

Engineers

Lawyers

Managers

Managers

ENABLING CONDITIONS

Political Analysts

Risk Analysts

Consultants

Public Decision Makers

Executives

Clients

METHODS

FREQUENT MISTAKES

= Knowledge Integration through Communication Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Our main research question remains unchanged

How can the communication between specialists and decision makers be improved with regard to complex, knowledge-intensive issues, specifically in the management domain?

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Our resulting research mission

Improving the integration of knowledge between experts and decision makers by 1. understanding knowledge communication barriers and their root causes, 2. developing and evaluating knowledge communication methods and tools.

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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A look back and ahead in five steps 1. What is our topic and why is it relevant?

2. What have we learned about communicating knowledge?

3. What was our impact?

4. What are we currently working on?

5. What remains to be done?

Appendix: Typical knowl. comm. problems Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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What theories have proven useful?

In researching knowledge communication we and other scholars have made use of these informative and useful theories:

 Regarding knowledge communication problems – – – –

Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller et al.)

Group communication theory (i.e, Stasser et al.)

Knowledge creation theory (Nonaka et al.)

Clarity theory (Groeben, Tausch et al.)

 Regarding knowledge communication solutions: – – – –

Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) Boundary Object Theory (Star, Carlile et al.)

Metaphor theory (Black et al.)

Cognitive dimensions of notation (Green et al.)

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Our initial conception is still valid: Defining knowledge communication  We define knowledge communication as the (deliberate) activity of interactively conveying and co-constructing insights, assessments, experiences, or skills through verbal and nonverbal means.  The transfer of know-how, know-why, know-what, and knowwho through face-to-face or media-based interaction.  Knowledge Communication is more than communicating information because it requires – conveying context, background, and assumptions, – conveying personal insights and experiences, – conveying rationale and reasoning, – conveying perspective and priorities,

– conveying hunches, intuition, skills (implicit knowledge).

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Framing: A process model of knowledge communication clarifies key issues

Management Tasks

Expert Identification

Who has the expertise to analyze the issue?

Macro-level

Management Tasks

Expert Tasks

Need Articulation

How can I articulate what I need to know?

Analysis

How can I elicit the relevant insights?

Micro-level

Transfer of Results

Application

How can we optimize our mutual understanding?

How and by whom can the insights be applied?

Macro-level Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Description: iteration loops in the process highlight interactive nature of k.com.

Expert Identification

Need Articulation

Analysis

Refinement of need statement

Revision of expert matching

Revised needs based on use

Transfer of Results

Application

Follow-up questions

Follow-up analysis Suggestions for analyses based on application experiences

Revised expert consultation based on experiences

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Analysis: key problems in the process

Management Tasks

Expert Identification

• Prophet Syndrome • Ingroup Outgroup Problem

Management Tasks

Expert Tasks

Need Articulation

• A.S.K. Problem • Big Picture Problem

Analysis

• Paralysis by Analysis • Yield loss • Context Chasm

Transfer of Results

Application

• Common Ground Problem • Information Overload

• Knowing Doing Gap • Cassandra Syndrome

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Typical problems in expert/manager knowledge communication = The decision maker cannot identify the relevant expert. = The decision maker cannot convey his/her true or relevant knowledge needs to the expert. = The expert cannot produce the required analysis (in time, with the right focus, in the right format). = The expert cannot convey the findings to the decision maker – – – –

technical language / perspective / priorities information overload / complexity unclear assumptions & consequences tacit knowledge cannot be verbalized

= The decision maker does not apply the insights of the expert adequately.

