Understanding the Concept of the Garden City and its Legacies

School of Architecture, Design and Planning

ARCH9068 History and Theory of Planning and Design Semester 1a, 2018 | 6 credit points Unit Coordinator: Assoc. Prof. Paul Jones Tutor: Sung Pak

Assessment 2

Portfolio

Understanding the Concept of the Garden City and its Legacies Authors: 470149762

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Table of Content Section 1: Garden Cities of Tomorrow by Ebenezer Howard 1.1 The Main Planning Principles 1.2 The Main Elements

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Section 2 : Chapter 9 from John Sulman’s 1921 Town Planning Book 2.1 The Key Essential Elements in Defining The Planning and Design of The Garden City / Garden Suburb 2.2 The Importance of Subdivision Pattern 2.3 The Key Principles of Subdivision Layout

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Section 3: The Garden City Principles in Port Sunlight 3.1 The Key Garden City Principles Applied in Planning and Design

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Section 4: Town Planning on Garden City Values in Canberra 4.1 The Key Physical Elements in the Design and Layout of The Existing Canberra Suburb

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Section 5: Legacies of The Garden City Movement 5.1 The Legacies of The Garden City Movement 5.2 The Expression of The Garden City Movement Legacies in Cities

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List of References 2

Section 1

Garden Cities of Tomorrow

by Ebenezer Howard 1.1 The Main Planning Principles

The main planning principles embedded in Howard’s vision and plan of a Garden City as summarised in The International Garden City Institute Prospectus (n.d.) are:

Bold vision, leadership and community engagement The Garden City envisioned by Ebenezer Howard is a top-down method of new town planning that needs a bold vision and leadership from the initiator, which usually, but not necessarily, a government body. This initiative requires strong vision to imagine the physical, social, economic and cultural shape of the new city and also its necessary action to realise the vision. Nevertheless, Howard also suggests the idea of community engagement as part of the process of working together to establish the new ‘ideal’ urban setlement that would bring benefit for all.

Land value creation for the benefit of the community Howard envisions a new city where the land value would not be determined by normal market price which is created by individual interests. He proposed that land value would be created and managed by the local council that would bring benefit for the whole community. Howard (1902, p.128-129) emphasises, “But the land around Garden City is, fortunately, not in the hands of private individuals: it is in the hands of the people: and is to be administered, not in the supposed interests of the few, but in the real interests of the whole community.”

Community tenure of land and long-term assets custodianship Because the land value is enjoyed by all members of the community, so its tenure and stewardship would be performed by the community itself, thus ensuring for its long-term benefit for all, as Howard (1902, p.22) underlines, “Its object is, in short, to raise the standard of health and comfort of all true workers of whatever grade--the means by which these objects are to be achieved being a healthy, natural, and economic combination of town and country life, and this on land owned by the municipality.”

Mixed-tenure affordable housing Howard envisions a city that provides the residents with many options of housing which are appropriate and affordable for ordinary people Howard (1902, p.24) notes, “we learn that general observance of street line or harmonious departure from it are the chief points as to house building, over which the municipal authorities exercise control, for, though proper sanitary arrangements are strictly enforced, the fullest measure of individual taste and preference is encouraged.”

Figure 1. The Three Magnet Diagram by Ebenezer Howard.

Source: Howard, Ebenezer 1902, Garden Cities of To-morrow, Cornell University, New York, viewed 31 May 2018, http:// urbanplanning.library.cornell.edu/DOCS/howard.htm

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Healthy community living in charmingly designed homes with lush gardens In accordance with the name ‘garden city’, all houses would be built on minimum allotment of land that enable lush gardens to surround them. This is exactly the opposite of the crowded slums condition in London which was the context when Howard proposed this idea. Howard (1902, p.23) enthusiastically describes, “Passing out of the Crystal Palace on our way to the outer ring of the town, we cross Fifth Avenue--lined, as are all the roads of the town, with trees-- fronting which, and looking on to the Crystal Palace, we find a ring of very excellently built houses, each standing in its own ample grounds”

Local jobs provision within easy commuting distance Howard imagines a city which is self-contained with every resident could work locally within easy commuting distance. That is why he limits his new settlement to 32.000 residents in order to keep everything in easy commuting distance. When the city grows, Howard suggests to build a new town with connecting railway system which also makes people easy to transit, as illustrated in figure 3.

