Roots of wisdom a tapestry of philosophical traditions 7th edition mitchell test bank

Roots of Wisdom A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions 7th Edition

Mitchell Test Bank

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PART ONE: WHAT IS EVERYTHING REALLY LIKE? QUESTIONS OF METAPHYSICS

CHAPTER 2 REALITY AND BEING

TEACHING THE LANGUAGE OF PHILOSOPHY

As a result of reading and discussing the first chapter, your students now have a basic vocabulary of the Greek roots of many philosophical terms and some understanding of how the method of philosophy works. They have also had a preview of the three major branches: metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology. In this chapter we begin the pattern the text will follow focusing on a single topic, in this case reality.

Most of the vocabulary in this chapter is non-Greek and a fair number of the philosophical terms have made their way into the general lexicon of spoken English. It will be helpful to find opportunities to reinforce the Greek terms from chapter 1 as you introduce these more familiar words and explain their philosophical applications.

The method section focuses on the categorical syllogism as developed by Aristotle and on the method of reducing something to the absurd as a way of dismissing it. Although they may not know the term, students generally are somewhat familiar with the syllogistic pattern of arguing from two premises to a conclusion and they are generally intrigued by the "tricky" nature of the REDUCTIO.

Vocabulary

Taking the obviously Greek words first, you can build on chapter 1 by reminding students of theology suffix (meaning "study of" or "theory of") and then introducing telos, "order or purpose." This gets you to teleology and to its companion term entelechy, "inner purpose or end," which also uses the telos root. Nous, the Greek word for "mind," can be related to logos since it has a similar meaning in philosophy, indicating the rationality of the cosmos. Plato's concept of the perfect Forms should be discussed in this context, although the English word "form" is used in an unfamiliar way.

Four of the vocabulary words end with the suffix -ism, meaning "doctrine, theory, or principle of". Although the suffix is a familiar one, you will want to focus on the philosophical meaning of each term in the context of the chapter inquiry what is real? Idealism emphasizes mind, soul, spirit or life; materialism identifies matter; pragmatism, from the Greek word pragma, meaning "things done," focuses on what works. Whereas each of these three terms takes a stand, arguing or asserting a single doctrine or theory about reality, the fourth term relativism contends that there are no objective standards for truth; everything is, therefore, relative and nothing is absolute. Although this is an epistemological theory, it has obvious implications for metaphysics. You might want to remind your students of the Sophists who practiced epistemological relativism.

There are four Buddhist terms in this chapter. Samsara is a review term, first introduced in chapter 1. In this round of birth/death/rebirth, skandhas or "heaps" temporarily combine to make a human "person." At death, the skandhas dissolve and do not continue into the next existence. Only karma links one existence with the next. A bodhisattva experiences existence (sattva) in a state of wisdom (bodhi). Having attained enlightenment, this person could leave the world of samsara forever but remains to help others attain wisdom. The sky god Indra provides the image for the last Buddhist term. The net of jewels offers a vision of a web of interconnectedness and oneness.

In this chapter we meet Chinese philosophy for the first time. The tao is the "way, "principle," or "cosmic order" that is the Chinese equivalent of the Greek terms logos and nous. There is a significant difference, however; the tao cannot be understood rationally but rather through a more intuitive process. This is an important distinction to make as it will be expanded and elaborated on throughout the text. The tao exists in a state of oneness which cannot be described or spoken about there are no words. To speak about it, to make it manifest, the Chinese use the terms yin and yang. The most important concept here is that yin and yang are two aspects of one whole. Each has no meaning apart from the other much as the

front of a hand has no meaning apart from the back of that same hand or the head and tail of a coin depend on each other for significance and integrity. Because the terms signify complementary opposites like female/male, dark/light, wet/dry, students often have the mistaken notion that boys should be yang whereas girls should be yin. Nothing could be further from the truth. Each person is and must be a mixture of yin and yang, following the model of nature, our great teacher. In the interplay of yin and yang we see the energy of the life force which the Chinese call ch'i. Ch'i is in nature and in us. When we are healthy and happy, it moves spontaneously and freely. Only when we are "stuck" or "spinning out of control" is the life force not able to function. This does not happen in nature.

