INTRODUCTION
The Dictionary of Daily Life in Biblical and Post-Biblical Antiquity (DDL), to be issued in three volumes, was a project begun 30 years ago with the collaboration of the distinguished Old Testament scholar Roland K. Harrison (1920–1993), to whom Marvin Wilson and I dedicate this reference work. In the original conception of the project, Harrison, Wilson, and I were to write all the articles for a work entitled Dictionary of Bible Manners and Customs. It subsequently became expedient to engage the research and writing skills of other select scholars of the ancient world.
While there are many excellent Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias, and popular books on biblical backgrounds available, I had noticed a serious deficiency. I noted that while every one of these had an entry on “Abomination,” none (with the exception of the six-volume Anchor BibleDictionary) had an entry on “Abortion.” Why was this the case? It was because these references were keyed to the words which occurred in the Bible.
From my 40 years of teaching the history of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, early Judaism, and early Christianity, I was well aware of the widespread practice of abortion, contraception, and infanticide in these societies and epochs. I therefore proposed a new framework for the DDL, one based on the Human Relations Area Files, an anthropological grid of human society, which would systematically and comparatively survey different aspects of culture, whether they were highlighted in the Bible or not.
The biblical texts were not intended to give us a complete representation of their worlds. In fact, they take for granted what was well known to both the writers and readers, but of which we are not aware. It is as though we hear the vocalization of an operatic libretto, but do not see the scenery and the costumes of the singers. Thanks, however, to extra-biblical texts and archaeology, we are able to recreate much of the background for the Bible.
For example, what did ancient people eat and drink? In the essay on FOOD PRODUCTION, one will learn that before the introduction
durée, that is, over the centuries afterthe New Testament era. It is instructive to understand how the Jewish rabbis, in following the traditions of the Pharisees, debated over the application of biblical laws in changing circumstances, and how the Church Fathers also responded to these same developments.
Rather than attempting to cover all possible topics, we have chosen to concentrate on 120 subjects, not because of their prominence in the biblical text but because of their significant roles in the ancient world. For example, ASTROLOGY, DREAMS, MAGIC, and DIVINATION & SORTITION (i.e., the casting of lots) are mentioned sparingly in the biblical texts themselves but they were dominant facets of life in antiquity.
The outline each contributor has followed is to briefly summarize references to his or her subject in: (1) the Old Testament and (2) the New Testament; followed by (3) the Near Eastern world, primarily Mesopotamia and Egypt, with some references to Anatolia and Persia; (4) the Greco-Roman world, from the Minoans and Mycenaeans, Homer, through the Hellenistic era, the Roman Republic, and the Roman Empire; (5) the Jewish world, including the Old Testament Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, Philo, Josephus, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Mishnah, and the Talmuds (Babylonian and Jerusalem); and (6) the Christian world, including the church fathers up to Chrysostom and Augustine, as well as the early Byzantine empire to Justinian. Each article closes with a bibliography providing both source material for the article and material for further study. Further, the articles are carefully cross-referenced with other articles in print or planned.
The citations from the Old Testament and the New Testament, unless otherwise marked, are from the New International Version. Citations from the Septuagint (LXX) are taken from A. Pietersma and B. G. Wright, trans., A New English Translation of the Septuagint (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). Citations from the Tosefta are taken from J. Neusner, The Tosefta (2 vols.; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2013 repr.). Citations from the Midrashim are from the Soncino Midrash Rabba for Macintosh (Copyright Institute for Computers in Jewish Life and Davka Corporation, 2008). Citations
from the Old Testament Apocrypha are from the Revised Standard Version; those from the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha are from James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Old TestamentPseudepigrapha (2 vols.; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983, 1985). The classical citations (including Philo and Josephus) are from the Loeb Classical Library. References to the Dead Sea Scrolls are from The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation by Michael Wise, Martin Abegg Jr., and Edward Cook (rev. ed.; New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005). Citations from the Mishnah are from Herbert Danby, trans., The Mishnah(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933). Citations from the Babylonian Talmud are from The Soncino Talmud (Institute for Computers in Jewish Life and Davka Corporation, 2007); those from the Jerusalem Talmud are from TheJerusalemTalmud, ATranslation and Commentary, ed. Jacob Neusner (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009). With the exception of citations from Michael W. Holmes, TheApostolicFathers:GreekTextsandEnglishTranslations (3rd. ed.; Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), patristic references are from the New Advent, Fathers of the Church (www. NewAdvent.org; 2007; © Kevin Knight). Citations from the Nag Hammadi texts are cited from Marvin Meyer, ed., TheNag Hammadi Scriptures(New York: HarperOne, 2007).