Sustainable living by letting the residents to grow their own food The ideal city that Howard envisions would enable the residents to grow their own food and market it easily, whether they work in the green belt farm surrounding the city, or cultivate it in their own backyard. Howard (1902, p.25-26) notes, “...while the cultivation of vegetables, fruits, and flowers, which requires closer and more personal care, and more of the artistic and inventive faculty, may possibly be best dealt with by individuals, or by small groups of individuals having a common belief in the efficacy and value of certain dressings, methods of culture, or artificial and natural surroundings...”

Figure 2. The Garden City Diagram by Ebenezer Howard, showing the new town and the surrounding ‘green belt’ countryside Source: Howard, Ebenezer 1902, Garden Cities of To-morrow, Cornell University, New York, viewed 31 May 2018, http:// urbanplanning.library.cornell.edu/DOCS/howard.htm

Lavish green space, including: surrounding countryside for sprawl prevention, well-connected and biodiversity-rich public parks, beautiful gardens, treelines streets and open spaces This is the central principle of Howard’s Garden Cities. As an answer of wasted industrial town, Howard sees the enticement of picturesque green countryside that could be utilised to build a new ‘town-country’ settlement: a fully functioning industrial town with the beauty of the charming countryside, as illustrated in figure 1.

Generous cultural, recreational and shopping amenities in walkable neighbourhoods Radial layout with connected transport network would ensure that every resident could enjoy all of the amenities for high quality of life, balancing work, life and leasure.

Integrated and accessible transport networks Easy commuting becomes one of the main ideas that Howard emphasises again and again. He elaborates the transport network within the town in the ‘Ward and Center Garden City’ (Figure 4) and the transport networks between towns and the central city in the ‘No 5 Diagram’ (Figure 3)

Figure 3. No 5 Diagram by Ebenezer Howard, showing the transport network between towns and the central city Source: Howard, Ebenezer 1902, Garden Cities of To-morrow, Cornell University, New York, viewed 31 May 2018, http://urbanplanning.library. cornell.edu/DOCS/howard.htm

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1.2 The Main Elements of The Garden City Central Park This element is supposed to be located in the centre of the city, comprising a green space; public buildings such as town hall, concert and lecture hall, theater, library, museum, gallery and hospital; and so-called ‘crystal palace’ where “manufactured goods are exposed for sale, and here most of that class of shopping which requires the joy of deliberation and selection is done.” (Howard 1902, p.23)

Avenues, Boulevards and Roads This is the main structure element of the Garden City that become the backbones that connect every elements into one integrated and compact city with easy commuting access.

Outer Ring This is the industrial element of the city where people mainly work. It is what makes the garden city a new form of industrial city, but with beautiful ‘countryside’ atmosphere. This outer ring will be connected with the circle railway that ensure its effectiveness and efficiency to create jobs as well as products for the whole city and the wider communities.

Circle Railway Figure 4. The Ward and Centre Garden City Diagram by Ebenezer Howard showing the proposed structure of the new town.

Source: Howard, Ebenezer 1902, Garden Cities of To-morrow, Cornell University, New York, viewed 31 May 2018, http://urbanplanning. library.cornell.edu/DOCS/howard.htm

“Six magnificent boulevards -- each 120 feet wide -- traverse the city from centre to circumference, dividing it into six equal parts or wards. In the cetre is a circular space containing about five and a half acres, laid out as a beautiful and well-watered garden; and, surrounding this garden, eah standing in its own ample grounds, are the larger public building -- town hall, principal concert and lecture hall, theatre, library, museum, picture-gallery, and hospital.”

Ebenezer Howard 1902, p.22

Circle railway is another industrial element that ensures that this new city could work effectively and efficiently, even more productive than the older industrial cities.

Green Space: Green Belt, Park & Tree-Lined Street This is the main feature of the Garden City which is an evolutionary idea of its time. People at that time must choose between working in crowded and wasted industrial city such as London or Manchester, but living in slums, or living in the garden house of the countryside, but with less opportunities or productivities. As illustrated in the Three Magnet Diagram (Figure 1), The new Garden City promises a new way of working in productive industrial city while still enjoying the beatiful scenery of the countryside with generous green belt and parks, gorgeously design houses with gardens, marvelous tree-lined avenues and boulevards.