The scientific term virtual reality offers the metaphor for the chapter. How can we be certain about what is real if we can step into a computer-generated environment that seems as "real" as ordinary reality? This metaphor is meant to raise some questions about what we accept as real. How much of what we see, for instance, is "out there" and how much constructed by our sophisticated brains? The film "Disclosure" has an interesting virtual reality sequence you might use.

Method

Beginning with the categorical syllogism, we embark on a short course in logic. The most important concept to convey here is the distinction between valid/invalid and true/false. Students are likely to assume that valid means true whereas invalid means false. This first detailed look at the "grammar" of philosophy provides a method for determining whether or not the structure of an argument is sound. If it is, the argument is valid; if it is not the argument is invalid.

In a valid argument, the two premises support or lead to the conclusion. In an invalid argument, they do not. It may be helpful to approach this as you would a problem in mathematics, stressing that the truth or falsity of the premises is not the issue only their ability to lead to a particular conclusion. Once students understand the rules governing validity/invalidity, it is helpful to provide an example of a valid argument that is patently untrue. For instance:

All ducks are blue

Socrates is a duck

Socrates is blue

Even though it is false that all ducks are blue and equally false that Socrates is a duck, if those two premises were true, it would also be true that Socrates is blue. The pattern is that if all ducks are contained in the category of "blue things" and if Socrates is contained in the category of "duck," then it follow that Socrates is also contained in the larger category of "blue things." You may find it helpful to draw a circle labeled "ducks" within a larger circle labeled "blue things" and then ask the students where to place the circle labeled "Socrates." When they see that placing Socrates within the circle "duck" also places him within the larger circle "blue things," the whole concept may be illuminated. For visual learners, this teaching technique works better than the validity tests traditionally used.

Drawing circles is also very effective in illustrating why an argument is invalid. Using the same terms, write this syllogism on the board:

All ducks are blue

Socrates is blue

Socrates is a duck

Ask the students comfortable using validity tests to apply them. This argument fails the first test. The middle term (blue) is not distributed (does not refer to all members of the class) in either premise. Therefore, there is nothing to link the premises with the conclusion. Now ask the visual learners to assist you in drawing the circles containing each term. You might begin by drawing the circle containing "ducks" within a larger circle labeled "blue things." Ask the students where to draw the circle labeled "Socrates." They should see that it will appear (along with the circle labeled "ducks") within the larger "blue things" circle but that the only relationship established between Socrates and ducks is that they are both "blue

things." No link has been made between Socrates and ducks. The way to reach this same understanding with those using validity tests is to ask them to change the syllogism in order to make the argument valid.

Once students understand what makes a valid argument (the premises lead to or support the conclusion), you can explain that the next step is to determine whether or not each of the premises is true. What a valid syllogism tells us is this: If all ducks are blue and if Socrates is a duck, then Socrates must be blue. Not all valid arguments lead to true conclusions. This one, for instance, leads to a clearly false conclusion Socrates was not blue. So, valid arguments are not necessarily true; however, all true arguments must be valid. Validity refers to the form of an argument not its truth or falsity.

Reductio Ad Absurdum follows a premise to an insupportable conclusion as a way of denying it. The example given in the "How Philosophy Works" box of the text provides an interesting "take" on our common sense view of reality. Based on the experience of Virgil, the blind man who received his sight rather late in life and was never able to "see" in the conventional sense, this argument challenges some assumptions we make about reality.

The common sense logic of the first premise "The world as it is matches my perceptions of it" is challenged by the sharp divergence of Virgil's perceptions of the world. If Virgil's perceptions are accurate, I must at least re-examine my own. The form of this argument allows us to explore the suppressed or hidden premises that underlie much of what we believe. It may seem obvious that the world is as I (and all my friends) perceive it to be, until I learn of the experiences of someone like Virgil who received his sight but never learned to "see."

Discussion Starter

Use one of the images typically found in a psychology textbook in which two different ways of seeing are possible. Are we looking at a young women whose head is turned away in one-quarter profile and whose chin, nosetip and eyelashes are all we can see of her face or are we looking at an old woman whom we see in full face and whose large nose dominates the picture? Although many students may already be familiar with this image (or the equally useful one that is both a vase and two faces in profile), you can guide them to realize that they saw one image spontaneously and had to "learn to see" the other. Indeed, some students are never able to see the second image or are able to see it only after considerable tracing of features for assistance. And, nearly everyone still sees first the image they initially saw.