My deepest gratitude is first of all to Marvin R. Wilson, and to his former student, Andrew Pottorf, who have carefully examined all the essays and provided innumerable edits and corrections. I thank Graham Harrison for allowing us to update and expand his late father’s excellent entries. I wish to express my appreciation to all of the contributors, many of whom were my history PhD students at Miami University. My thanks go also to my wife Kimi, who spent countless hours photocopying pages from books and journals. I am grateful also to Sue Cameron, who has checked the biblical and apocryphal references for me.
My profound thanks go to Allan Emery, senior editor at Hendrickson, for spending much of the final two years before his retirement overseeing this project, and also to Hannah Brown and Carl Nellis. Our appreciation also goes to John F. Kutsko, who assisted with some of the research in the earliest stages of
dictionary project. Finally, special thanks to Foy D. Scalf, Chief Archivist of the Oriental Institute, for supplying me with the sources of many Near Eastern quotations.
Edwin M. Yamauchi
April 2014
himself as mentally deranged by letting saliva run down onto his beard (1 Sam 21:13, 14). To take hold of the beard of another in one’s right hand to embrace him was a sign of friendship (2 Sam 20:9). But to cut off a man’s beard was a grievous insult and token of public shame (2 Sam 10:4; Isa 50:6). The Lord thus planned to humiliate completely his wayward people, Judah, by using Assyria as a razor to shave the beard, head, and pubic hair (Isa 7:20).
Absalom, David’s rebellious son, had exceptionally long and heavy hair, which he would cut from time to time and weigh (2 Sam 14:26). The word “barber” (Heb. gallab, a loanword from Akk. gallabu) occurs only once in the OT (Ezek 5:1). Ezekiel as an object lesson was commanded by the Lord to cut his hair and beard, weigh the hair, and divide it into three parts, burning one third, striking one third with a blade, and winnowing a third. The rarity of terms related to professional barbers does not necessarily imply that they were not active within the community. The various contexts where the word “razor” (Heb. ta‘ar or morah) is used and the numerous references to shaving (either the hair of the head or beard) point to the likelihood that the trade of barbering was rather widely practiced. The Hebrew verb galakh (“to shave”) is often used in reference to the one to be shaven and not the individual who shaves.
To shave the head and beard was a sign of mourning (Job 1:20; Isa 15:2; Jer 41:5; 47:5; Ezek 7:18; Mic 1:16). Likewise, to pull hair from the head and beard was an expression of anguish or distress (Ezra 9:3). Mosaic legislation forbad shaving the forehead, a probable reaction against Canaanite mourning rituals (Deut 14:1).
As a purification rite, a “leper” was required to shave off all his hair, an act which called public attention to this offensive disease (Lev 14:8, 9). The Levites had to “shave their whole bodies” as part of the ceremony of cleansing in preparation for their work at the tabernacle (Num 8:7). Priests, however, were forbidden to “shave their heads or shave off the edges of their beards” (Lev 21:5; cf. Ezek 44:20). Furthermore, all Hebrews—probably in reaction to a pagan custom—were prohibited from rounding off the hair on the temples or clipping off the edges of their beards (Lev 19:27).
A Nazirite (nazir) was one who freely decided to forego certain things for a stated limited period, and at the end of that time shaved off his nezer (“forelock”) and sacrificed it to God (Num 6:18–19), and then started growing it again. Samson was designated to be a Nazirite for life even before he was born (Judg 13:7); therefore no razor was to be used on his head (Judg 13:5). Samson lost all his strength when his treacherous Philistine wife Delilah had his “seven braids of hair” shaven off (Judg 16:19).
B. THE NEW TESTAMENT
Paul’s comment, “Does not the very nature of things teach you that if a man has long hair, it is a disgrace to him” (1 Cor 11:14), indicates that wearing one’s hair short was the common custom of his day. He may have been aware that male prostitutes in the GrecoRoman world wore their hair long. Paul himself later allowed his hair to grow to fulfill a temporary Nazirite vow as indicated by the references to shaving his head (Acts 18:18; 21:24).