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Section 2

Chapter 9 from John Sulman’s 1921 Town Planning Book

2.1 The Key Essential Elements in Defining The Planning and Design of The Garden City / Garden Suburb Before answering the question of the importance of subdivision pattern, it is necessary to describe the key elements that Sulman (1921, p.106) sees as being essential to defining the planning and design of the Garden City/Garden Suburb because they are the underlying principles of Sulman’s idea about suburb and subdivision. Those key elements are:

1. The allocation of special quarters or sites for each kind of buildings 2. The absence of congestion of dwellings and their better arrangement 3. The ample provisions of parks, playgrounds and open spaces 4. The planting with trees and grass on the roads where not required by traffic 5. The provision of greater opportunities for social inter action Figure 5. The Portrait of Sir John Sulman Source: Longstaff, John, Portrait of Sir John Sulman, Art Gallery NSW, Sydney, viewed 3 June 2018, https://www. artgallery.nsw.gov.au/collection/works/966/

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2.2 The Importance of Subdivision Pattern To encourage specialised suburbs Sulman (1921, p.98-100) notes that a suburb would be more desirable from an economic perspective if it is specialied. Although most suburbs are usually residential, he gives examples of variations, such as suburbs which are more suitable for boating and yachting where there is a river or bay nearby, or others suburbs that might attract surfers if located at the coast, or hilly suburbs which would be favored by garden lovers.

To create aesthetic views Sulman (1921, p,101-102) elaborates this part by comparing two models of subdivision pattern in blocks which are not rectangular and blocks which have curved roads. In the irrectangular blocks, he prefers to subdivide at right angles to the frontage, while at curved roads he advises that the dividing lines are at right angles to the tangen of the curve. Thus, he believes would create more aesthetic views.

To facilitate efficient sanitary works As well as aesthetics, good sanitation is also the objectives of Sulman’s subdivision arrangement. He notes, “In small country towns that are not likely to grow to sufficient size to warrant a sewerage system, or that are so flat as to render it difficult, provision must be made for the sanitary cart, and back lanes are a necessity for the speedy removal of the sanitary plans without offence.” (Sulman 1921, p.104)

To configurate well-connected suburbs Sulman (1921, p.100-101) criticise developers who wish to maximise their lot by subdivide it with dead-end road. Thus, he proposes that subdivision pattern should configurate an easy-commuting suburb, which is one of the principles of the Garden City.

Figure 8. The example of the provision of back lanes to facilitate efficient sanitary works.

Source: Sulman, John 1921, An Introduction to the Study of Town Planning in Australia, Government Printer of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 3 June 2018, https://canvas.sydney.edu.au/courses/2646/files/2162297?module_item_id=198376

To improve the value of the land Figure 6. The drawing of Sulman showing disconnected rectangular subdivisions which he criticised.

Source: Sulman, John 1921, An Introduction to the Study of Town Planning in Australia, Government Printer of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 3 June 2018, https://canvas.sydney.edu.au/courses/2646/ files/2162297?module_item_id=198376

Figure 7. The comparison of subdivision pattern in blocks which are not rectangular and in blocks which face curved road Source: Sulman, John 1921, An Introduction to the Study of Town Planning in Australia, Government Printer of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 3 June 2018, https://canvas.sydney.edu.au/courses/2646/ files/2162297?module_item_id=198376

Sulman (1921, p.105-106) believes that by giving ten percent of the land for amenities like parks, playground or public gardens, it could raise the overall value of the land.

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2.3 The Key Principles of Subdivision Layout This example of nine different ways of subdividing 10-acre block as illustrated in Figure 9 shows the summary of the key principles of subdivision layout advocated by John Sulman.

Those principles are:

No Dead End Road/Lane This principle is underlined by Sulman in his caption of the picture in Figure 9, showing the importance of this principle to ensure easy commuting in the neighbourhood which is one of the main Garden City principles.

Right Angles to The Frontage This principle is logical when the block is in rectangular shape, but Sulman also elaborates more when the shape of the block is not rectangular or facing curved road. His explanation about why maintaining the right angle is important could be found on Section 2.2 and on Figure 7.

More Useful and Sanitary (Avoid Slums) By giving the example of subdivision pattern Sulman (1921, p.104) argues, “Where parks or playgrounds are deficient in number, of too far away for daily use, the centre of some of these blocks might well be utilised for such a purpose.”

Back lanes Are A Necessity This principle is also correlated with the previous principle which aims to promote better sanitation. As illustrated in Figure 8, this principle would ensure that sanitary works could be done effectively and quickly without causing what Sulman called ‘an absolute eyesore’ (Sulman 1921, p.104).

One-tenth Reserved for Parks, Playgrounds or Public Garden Figure 9. The example from Sulman of nine different ways in which the 10-acre blocks in country town might be configurated to suit specific conditions.