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Solutions to Knowledge Communication Problems  Culturally: fostering informal, iterative exchanges, thus building trust and common ground  Organizationally: creating mixed teams that engage in visual practices and focus on the iterative creation of artefacts of knowing. Jointly visualizing instead of arguing  Technologically: employing knowledge visualization tools and methods (i.e. lets-focus.com)  Personally: improving knowledge communication skills (asking fertile questions, conceptual sketching), leading knowledge dialogues (cultivating openness and constructive feedback) Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Example: Visualizing Knowledge Dialogues in real time (f2f & virtually)

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

Common templates for graphic knowledge communication

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Diagram Types

(static) Structure

(dynamic) Process

Phases / Steps

Time Series

continuous

linear

cyclical

Clustering/ Positioning

Relationships

linear hierarchical

Network

Venn

Matrix Coordinates

t Timeline

Process

Cycle

Spectrum

Pyramid

Network

Venn

Matrix

Cartesian

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Our initial interactive overview of knowledge templates (visual-literacy.org)

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Templates for informal knowledge communication (from Sketching at Work)

www.sketchingatwork.com Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Experimental Results: visual metaphors augment knowledge communication

 Our results revealed that visualization-supported management teams outperformed those working without visualization in the following way (Bresciani & Eppler 2009):

 Productivity (quantity of information shared): 26 % higher with visualization (13.58 vs. 17.21)  Variety of information shared: 4 times higher with visualization.

(0.25 vs. 1.07)  Recall: 45% higher with visualization(5.8 vs 8.46), that means managers recalled almost twice as much from the meetings that were facilitated through visualization than their colleagues who only worked with flipcharts.

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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A look back and ahead in five steps 1. What is our topic and why is it relevant?

2. What have we learned about communicating knowledge?

3. What was our impact?

4. What are we currently working on?

5. What remains to be done?

Appendix: Typical knowl. comm. problems Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Impact: Research Achievements   

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Best Paper Award 11th International Knowledge Management Conference I’Know 2011, Graz, Austria.

Best Paper Award IEEE 14th International Information Visualization Conference 2010.

Research Award by the International Association of Business Communicators Research Foundation as only second Non-US researcher in 26 years.

European Union’s Information Society Technologies Prize Nominee for lets-focus software (rated as one of Europe’s most innovative software packages) Carolyn Dexter Best International Paper Award Nominee, Academy of Management Conference, 2011 Research featured in Harvard Business Review, MIT Technology Review, and BusinessWeek, The Guardian, and in O’Reilly Release 2.0 as visualization landmarks, as well as in more than 800 blogs and specialized websites , incl. several US Newspapers Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Milestones: Key Publications   

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   

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Pfister, R.A., Eppler, M.J. (2012) The Benefits of Sketching for Knowledge Management, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 16 (2).

Eppler M.J., Hoffmann F., Bresciani S. (2011). New Business Models through Collaborative Idea Generation.

International Journal of Innovation Management. Vol. 15 (6), 1323-1341.

Bresciani, S., Eppler, M.J. (2010) Choosing Knowledge Visualizations to Augment Cognition: the Managers’ View in: IEEE Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Visualization, IV10, London, 2010.

Best paper award Bresciani, S., Eppler, M.J. (2009). The Benefits of Synchronous Collaborative Information Visualization: Evidence from an Experimental Evaluation. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, Vol. 15 (6), November/December 2009, pp. 1073-1080 Bresciani S., Eppler M.J., Subramanian S.V. (2010). Enhancing Group Information Sharing Through Interactive Visualization: Experimental Evidence. Academy of Management Meeting, August 6-10 2010, Montreal, Canada.

Bischof, N., Comi, A., Eppler, M.J. (2011) Knowledge Visualization in Qualitative Methods – or how can I see what I say? in: Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Information Visualization. IEEE: London Eppler, M.J., Pfister, R. (2011) Sketching as a Tool for Knowledge Management: An Interdisciplinary Literature Review on its Benefits, in: Proceedings of the 11th International Conference of Knowledge Management Iknow, Graz. Best paper award.

Eppler, M.J., Aeschimann, M. (2009). A Systematic Framework for Risk Visualization in Risk Management and Communication, in: Risk Management - An International Journal, 11 (2), April 2009: 67-89.

Eppler, M., Mengis, J. (2009). Wie Entscheider und Experten reden lernen [How Decision Makers and Experts learn to talk together], Harvard Business Manager, April: 50-58.