C. THE NEAR EASTERN WORLD
Sumerians after the middle of the third millennium BC were generally clean-shaven with their heads also often shaved. This practice continued with the exception of the kings in the NeoSumerian and Old Babylonian periods. Thereafter both high officials and commoners normally had beards. Mesopotamian rulers are often portrayed with long, square-cut beards, and many of these beards are plaited or elaborately curled (ANEP, fig. 436–438). Assyrian reliefs sometimes depict young men beardless in order to distinguish them from older men. Occasionally eunuchs were depicted as older beardless men.
Though the wearing of beards was the normal style in Mesopotamian society, exceptions existed for which barbers were in constant demand. The Warka (Uruk) vase shows naked, cleanshaven men bearing offerings. The baru-priest, a divination specialist within ancient Mesopotamian religion, was shaved bald or perhaps
tonsured in accord with prescribed ritual. His consecration ceremony was marked by the formula, “the barber hath done his handiwork upon him.” Archaeological findings depict a number of scenes with nude and shaven priests and a number of other scenes where religious functionaries or worshipers were clean-shaven.
In addition, slaves had an official shaving or were subject to tonsure, a procedure known in Akkadian as gallabatu. Shaving not only marked the individual as a slave (cf. CH 226, 227) but it also may have served to ready the skin for branding. The manumission of slaves was known as “clearing the forehead,” an act performed by official barbers attached to palaces, temples, and law courts.
At Mari, the barber (Akk. gallabu) was part of a guild. The barbers of Mari are described as those who take their positions next to the other craftsmen, depositing their razors in front of Ishtar. In texts discovered at Nuzi, the term gallabu is found in a list of various professions. In addition, the expressions “the king’s barber” and “overseer of the barbers” are attested at Nuzi. Elsewhere, in Akk. gallabu occasionally serves as a title of the gods, e.g., “Engana (a minor deity), the barber of Shamash.” Ninkarnunna, an attendant of the god Ninurta, was the patron god of barbers in Mesopotamia.
Various texts from ancient Mesopotamia refer to the barber’s tools and equipment. Included are the comb, bottle, box, leather tool bag, stool, and razor. At Tepe Gawra, near Nineveh, from around 3000 BC, there was found a limestone handle with a slit on the lower edge into which a flint razor blade was set and held in place by bitumen.
Hittite kings, priests, and soldiers are depicted as beardless. The majority (44 out of 60) of male gods depicted in the outdoor shrine of Yazilikaya are also depicted as beardless. On the other hand, the weather gods, the moon-god, and the vegetation-god Kumarbi (originally Hurrian) are depicted as bearded, reflecting Mesopotamian influence.
The Phoenicians as represented in the later Punic culture at Carthage had “sacred barbers” who performed shaving as a religious rite. Numerous copper razors have been found in Punic tombs at Carthage, in Sardinia, and at Ibiza. These were often elaborately engraved with figures of Punic or Egyptian deities.
The Egyptians were usually clean-shaven. Not only was the hair on the head and the beard shaved, but bodily hairs from the armpits, chest, and pubic regions were also shaved. Joseph shaved before he entered the presence of the pharaoh, an accommodation to Egyptian culture (Gen 41:14). Sinuhe, who had lived as a fugitive among the Semites, was welcomed to the royal court, and declared, “Years were made to pass away from my body. I was plucked, and my hair was combed” (Story of Sinuhe lines 291–2; ANET, 22). Children’s heads were also shaved, but the “sidelock of youth” was worn until the age of puberty.
Egyptian priests shaved their whole body every other day for fear of harboring vermin while in the service of the gods (Her. Hist. 2:37). Slaves brought to Egypt from other countries also had their beards and heads shaved, according to Herodotus (Hist.2:36; 3:12).
Noble men and women as a rule had their natural hair closecropped, but wore wigs on public occasions. Sometimes Egyptians wore artificial beards. These were tied to the chin for religious ceremonies and other special occasions. The length and shape of these beards varied according to the rank of the person. A private individual had a small beard; a king wore a long beard, squared-off at the end; the figure of a deity was distinguished by a beard curled up at the end. The dead were also equipped with wigs or toupees.
Metal razors were already in use in the Pre-Dynastic period in Egypt. Egyptian barbers were equipped with razors, combs, tweezers, and knives or shears which were carried about in a small open-mouthed pouch. From 1550–1090 BC several Egyptian copper and bronze razors have been recovered. These are in the form of a trapezium attached to a handle (ANEP , fig. 81–83).