Source: Sulman, John 1921, An Introduction to the Study of Town Planning in Australia, Government Printer of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 3 June 2018, https://canvas. sydney.edu.au/courses/2646/files/2162297?module_item_id=198376

Sulman argues for this principles by dedicating one specific paragraph to reiterate the main principles of the Garden City Movement that is summarised in section 2.1 above.

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Section 3

The Garden City Principles in Port Sunlight 3.1 The Key Garden City Principles Applied in Planning and Design

The key Garden City Principles applied in the planning and design of Port Sunlight are elaborated here using the framework of the key Garden City Principles listed in the section 1.1 and the examples of the local expression are elaborated in the desciptions.

Bold vision, leadership and community engagement The planning and design of Port Sunlight are greatly influenced by its visionary founder: William Hesketh Lever, who envisioned an ideal settlement for the workers at his Sunlight soap company, as Lucas (2007, p.5) writes, “...the brilliance of William Hesketh Lever (first Viscount Leverhulme) has to be acknowledged as fundamental to the foundation of Port Sunlight Village, together with the adjacent Port Sunlight Works and the creation of Lever Brothers (later Unilever) as a global multi national company.”

Land value creation for the benefit of the community Port Sunlight is designed vigorously from scratch by its founder to create a community which enjoys a good quality of live. He transformed what is initially an unused marshly land into a sensational settlement which later celebrated as the ‘model village’ of England where its residents relish good living conditions.

Community tenure of land and long-term assets custodianship As a village primarily created to house company workers, Port Sunlight land is owned by the company. The residents pay a fair rent while they can enjoy access to education, healthcare and social facilties and receive a pension which was groundbreaking for its time (Royal Geographical Society, 2013).

Figure 10. The Portrait of William Hesketh Lever, 1st Viscount Leverhulme Source: Bassano Ltd, Wiiliam Hesketh Lever, 1st Viscount Leverhulme, National Portrait Gallery, London, viewed 2 June 2018, https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portraitLarge/mw65725/William-Hesketh-Lever-1st-Viscount-Leverhulme

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Mixed-tenure affordable housing As a worker housing, consequently it is affordable, but by no means cheap and uniform as usually associated with affordable housing. By hiring many different prominent architects at that time, Lever ensures that the design of every house in Port Sunlight is unique and diverse, as Lucas (2017, p.13) notes, “different areas often being constructed by various designers in a deliberate attempt to introduce variety.”

Healthy community living in charmingly designed homes with lush gardens The uniqueness of the homes in Port Sunlight is also their high quality of aesthetics, as Hubbard and Shippbottom (2005, p.35) point out, “...it established not only a penchant for display, but also the high quality of external materials and detailing which was to be a hallmark of virtually all subsequent building in the village.”

Figure 11. Photographs of Houses in Port Sunlight Source: Davison, T.Raffles 1916, Port Sunlight, A Record of its Artistic & Pictorial Aspect, Batsford, London, viewed 2 June 2018, https://archive.org/details/ portsunlightreco00davirich

Local jobs provision within easy commuting distance This principle is obviously expressed by the fact that Port Sunlight is initially designed to provide housing for the Sunlight soap factory so that all residents could live very close to their job location.

Figure 12. Bird’s Eye Drawing of Port Sunlight, showing the proximity of works from the new settlement.

Source: Allertonoak n.d., Price’s Village and Port Sunlight, Allertonoak, Liverpool, viewed 2 June 2018, http://www.allertonoak.net/GSM/03GSMPortSunlightPrices.html

Figure 13. Bird’s Eye View Perspective Drawing of Port Sunlight from Illustrated London News, vol. 113, 1898 Source: Hubbard, Edward and Shippobottom, Michael 2005, A Guide To Port Sunlight Village (2nd Revised Edition), Liverpool University Press, Liverpool.

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Lavish green space, including: surrounding countryside for sprawl prevention, well-connected and biodiversity-rich public parks, beautiful gardens, tree-lines streets and open spaces This core principle of garden village can be clearly seen expressed in the plan, as Baneerje (2013) underlines, “What is striking about the plan itself is the amount of land allocated for allotments and recreation. There were altogether ten allotment gardens.”

Generous cultural, recreational and shopping amenities in walkable neighbourhoods Lever believes in sharing the profit of his company for the welfare of his workers that would eventually affecting their productivity positively. So, in this new village, he provides many facilities including church, school, hospital, post office, shops, inns, hostel, and many others. Baneerje (2013) notes, “They included a football and cricket ground, another recreation ground, a tennis lawn, a bowling green, four further play areas, as well as wooded parkland near the works themselves, to the lower right of the plan. In 1902, William & Segar Owen added a gymnasium and an open-air swimming pool.”