Eppler, M., Platts, K. (2009). Visual Strategizing: The Systematic Use of Visualization in the Strategic Planning Process, Long Range Planning LRP - International Journal of Strategic Management, 42 (1), February: 42-74.

Mengis, J., Eppler, M. (2008) Understanding and Managing Conversations from a Knowledge Perspective: An Analysis of the Roles and Rules of Face-to-face Conversations in Organizations, Organization Studies, 29: 1287-1313.

Schmeil, A., Eppler, M.J. (2012) A Structured Approach for Designing Collaboration Experiences for Virtual Worlds, forthcoming in: Journal of the Association for Information Systems.

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Milestones: Global Impact  Some of our research studies on knowledge communication have been translated into: – – – – – – – –

Russian Arabic French Italian Portuguese Chinese Danish Finnish Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Milestones: Our Citation Impact (2002-2012)  A total of approx.

1580 Citations

 Top Cites in the time period: – – – – – – – –

Information Overload Article: Information Quality book: Harvesting Project Knowledge article: Knowledge Visualization article: Making knowledge visible: Visual Representations In KM article: Visual Strategizing article: Periodic Table of Vis. Article:

370 citations 240 citations 200 citations 90 citations 50 citations 50 citations 40 citations 40 citations

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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A Few of the books from the Research Initiative

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Major studies that we conducted during the time period

=mcm Study on Making the Complex Clear

IABC Resarch Foundation Study on Information Overload in Communication

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Milestones: Conference Keynotes  Keynotes on Knowledge Communication at the following international conferences: 1. Learntec 2. ISTIC 3. European Symposium on Language for Specific Purposes 4. Swiss Economist Day 5. International Knowledge Management Conference Iknow 6. International Information Visualization Conference 7. International KM Conference Krems 8. International KM Conference Passau 9. International Knowledge Communication Conference Aarhus Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Milestones: Our new Tools and Methods www.lets-focus.com Knowledge communication software

www.collabcards.com Knowledge communication Card set and iPhone App

Paths to Success creativity method and iPad app

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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A look back and ahead in five steps 1. What is our topic and why is it relevant?

2. What have we learned about communicating knowledge?

3. What was our impact?

4. What are we currently working on?

5. What remains to be done?

Appendix: Typical knowl. comm. problems Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Current Focus: Communicating to create new Knowledge: Creability  Topic: – Knowledge-based Collaborative Creativity (Creabillity)

 Research Question: – How can experts and decision makers communicate so that their combined knowledge (through crealogues) gives rise to innovative business ideas?

 Employed Research Methods: – – – –

Experiments with real-life managers In-company testing and deployment Focus groups Surveys

 Link: www.mcm.unisg.ch/Chairs/MCM+1/Projects/Creability.aspx Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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A look back and ahead in five steps 1. What is our topic and why is it relevant?

2. What have we learned about communicating knowledge?

3. What was our impact?

4. What are we currently working on?

5. What remains to be done?

Appendix: Typical knowl. comm. problems Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Future challenges: open research issues  Consolidating existing findings in a systematic theory of knowledge communication among experts and decision makers  Validating the benefits (and drawbacks) of different knowledge visualization methods for different knowledge communication contexts  Developing mobile methods for knowledge communication  Extending the boundaries of knowledge communication research to areas beyond the management context  Exploring the requirements and constraints of communicating knowledge for future generations (longterm knowledge communication) Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Contact Information Prof. Martin J. Eppler Managing Director / Chair of Communications Management University of St. Gallen (HSG) =mcm institute for media and communications management Blumenbergplatz 9 9000 St. Gallen Switzerland martin.eppler[at]unisg.ch www.knowledge-communication.org Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

Appendix: Typical Knowledge Communication Problems

Š =mcminstitute

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Knowledge Communication Problems Knowledge hostility

sharing

Knowledge communication fails because the ‘knowledge givers are reluctant to share their insights due to micro politics, strenuous relationships, or due to fear.