This discussion can segue easily into how much of reality we have been taught to see or taught to see in a particular way. If children must be taught to "see" the world (as Virgil's experience strongly suggests is the case), what is the world really like before we process it? Some philosophers argue that the only "reality" is the bits of perception Virgil got brown, smooth, light. No wonder he had trouble distinguishing his dog from his cat, using only his eyes. If putting those discrete bits of sense data together into the smooth fabric we call reality is so complex a task that we are very far from being able to teach artificial intelligence how to do it, our brains must be playing a very active role in the construction of reality.

Students who find this interesting may want to skip ahead to Historical Interlude E which summarizes some of the recent research in the neurophysiology of the brain. You might find some good examples there to fuel your discussion about what reality is and how much of it is "out there" and how much "in us."

Background

This chapter relies pretty heavily on twentieth-century physics and the implications about reality that flow from it. If you have students who are physics majors or who have taken a course or two in physics, you can enlist their aid in explaining how physics sees reality. Quantum mechanics and relativity theory provide an interesting counterpart to philosophical questions about what is real. Two helpful books that put the findings of the new physics in terms the layperson can understand are: (1) The Dancing Wu Li Masters: An Overview of the New Physics by Gary Zukav (New York: Morrow, 1979) and The Tao Of Physics by Fritjof Capra (New York: Bantam, 1992).

Capra's book specifically connects the worldview of particle physics with ancient Buddhist and

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The Project Gutenberg eBook of And miles to go before I sleep

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: And miles to go before I sleep

Author: William F. Nolan

Illustrator: Richard Kluga

Release date: November 4, 2023 [eBook #72030]

Language: English

Original publication: New York, NY: Royal Publications, Inc, 1958

Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net

AND MILES TO GO BEFORE I SLEEP

By WILLIAM F. NOLAN

Illustrated by RICHARD KLUGA

He knew, to the exact minute, when he was going to die. And Earth was too far away to reach....

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from Infinity August 1958.

Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]

Alone within the humming ship, deep in its honeycombed metal chambers, Murdock waited for death. While the rocket moved inexorably toward Earth—an immense silver needle threading the dark fabric of space—he waited calmly through the final hours, knowing that the verdict was absolute, that hope no longer existed.

Electronically self-sufficient, the ship was doing its job perfectly, the job it had been built to do. After twenty years in space, the ship was taking Robert Murdock home.

Home. Earth. Thayerville, a small town in Kansas. Clean air, a shaded street, and a white, two-story house at the end of the block. Home—after two decades among the stars.

Sitting quietly before the round port, seeing and not seeing the endless darkness surrounding him, Murdock was remembering.

He remembered the worried face of his mother, her whispered prayers for his safety as he mounted the rocket ramp those twenty years ago; he could still feel the final, crushing handshake of his

father moments before the outer airlock slid closed. His mother had been 55 then, his father 63. It was almost impossible to believe that they were now old and white-haired.

And what of himself?

He was now 41, and space had weathered him as the plains of Kansas had weathered his father. He, too, had labored as his father had labored—but on strange, alien worlds, under suns far hotter than Sol. Murdock's face was square and hard-featured, his eyes dark and deep under thrusting ledges of bone. He had changed as they had changed.

He was a stranger going home to strangers.

Carefully, Murdock unfolded his mother's last letter, written in her flowery, archaic hand, and received just before Earth take-off.

Dearest Bob, Oh, we are so excited! Your father and I listened to your voice on the tape over and over, telling us that you are coming home to us at last. We are both so eager to see you, son. As you know, we have not been too well of late. Your father's heart does not allow him out much any more, and I have had a few fainting spells over the past month. But Doctor Thom says that we are all right, and you are not to worry. Just hurry home to us, Bob. We both pray God you will come back safely.

All our love, Mother

Robert Murdock put the letter aside and clenched his fists. Only brief hours remained to him, and the small Kansas town of Thayerville was an impossible distance across space. He knew he would never reach it alive.

The lines of an ancient poem by Robert Frost whispered through his mind:

But I have promises to keep,

And miles to go before I sleep

He had promised his parents that he would come home—and he meant to keep that promise.

The doctors had shown him that it was impossible. They had charted his death; they had told him when his heart would stop beating, when his breathing would cease Death, for Robert Murdock, was a certainty. His alien disease was incurable.