Barbers called chaku (literally “shavers”) were attached to the staffs of royal and noble households, of temples, and also of the army. From the tomb of Userhet at Sheikh Abd el-Qurna we have a wall painting of army recruits awaiting their turn with the barber. Paintings at Beni-Hasan depict barbers at work shaving the heads of men kneeling. Sometimes, however, clients sat on low stools.
The Satire on Trades described the profession as follows: “The barber is (still) shaving at the end of dusk. When he gives himself up
to chins, he puts himself upon his (own) shoulder. He gives himself from street to street, to seek out those whom he may shave. Thusif he is valiant his arms will fill his belly, like a bee eating for its work” (ANET, 433).
The Ebers Papyrus contains many magical formulae dealing with hair, for example spell #459 “to render the hair black again.” Spell #465 “to make the hair of a bald person again” stipulated getting fat from a lion, a hippopotamus, a crocodile, etc., mixing these, and smearing the mixture over the bald head.
D. THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD
In ancient Greece, the barber (Gk. koureusfrom the verb keiro“to cut short”) was a central figure within the community. The barbershop (koureion) was far more than a site for business; it was a place of constant chatter where men heard the latest news, rambled about trivial matters, and often gave or received unsolicited advice. Indeed, in the Greek world the barbershop was synonymous with a place where scandal was picked up. Accordingly, the cognate Greek adjective koureakosmeans “gossiping.”
Upon attaining the age of 16 an Athenian boy was introduced to his phratry (a social division of his Greek tribe) on the day of koureotis, the ceremonial cutting of his hair. Herodotus (Hist. 4.34) reports that youths at Delos used to cut and sacrifice their hair to Apollo on their coming of age. Boys commonly wore long hair.
In the Archaic Era (7th–6th c. BC) men wore their hair long, held in place with a headband (mitra). Short hair became more common among citizens in the 6th c. BC, especially among younger men, though older men wore long hair well into the 5th c. BC. The athletes of Athens usually kept their hair close-cropped as was the custom of most slaves.
Spartan boys had their hair cut on a regular basis, but Spartan men wore their hair long. Before the battle of Thermopylae (480 BC), Persian scouts were amazed to see the Spartan warriors combing their long hair in preparation for battle.
Short hair remained the fashion among most Greeks until Alexander the Great wore his hair a little longer, which set a trend. He also introduced a headband tied at the back with the loose ends left hanging. Until the fifth century BC, it was usual for men to wear a beard (pogon).A moustache was at times worn with a beard, but never without a beard.
After Alexander, the free-born men kept the face closely shaved, which required frequent visits to the barbershop. Few people shaved at home, as razors were rough and difficult to manage. Literary texts generally refer to razors only as used by women. It was a mark of barbarian women that they did not shave their legs.
Barbers often performed additional services such as trimming nails, cutting corns, removing warts, withdrawing accumulations of wax from the ears, eliminating superfluous hair from the nose and ears and correcting various bodily ailments by minor surgical procedures.
In their early history the Romans wore beards and had long hair. According to Pliny, shaving was introduced to Rome in 300 BC when Publius Titinius Mena brought barbers there from Sicily (Nat. 59). Pliny also states that Scipio Africanus Minor (185–129 BC) was the first to shave on a daily basis. By the end of the second century BC, the daily shave had become increasingly popular, Philosophers wore long untrimmed beards. Jokes were made about Epicureans whose beards dripped with wine. Others who wore beards were peasants, barbarians, and those in mourning.
The Stoic philosopher Musonius Rufus (ca. AD 30–100) maintained: “The beard should not be shaved, since it is a protection provided to us by nature. Furthermore, the beard is an emblem of manhood—the human equivalent of the cock’s crest and the lion’s mane” (Lec. 21; King, 81).
The evidence from coins, statues, busts, and ancient writers reveals that the Roman emperors from the time of Augustus (27 BC–AD 14) to the time of Trajan (AD 98–117) and many other notable figures during this period must have been shaved on a daily basis. However, after the reign of Hadrian (AD 117–138), a ruler who let
bald men since baldness was associated with lechery. Julius Caesar combed his hair forward to disguise his baldness and was happy to wear the triumphator’s crown.