Figure 15. Plan of Port Sunlight Model Village Source: Davison, T.Raffles 1916, Port Sunlight, A Record of its Artistic & Pictorial Aspect, Batsford, London, viewed 2 June 2018, https://archive.org/ details/portsunlightreco00davirich

Figure 14. Amenities in Port Sunlight; Top Right: Christ Church, Top Left: Girls Hostel, Bottom Left: Post Office, Bottom Right: Hospital Source: Hubbard, Edward and Shippobottom, Michael 2005, A Guide To Port Sunlight Village (2nd Revised Edition), Liverpool University Press, Liverpool

Integrated and accessible transport networks Lever build his village with a good access of the railway network as well as thoughtful design of street networks as expressed in the plan layout, showing relatively small blocks and wide right of way (ROW).

Figure 16. Photograph of Port Sunlight today Source: Vardy, Peter I. 2017, File:17-21 Bolton Road, Port Sunlight, Wikimedia Commons, San Fransisco, viewed 2 June 2018, https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:17-21_Bolton_Road,_Port_Sunlight.jpg

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Section 4

Town Planning on Garden City Values in Canberra 4.1 The Key Physical Elements in the Design and Layout of The Existing Canberra Suburb The key physical elements in the design and layout of the existing Canberra suburb that have been underpinned by the Garden City movement as elaborated in the ACT Planning and Land Authority (2008, p.2) paper are:

The Street

The Block

The Dwellings Each element would be elaborated further to understand the the key garden city values they represent individually and collectively because those values could be embedded in the objectives and manifested in the design principles to control development (ACT Planning and Land Authority 2008, p.6).

(Right) Figure 17. Preliminary plan of Canberrs by Walter Burley Griffin in 1913.

Source: Griffin, Walter Burley 1913, Canberra Federal Capital of Australia preliminary plan [cartographic material], National Library of Australia, Canberra, viewed 3 June 2018, https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-230041959/view

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The Street

The Block

In the Garden City principles the street is one of the public realms that is very crucial for social interaction and defining the characteristics of the suburb. The other physical elements such as block and dwelling are framed by the street in terms of accessibility as well as views to and from those elements. Therefore, ACT Planning and Land Authority defines the garden city values, objectives and design principles as follow:

The block is also crucial in the Garden City principles in its function to ensure everyone get generous solar access and space for back service and gardens as well as playing ground for children. The use of porches and front gardens would encourage social activities with neighbours and provide street survailance.

The ACT Planning and Land Authority defines the garden city values, objectives and design principles of the block as follow:

Garden City Values

Garden City Values

O Good access to well-designed housing that provide for social interaction and participation

O Good access to well-designed housing that provide for social interaction and participation

O High quality of residential amenity and acknowledging the beauty of nature

O High quality of residential amenity and acknowledging the beauty of nature

Objectives

Objectives

O To strenghten the street as a place to meet and stroll, not just vehicular access

O To create a good quality private and communal open space for outdoor activities

O To make the street a harmonious setting with the surrounding landscape

O To harmonise buildings with surrounding landscape to retain the suburb character

Design Principles

Design Principles Direct Front Access

Front Garden

Prominent Front Entrance Street Surveilance

No Parking on the Verge

Communal open space have equity of access and clear function

One Side Single Lane Driveway

Waste and Service Area not Visible from the Street

Setback Variety

Continuous Footpath Existing Trees Retained Verge Character Retained

Figure 18. Photo and diagram of Canberra Street Design Principles by ACT Planning and Land Authority; annotation diagram by author.

Source: ACT Planning and Land Authority, Garden City Values and Principles, ACT Planning and Land Authority, Canberra, viewed 3 June 2018, http://www. planning.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/890993/gardencity_values.pdf

Stepped Front Building Line of Dwelling

Ground Floor Access to Open Space Usable Dimmension Adequate Solar Access

Permeable Paving

Soft Planted Front Garden

Water sensitive design

Understated Driveway

Rear Setback

Retain Existing Vegetation Side Garage

Figure 19. Photo and diagram of Canberra Block Design Principles by ACT Planning and Land Authority; annotation diagram by author.