Husted & Michailova, 2002

Micropolitics of knowledge

The ‘knowledge claims’ of an expert are discredited by the decision makers due to their differing (hidden) agenda, because of a coalition of people with an alternative view, or due to the expert’s lack of formal authority.

Lazega, 1992

Internal knowledge stickiness

Knowledge can sometimes not be transferred because of arduous relationships, or casual ambiguities regarding the knowledge or because of the lack of absorptive capacity of the knowledge receivers.

Szulanski, 1999

1996,

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Knowledge Communication Problems Groupthink

A (management) team may not truly listen to the input of an expert because of the team’s group coherence and group dynamics sometimes block outside advice and feel omniscient.

Janis, 1982

Information overload

An individual is sometimes not able to integrate new information into the decision making process because too much complex information has to be interpreted too quickly.

O’Reilly, 1980, Eppler & Mengis, 2004

Self/Other effect

Individuals tend to discount advice and favor their own opinion.

Yaniv & Kleinberger, 2000

Knowing-Doing gap / Smart talk trap

Sometimes organization know where a problem resides and how to tackle it, but do not move from knowledge to action (due to unhealthy internal competition or lacking follow-up).

Pfeffer & Sutton, 2000

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Knowledge Communication Problems Absorptive capacity

Limited ability of organization and its decision makers to integrate the knowledge of experts based on lack of prior knowledge, required time or effort.

Bower and Hilgard, 1981; Cohen & Levinthal, 1990

Paradox of expertise

Experts sometimes find it difficult to articulate their knowledge or rephrase their insights in a way that a nonexperts can understand. Sometimes experts indicate other rules than they actually apply.

Johnson, 1983

Ingroup outgroup behavior

We tend to interact more with likewise groups than with others thus reducing our changes to acquire radically new knowledge.

Blau, 1977

Task closure

In our communication ,we may choose to use a one way communication medium because it permits us to close an open task without having to have a conversation. Thus leaner communication channels are used than may be necessary. In other words: We tend to want to close a communication pro-cess in order to complete a task.

Straub & Karahanna, 1998; Meyer, 1962

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Knowledge Communication Problems Set-up to fail syndrome

Managers are projecting their initial expectation of an expert’s likely performance unto him/her, leading to the self-fulfilling prophecy of (at times) lower performance. This is aggravated by demotivating feedback to the expert.

Manzoni and Barsoux, 2002

ASK problem

Anomalous State of Knowledge: when a decision maker does not have the knowledge base to really know what to ask for. People need to know quite a bit about a topic to be able to ask or search for relevant information.

Belkin, 1980 ; Chen et al., 1992

Knowledge from others is sometimes rejected because it originated elsewhere.

Katz & Allen, 1982

False consensus effect

We assume others see situations as we do, and fail to revise our framing.

Manzoni & Barsoux, 2002

Inert knowledge

The knowledge that the decision maker has acquired from the expert does not come to mind when it is needed or useful for decision making or actions. The transferred knowledge is stuck in the situation where it has been acquired.

Whitehead, 1929

Not-Invented syndrome

here

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org

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Knowledge Communication Problems Hidden profile problem

You don’t know other’s background, what they know and could contribute.

The only knowledge that is consequently shared is what is expected by everyone.

Stasser 1992; Stasser and Stewart, 1992

Common knowledge effect

The tendency of a group to focus merely on commonly shared (rather than unique) pieces of information.

Gigone & Hastie, 1993

Lack of common ground

Common ground refers to the manager’s and expert’s assumptions about their shared background beliefs about the world. If those assumptions are wrong or inconsistent communication becomes more difficult.

Clark and Schäfer, 1989, Olson & Olson, 2000

Cassandra syndrome

The decision makers do not give sufficient weight or attention to an expert’s warning because they face many other important problems. Only when the situation has deteriorated dramatically do they start taking the expert’s advice.

Mikalachki, 1983

Prof. Dr. Martin J. Eppler / =mcminstitute / HSG www.knowledge-communication.org