Some Roman men had the hair plucked from their underarms. Men of questionable character depilated their arms and legs as well (Martial Ep. 2.62). Any man with long hair would be suspected of engaging in prostitution. Both the Stoic Musonius Rufus and PseudoPhocylides in the first century AD commented that for a man to wear long, carefully arranged hair was an effeminate practice, which led to immorality.
E. THE JEWISH WORLD
The Arch of Titus shows that the Jews wore their hair somewhat longer than the Romans and favored beards. As the rabbis considered the beard the symbol of manhood—“The glory of a face is its beard,” declared the Talmud (b. Shabb. 152a)—they generally prohibited close shaving with a straight edge. But by the first century AD the rabbis permitted Jews who had frequent contact with the Romans to clip their beards; some Jewish men appear to have adopted the Roman custom and shaved off their beards.
The Mishnah contains several references to barbers; “A man should not sit down before the barber near to the time of the afternoon Tefillah (i.e., prayer) unless he has already prayed” (m. Shabb. 1.2), probably because he might have to wait too long. The Mishnah (m. Pesah. 4.6) includes the barbers with tailors and washermen as those who may work until mid-day on the eve of Passover. The Mishnah calls the occupation of a barber “the craft of robbers” (m. Qidd. 4:14). The Talmud refers frequently to barbers, who also gave manicures and pedicures, and performed some medical services.
The rabbis prohibited any shaving during the periods of mourning after the death of a close relative, between Passover and Shebuot, or during the three weeks preceding the Ninth of Ab. They also proscribed the cutting of any body hair during the 30-day mourning period (Semahot7.11; 9:11).
issues addressed by the Council of Whitby in AD 664 was the differences in the tonsures of Celtic and Catholic monks. The Celtic practice was a frontal tonsure abaureusqueadaurem(“from ear to ear”), whereas the Catholics wore a shaven circle on the crown of the head, with the hair fringe symbolizing Christ’s crown of thorns, a practice going back to the fifth century. Eastern clerics continue to wear beards, but from the fifth century Western clerics became clean shaven.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Bienkowski, “Hair Dressing,” DANE, 137; G. J. Botterweck, “Gillach, to shave,” TDOT, III.5–20; J. Carcopino, Daily Life in Ancient Rome (1971), 157–69; S. G. Cole, “The Social Function of Rituals of Maturation: The Koureion and the Arkteia,” ZPE 55 (1984), 233–44; W. V. Davies, “Razors,” in Egypt’s Golden Age:TheArtofLivingintheNewKingdom1558–1085B.C.