170. A refreshing Opinion piece in New Vision: Uganda’s Leading Daily (Vol. 27, No. 138, 11 July 2012), commenting on a recent conflict between a chimpanzee and a child (but it could just as easily have been commenting on the plight of elephants), put it this way: “…what is taking place is unsustainable. The solution therefore lies in proper land use planning, family planning, immigration control, conservation education and strong incentives for people to engage in conservation” [emphasis added]. 171. Hawken, P. 2010. The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability. Revised Edition. Harper Business, New York. 172. Czech, B. 2006. The steady-state revolution as a prerequisite for wildlife conservation and ecological sustainability. pp. 335-344. In D.M. Lavigne (ed.). Gaining Ground: In Pursuit of Ecological Sustainability. International Fund for Animal Welfare, Guelph, Canada, and University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland; Rees, W.E. 2010. What’s blocking sustainability? Human nature, cognition and denial. Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy 6(2):13-25. Available at http://sspp.proquest.com/static_ content/vol6iss2/1001-012.rees.pdf 173. Hawken 2010. 174. A number of jurisdictions and international conventions have recognized that wildlife has intrinsic value. Recognition of the intrinsic value of animals (or wildlife) is included, for example, in the Preamble to the European Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Convention, 1979); and in Wildlife Minister’s Council of Canada. 1990. A Wildlife Policy for Canada. Minister of Environment, Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa. The Netherland’s 1992 Animal Health and Welfare Act recognizes that animals were not created just for the benefit of humans and that they have intrinsic value; intrinsic value is also recognized in the Preamble of the Convention on Biodiversity (1992), and in the Earth Charter (2000) although, in the latter, the actual words do not appear. Principle 1.1a reads, “Recognize that all beings are interdependent and every form of life has value regardless of its worth to human beings” (available at http://www.earthcharterinaction.org/invent/images/uploads/ echarter_english.pdf). Evidence that the idea has penetrated the mainstream scientific literature may be found in May, R.M. 2001. Foreward. pp xii-xvi. In J.D. Reynolds, G.M. Mace, K.H. Redford, and J.G. Robinson (eds.). Conservation of Exploited Species. Conservation Biology 6. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. In this foreword, May (now Lord May) acknowledges the idea that all life forms have “inherent rights”. It must be added, however, that the recognition of “intrinsic value” or “inherent rights” generally appears to have had little impact to date on the way humans have conducted their affairs. To this point, however, the acknowledgement of intrinsic value has not progressed much beyond Leopold’s “convention rhetoric” and “letterhead pieties”. While recognition of intrinsic value is a step in the right direction, it will only become meaningful if it becomes appropriately entrenched in legislation, which is enforced to ensure compliance. 175. Lynn, W.S. 1998. Contested moralities: Animals and moral value in the Dear/Symanski debate. Ethics, Place and Environment 1(2): 223-242.; Lavigne et al. 2006. 176. Following the example of the European Food Safety Authority. See EFSA. 2007. Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Animal Health and Welfare, on a request from the Commission on the Animal Welfare aspects of the killing and skinning of seals. The EFSA Journal 610:1-122. 177. Kumar, A. Menon. 2006. Ivory tower sustainability: An examination of the ivory trade. pp 129-139. In D.M. Lavigne (ed.). Gaining Ground: In Pursuit of Ecological Sustainability.
International Fund for Animal Welfare, Guelph, Canada, and the University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland. 178. The declaration is available at http://fcmconference.org/ img/CambridgeDeclarationOnConsciousness.pdf. For further discussion, see http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animalemotions/201208/scientists-finally-conclude-nonhumananimals-are-conscious-beings. 179. Varner, G. 2008. Personhood, memory and elephant management. pp. 41-68. In C. Wemmer and C. Christen (eds.). Elephants and Ethics: The Morality of Coexistence. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. Also see Kumar, A. and V. Menon. 2006. Ivory tower sustainability: An examination of the ivory trade. pp. 129-139. In D.M. Lavigne (ed.). Gaining Ground: In Pursuit of Ecological Sustainability. International Fund for Animal Welfare, Guelph, Canada, and University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland. 180. Kumar and Menon 2006. 181. e.g. van Aarde, R.J. and T.P. Jackson. 2007. Megaparks for metapopulations: Addressing the causes of locally high elephant numbers in southern Africa. Biological Conservation 134(3):289-297. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.08.027. 182. And this includes curtailing Internet trade in elephant products; see for e.g. http://www.ifaw.org/united-states/resource-centre/ killing-keystrokes. 183. Geist, V. 1988. How markets in wildlife meat and parts, and the sale of hunting privileges, jeopardizes conservation. Conservation Biology 2(1): 1-12. 184. See Johnson, S. 2012. Interpol demands crackdown on ‘serious and organised’ eco crime: Ivory poaching and illegal logging needs tougher enforcement and intelligence input, says Interpol director. The Guardian, 29 March. Available at http://www. guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/jun/27/gabon-burn-ivory. 185. See http://www.cites.org/eng/com/SC/62/E62-46-01.pdf. 186. Shoumatoff, A. 2011. Agony and Ivory. Vanity Fair, August. 187. Those interested in promoting the illegal trade and sale of ivory are no longer content with poaching elephants where they continue to survive in the wild. Recently, there has been a number of incidents where ivory stockpiles have “gone missing”, presumably stolen. In June 2012, over three tons of ivory were discovered “missing” from the Zambia Wildlife Authority’s “strongroom”, and two government employees were arrested in what is believed to be an “inside job”. A month earlier, 26 ivory tusks were reportedly stolen from a Department of Wildlife warehouse in Kasane, Botswana. In February 2012, over a ton of ivory was stolen in Mozambique (for a summary, see http://annamiticus.com/2012/06/27/ zambia-3-tons-ivory-stolen-2-game-scouts-arrested). Such stolen stockpiles are inevitably destined to enter illegal international trade and end up in ivory markets, particularly in Asia. As long ago as 1989, Kenya went so far as to burn its ivory stockpiles in an effort to persuade the world to halt the ivory trade (see www.nytimes.com/1989/07/19/world/ kenya-in-gesture-burns-ivory-tusks.html?page). Three years later, Zambia followed suit. In 2011, Kenya again burnt almost 5 tonnes of ivory, some 335 tusks and over 40,000 ivory carvings, originating in Malawi and Tanzania and confiscated in Singapore, in an attempt to send a message to poachers and illegal traders in elephant ivory (see http://www.bbc.co.uk/ news/world-africa-14217147). This time, however, Kenya did not destroy its own government stockpiles. In 2012, Gabon followed suit, burning nearly 5,000 kg of elephant tusks and ivory carvings (see http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/ extinction-countdown/2012/06/27/ivory-burn-gabon-sendsmessage-elephant-poachers/; also see http://www.guardian. co.uk/environment/2012/jun27/gabon-burn-ivory/print). In