But they had listened to his plan. They had listened, and agreed.

Now, with less than a half-hour of life remaining, Murdock was walking down one of the ship's long corridors, his boot-heels ringing on the narrow metal walkway.

He was ready, at last, to keep his promise.

Murdock paused before a wall storage locker, twisted a small dial. A door slid smoothly back. He looked up at the tall man standing motionless in the darkness. Reaching forward, Murdock made a quick adjustment.

The tall man stepped down into the corridor, and the light flashed in his deep-set eyes, almost hidden behind thrusting ledges of bone. The man's face was hard and square-featured.

"My name is Robert Murdock," said the tall figure in the neat patrol uniform. "I am 41 years of age, a rocket pilot going home to Earth." He paused. "And I am sound of mind and body."

Murdock nodded slowly. "Indeed you are," he said.

"How much longer do you have, sir?"

"Another ten minutes. Perhaps a few seconds beyond that," replied Murdock.

"I—I'm sorry," said the tall figure.

Murdock smiled. He knew that a machine, however perfect, could not experience the emotion of sorrow, but it eased him to hear the words.

You will be fine, he thought. You will serve well in my place and my parents will never suspect that their son has not come home to them.

"It must all be perfect," said Murdock.

"Of course," said the machine. "When the month I am to spend with them is over they'll see me board a rocket for space—and they'll understand that I cannot return to them for another twenty years. They will accept the fact that a spaceman must return to the stars, that he cannot leave the service before he is 60. Let me assure you, sir, it will all go well."

Yes, Murdock told himself, it will go well; every detail has been considered. My voice is his voice, my habits his own. The tapes I have pre-recorded will continue to reach them at specified intervals until their death. They will never know I'm gone.

"Are you ready now, sir?" the tall figure asked gently. Murdock drew in his breath. "Yes," he said, "I'm ready now."

And they began to walk down the long corridor

Murdock remembered how proud his parents had been when he was finally accepted for Space Training—the only boy in Thayerville to be chosen. But then, it was only right that he should have been the one. The other boys, those who failed, had not lived the dream as he had lived it. From the moment he'd watched the first moon rocket land he had known, beyond any possible doubt, that he would become a rocketman. He had stood there, in that cold December of 1980, a boy of 12, watching the great rocket fire down from space, watching it thaw and blacken the frozen earth. He had known that he would one day follow it back to the stars, to vast and alien horizons, to worlds past imagining.

He remembered his last night on Earth, twenty long years ago, when he had felt the pressing immensity of the vast and terrible universe surrounding him as he lay in his bed. He remembered the sleepless hours before dawn, when he could feel the tension building within the

single room, within himself lying there in the heated stillness of the small, white house. He remembered the rain, near morning, drumming the roof, and the thunder roaring powerfully across the Kansas sky. And then, somehow, the thunder's roar blended into the deep atomic roar of a rocket, carrying him away from Earth, away to the burning stars ... away ...

Away.

The tall figure in the neat patrol uniform closed the outer airlock and watched the body drift into blackness. The ship and the android were one; two complex and perfect machines doing their job. For Robert Murdock, the journey was over, the long miles had come to an end. Now he would sleep forever in space.

When the rocket landed, the crowds were there, waving and shouting out Murdock's name as he appeared on the silver ramp. He smiled and raised his hand in salute, standing there tall in the sun, his splendid dress uniform reflecting the light in a thousand glittering patterns.

At the far end of the ramp two figures waited. An old man, bowed and trembling over a cane, and a seamed and wrinkled woman, her hair blowing white, her eyes shining.

When the tall spaceman reached them they embraced him feverishly, clinging tight to his arms.

Their son had returned. Robert Murdock had come home from space.

"Well," said a man at the fringe of the crowd, "there they go."

His companion sighed and shook his head. "I still don't think it's right somehow. It just doesn't seem right to me."

"It's what they wanted, isn't it?" asked the other. "It's what they wrote in their wills. They vowed their son would never come home to death. In another month he'll be gone anyway. Back for another twenty years. Why ruin it all for him?" The man paused, shading his eyes against the sun. "And they are perfect, aren't they? He'll never know."

"I suppose you're right," nodded the second man. "He'll never know."

And he watched the old man and the old woman and the tall son until they were out of sight.

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