(1982), 189–93; F. C. Fensham, “The Shaving of Samson: A Note on Judges 16:19,” EvQ 31 (1959), 97–98; “Gallabu, Barber,” CAD, V.14–17; T. H. Gaster, Myth, Legend, and Custom in the Old Testament (1969), 590–602; L. Ginzberg, “Beard,” JE II.611–15; D. Harden, The Phoenicians (1963), 204–6; H. Haroutunian, “Bearded or Beardless? Some Speculations on the Function of the Beard among the Hittites,” in Recent Developments in Hittite Archaeology and History, ed. K. A. Yener and H. A. Hoffner, Jr. (2002), 43–52; B. Lincoln, “Treatment of Hair and Fingernails among the IndoEuropeans,” HR 16 (1977), 351–62; S. E. Loewenstamm, “Did the Goddess Anath Wear a Beard and Side-Whiskers?” IOS4 (1974), 1–3; I. Luke, “Concerning the Tradition of Long Hair and Beards,” Orthodox Life45 (Sept.–Oct., 1995), 41–43; O. Margalith, “Samson’s Riddle and Samson’s Magic Locks,” VT36 (1986), 225–34; P. Montet, Everyday Life in Egypt in the Days of Ramesses the Great (1958), 69–71; J. Murphy-O’Connor, “Sex and Logic in 1 Corinthians 11:2–16,” CBQ42 (1980), 482–500; S.-A. Naguib, “Hair in Ancient Egypt,” AcOr 51 (1990), 7–26; S. Niditch, “Samson as Culture Hero, Trickster, and Bandit,” CBQ 52 (1990), 608–24; S. M. Olyan, “What Do Shaving Rites Accomplish and What Do They Signal in Biblical Ritual Contexts?” JBL 117 (1998), 611–22; R. Reynolds, Beards:
ABBREVIATIONS
GENERAL
#(#) number(s)
|| parallel to
AD annodomini, in the year of the Lord
Akk. Akkadian
Arab. Arabic
Aram. Aramaic
AV Authorized Version (i.e., KJV = King James Version)
b. ben,Hebrew “son”; born
b. Babylonian Talmud
BC before Christ
c. century
C centigrade
ca. circa, about
CE Codex Eshnunna
cf. confer, compare
ch(s). chapter(s)
CH Code of Hammurabi
cm. centimeter
col(s). column(s)
d. died
Dyn. Dynasty
EA El Amarna (designation of texts from)
ed. editor(s), edition
e.g. exempligratia, for example
Egy. Egyptian
Ep. epistle, letter
esp. especially et al. etalia, and others
Eth. Ethiopic
F Fahrenheit
fl. floruit,flourished
OK Old Kingdom (Egypt)
Old Pers. Old Persian
OT Old Testament
Oxy. Oxyrhynchus
Pap. Papyrus
Phoen. Phoenician
R. rabbi
REB Revised English Bible
repr. reprint(ed)
rev. revised
RSV Revised Standard Version
sing. singular
sq. square
St. saint
Sum. Sumerian
t. Tosefta
trans. translator(s)
Ugar. Ugaritic vol(s). volume(s)
vs(s). verse(s)
Vulg Vulgate
y. Jerusalem (Yerushalmi) Talmud
ANCIENT SOURCES
Hebrew Bible/Old Testament
Gen Genesis
Exod Exodus
Lev Leviticus
Num Numbers
Deut Deuteronomy
Josh Joshua
Judg Judges
Ruth Ruth
1–2 Sam1–2 Samuel
1–2 Kgs 1–2 Kings
1–2 Chr 1–2 Chronicles
Ezra Ezra
Neh Nehemiah
Esth Esther
Job Job
Ps(s) Psalm(s)
Prov Proverbs
Eccl Ecclesiastes
Song Song of Songs
Isa Isaiah
Jer Jeremiah
Lam Lamentations
Ezek Ezekiel
Dan Daniel
Hos Hosea
Joel Joel
Amos Amos
Obad Obadiah
Jonah Jonah
Mic Micah
Nah Nahum
Hab Habakkuk
Zeph Zephaniah
Hag Haggai
Zech Zechariah
Mal Malachi
New Testament
Matt Matthew
Mark Mark
Luke Luke
John John
Acts Acts
Rom Romans
4Ezra 4Ezra
Jos.Asen.JosephandAseneth
Jub. Jubilees
Lad.Jac. LadderofJacob
Pss.Sol. PsalmsofSolomon
Sib.Or . SibyllineOracles
T.Isaac TestamentofIsaac
T.Naph. TestamentofNaphtali
Vis.Ezra VisionofEzra
New Testament Pseudepigrapha
ActsJohnActsofJohn
Dead Sea Scrolls and Cairo Geneza
CD DamascusDocument
1QHa,b (=1Q35) Hodayot(Thanksgiving Hymns)
1QS SerekHayahad(Rule of the Community) 1QSa 1Q28a (Rule of the Congregation) 4QMMT (=4Q394–399) (MiqtsatMa‘aseha-Torah)
11QTemplea,b11Q19–20 (Temple Scroll)
Judaica
‘Abod.Zar. ‘AbodahZarah ’Abot ’Abot ‘Arak. ‘Arakin
B.Bat. BabaBatra
B.Mes. BabaMetzi’a
B.Qam. BabaQamma
Bek. Bekorot
Ber. Berakot Betzah Betzah(YomTob)
‘Ed. ‘Eduyyot
‘Erub. ‘Erubin
Gitt Gittin
Hag. Hagigah
Hul. Hullin
Kelim Kelim
Ketub. Ketubbot
Kil. Kil’ayim
Mak. Makkot
Maksh. Makshirin
Meg. Megillah
Menah. Menahot
Mid. Middot
Miqw. Miqwa’ot
Mo‘edQat.Mo‘edQatan
Naz. Nazir
Ned. Nedarim
Neg. Nega‘im
Nez. Neziqin
Nid. Niddah
’Ohol. ’Oholot
Pe’ah Pe’ah
Pesah. Pesahim
Qidd. Qiddushin
Qod. Qodashim
RoshHash.RoshHashshanah
Shabb. Shabbat
Sanh. Sanhedrin
Sheb. Shebi‘it
Sheqal. Sheqalim
SifreNum Sifre(toNumbers)
SifreDeut Sifre(toDeuteronomy)
Sotah Sotah
Sukkah Sukkah
T.Yom TebulYom
Ta‘an. Ta‘anit
Part.an. Departibusanimalium(PartsofAnimals)
Pol. Politics
Rhet. Rhetorica(Rhetoric)
Artemidorus Daldianus
Onir . Onirocritica
Athanasius (ca. AD 295–373)
Vit.Ant. VitaAntonii(LifeofAntony)
Athenaeus (fl. ca. AD 200)
Deipn. Deipnosophistae(TheLearnedBanqueters)
Athenagoras (fl. ca. AD 180)
Leg. LegatioproChristianis(EmbassyfortheChristians)
Augustine (AD 354–430)
Bon.conj. Debonoconjugali(TheGoodofMarriage)
Civ. DecivitateDei(TheCityofGod)
Conf. Confessionum(Confessions)
Cons. Deconsensuevangelistarum(Harmonyofthe Gospels)
Doctr.chr . Dedoctrinachristiana(ChristianInstruction)
Ennarat.Ps. EnnarationesinPsalmos(ExpositionsofthePsalms)
Ep. Epistulae(Letters)
Faust. ContraFaustumManichaeum(AgainstFaustusthe Manichaean)
Haer . Dehaeresibus(Heresies)
Incomp. nupt. Deincompetentibusnuptiis(AdulterousMarriages)
Man. DemoribusManichaeorum(OntheMoralsofthe Manichaeans)
Nupt. DenuptiisetconcupiscentiaadValeriumcomitem (MarriageandConcupiscence)
Tract.Ev.
Jo. InEvangeliumJohannistractatus(Tractatesonthe GospelofJohn)
Basil (AD 330–379)
Ep. Epistulae
Hex. Hexaemeron
Caesar, Julius (100–44 BC)
Bell.gall. Bellumgallicum(GallicWar)
Cassius Dio (ca. AD 160–after 229)
Hist.Rom. Historiaromana
Cato (234–149 BC)
Agr . Deagricultura(Agriculture)
Celsus (fl. ca. AD 180)
Med. Demedicina
Cicero [Cic.] (106–43 BC)
Att. EpistulaeadAtticum
Div. Dedivinatione
Dom. Dedomosuo
Flac. ProFlacco
Leg. DeLegibus
Mur . ProMurena
Parad. ParadoxaStoicorum
Clement of Alexandria [Clem.] (d. ca. AD 214)
Paed. Paedagogus(ChristtheEducator)
Protr . Protrepticus(ExhortationtotheGreeks)
Strom. Stromateis(Miscellanies)
Clement of Rome (fl. ca. 96) (see 1–2Clement)
Columella (active AD 60–65)
Rust. Dererustica(OnFarming)
Cyprian (ca. AD 200–258)
Unit.eccl. Decatholicaeecclesiaeunitate(TheUnityofthe CatholicChurch)
Demosthenes (384–322 BC)
1–3Olynth. Olynthiacai–iii(1–3Olynthiac)
Dio Cocceianus [Chrysostom] (ca. AD 40–after 110)
Rhod. Rhodiaca(TothePeopleofRhodes)
Diodorus Siculus [Diod. Sic.] (active ca. 60–39 BC)
Bib.hist. Bibliothecahistorica(LibraryofHistory)
Epiphanius (ca. AD 315–403)
Pan. Panarion(Adversushaereses)(RefutationofAll Heresies)
Euripides (ca. 485–406 BC)
Med. Medea
Eusebius of Caesarea [Eus.] (AD ca. 260–ca. 339)
Hom.1Cor . HomiliaeinepistulamiadCorinthios
Hom.Eph. HomiliaeinepistulamadEphesios
Hom.Matt. HomiliaeinMattaeum
Laz. DeLazaro
Josephus [Jos.] (AD 37–after 93)
Ag.Ap. AgainstApion
Ant. JewishAntiquities
J.W. JewishWar
Life Life
Justin Martyr (d. AD 165)
1Apol. Apologia1(FirstApology)
2Apol. Apologia2(SecondApology)
Dial. DialogescumTryphone(DialoguewithTrypho)
Justinian (AD ca. 463–565)
Corp. CorpusIuris(CodexofJustinian)
Juvenal [Juv.] (active 2nd c. AD)
Sat. Satirae(Satires)
Lactantius [Lac.] (AD ca. 240–ca. 320)
Inst. DivinarumInstitutionumLibriVII(TheDivine Institutes)
Mort. Demortepersecutorum(TheDeathofthe Persecutors)
Livy (59 BC–AD 17)
Rom.Hist. Aburbeconditalibri(BooksfromtheFoundationof theCity)
Lucian of Samosata (ca. AD 120–180)
Nav. Navigium(TheShipor TheWishes)
Nigr . Nigrinus
Peregr. DemortePeregrini(ThePassingofPeregrinus)
Philops. Philopseudes(TheLoverofLies)
Salt. Desaltatione(TheDance)
Macrobius (fl. early 5th c. AD)
Sat. Saturnalia
Martial (ca. AD 40–103)
Ep. Epigrammaton
Minucius Felix (fl. ca. AD 200)
Oct. Octavius
Musonius Rufus (ca. AD 30–100)
Lec. Lectures
Origen [Orig.] (ca. AD 185–254)
Cels. ContraCelsum(AgainstCelsus)
Comm. Matt. CommentariuminevangeliumMatthaei
Prin. Deprincipiis(FirstPrinciples)
Ovid [Ov.] (43 BC–AD 14)
Ars Arsamatoria(TheArtofLove)
Med. Medicaminafacieifemineae(DrugsfortheFemale Face,i.e.,Cosmetics)
Rem.am. Remediaamoris(RemediesofLove)
Palladius (active 4th c. AD)
Rust. Dererustica(OnFarming)
Pausanias (fl. ca. AD 160)
Descr . Graeciaedescriptio(DescriptionofGreece)
Petronius (d. AD 66)
Sat. Satyricon
Philo (ca. 20 BC–ca. AD 50)
Agr . Deagricultura(OnAgriculture)
Cher . Decherubim(OntheCherubim)
Contempl. Devitacontemplativa(OntheContemplativeLife)
Decal. Dedecalogo(OntheDecalogue)
Ebr . Deebrietate(OnDrunkenness)
Flacc. InFlaccum(AgainstFlaccus)
Gig. Degigantibus(OnGiants)
Hypoth. Hypothetica(ApologyfortheJews)
Ios. DeIosepho(OntheLifeofJoseph)
Leg.1–3 Legumallegoriae1–3(AllegoricalInterpretation1–3)
Legat. LegatioadGaium(OntheEmbassytoGaius)
Migr . DemigrationeAbrahami(OntheMigrationof Abraham)
Mos.1,2 DevitaMosisI,II(OntheLifeofMoses1,2)
Mut. Demutationenominum(OntheChangeofNames)
Opif. Deopificiomundi(OntheCreationoftheWorld)
Post. DeposteritateCaini(OnthePosterityofCain)
QG QuaestionesetsolutionesinGenesim(Questionsand AnswersonGenesis)
Somn. Desomniis(OnDreams1–2)
Spec. Despecialibuslegibus(OntheSpecialLaws)
Virt. Devirtutibus(OntheVirtues)
Philostratus (fl. 3rd c. AD)
Vit.Apoll. VitaApollonii(TheLifeofApollonius[ofTyana])
Plato (ca. 429–347 BC)
Apol. Apologia(ApologyofSocrates)
Leg. Leges(Laws)
Phaed. Phaedo
Phaedr . Phaedrus
Resp. Respublica(Republic)
Symp. Symposium
Theaet. Theaetetus
Tim. Timaeus
Plautus (ca. 250–184 BC)
Trin. Trinimmus(Three-DollarDay)
Pliny the Elder [Pliny] (AD 23–79)
Nat. Naturalishistoria(NaturalHistory)
Pliny the Younger (AD 61–113)
Ep. Epistulae
Ep.Tra. EpistulaeadTrajanum
Plutarch [Plu.] (ca. AD 50–129)
Aem. AemiliusPaulus
Alc. Alcibiades
Caes. Caesar
Lyc. Lycurgus
Lys. Lysander
Mor . Moralia
Pomp. Pompeius
Quaest.
conv. Quaestionesconvivialum(TableTalk)
Quaest. rom. Quaestionesromanaeetgraecae(RomanandGreek Questions)