Source: ACT Planning and Land Authority, Garden City Values and Principles, ACT Planning and Land Authority, Canberra, viewed 3 June 2018, http://www. planning.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/890993/gardencity_values.pdf

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The Dwelling The dwelling appearance from the neighbours and public spaces could have significant impact to the streetscape. So in the Garden City principles, it is necessary to design good buildings that could bring environmental, cultural, economic and social benefit for all members of the community. In order to achive that high quality of design internally and externally while also responsive to the unique local character of Canberra, ACT Planning and Land Authority defines values, objectives and design principles as follow:

Garden City Values O Good access to well-designed housing that provide for social intercation and participation O High quality of residential amenity and acknowledging the beauty of nature

Objectives O To provide greater variety of dwellings for inclusive and safe community O To retain street character through the scale form and detailing of building O To create more sustainable dwelling responsive to Canberra’s season for greater well being

Design Principles Dwelling Options and Sizes Minimise Overlooking

Modification to suit changing needs Secure storage for bicycle, garden tools and other items Separate Ground Floor Entry

Similar Composition and Pallete of material of house and gardens

Familiar Forms, Material and Detail

Dwelling Entry Visible from the Street Street Facade Identify Individual Dwellling

Figure 21. Bird’s Eye Photo of Canberra overlooking the axis from The New Parliament House to Mount Ainslie showing inner city and the surrounding garden suburbs.

Source: The International Garden City Institute n.d., Canberra, Letchworth Garden City Heritage Foundation, Letchworth viewed in 3 June 2018, http://www.gardencitiesinstitute.com/resources/garden-cities/canberra

Landscape Elements for Environmental Performance

Basement garage entry scarcely visible Less Dominant Car Parking Entry

Residential Scale Openings and Doors

Front Hedge Retention

The dwelling design utilises prevailing winds, cooling breezes and ventilation Adequate Solar Access

Well-designed Roof Overhangs, Shading Devices, Windows Types and Sizes

Shade Trees

Figure 20. Photo and diagram of Canberra Block Design Principles by ACT Planning and Land Authority; annotation diagram by author.

Source: ACT Planning and Land Authority, Garden City Values and Principles, ACT Planning and Land Authority, Canberra, viewed 3 June 2018, http://www.planning.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/890993/gardencity_values.pdf

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Section 5

Legacies of The Garden City Movement 5.1 The Legacies of The Garden City Movement Howard’s Garden City ideas spread like wild fire in the practice of city planning worldwide and leave so many legacies in all parts of the world, influencing people, institution, principles, theory and practice of planning and design of new cities. In the book edited by Professor Parsons and Schuyler, From Garden City to Green City: The Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, Professor Eugenie L.Birch summarises the legacies of The Garden City Movement in the Anglo-American hemisphere. The summary is shown in this table from Professor Birch article entitled “Five Generations of the Garden City, Tracing Howard’s Legacy in Twentieth-Century Residential Planning.”

Representatives

Period

Plans/Projects

Literatures

First

Raymond Unwin & Barry Parker Clarence Stein & Henry Wright Clarence Perry Lewis Mumford

c. 1900-1930s

Hampstead Garden Suburb Letchworth Sunnyside Radburn Neighbourhood Unit

Unwin, Nothing Gained by Overcrowding Perry, Housing for the Machine Age Mumford, The City in History

Second

Resettlement Administration Tennessee Vallet Authority New Towns Commission

c. 1930s-1950s

Greenbelt Towns Norris, Tennessee 32 New Towns

Federal Housing Administration, Planning Neighborhoods for Small Houses Stein, Towards New Towns for America Purdom, Building Satellite Towns Ward, The Garden City: Past, Present and Future

Third

Robert E Simon James W. Rouse

c. 1960s-1970s

Reston, Virginia Columbia, Maryland

Munzer and Vogel, New Towns: Building Cities from Scratch

Four

Condo Developers

c. 1960s to present

Harmon Cove Wyndham Westminster Place Society Hill, Newark

Listokin and Walker, The Subdivision and Site Plan Handbook

Five

New Urbanists, Smart-Growth and Sustainable Development Advocates

c. 1980s to present

Seaside Celebration Melrose Commons Mashoee Commons

Philip Langdon, A Better Place To Live Urban Land Institute, Smart Growth

Generation

Table 1. Five Generations of Garden City Planner showing the legacies of the Garden City Movement in the Anglo-American hemisphere.

Source: Birch, Eugenie L.2002, ‘The Five Generation of The Garden City, Tracing Howard’s Legacy in Twentieth Century Residential Planning’, in Parsons and Schuyler (ed.), From Garden City to Green City, The Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

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It should be noted that the table is only listing the legacies in the Anglo-American hemisphere, so that John Sulman’s literature and later work in Canberra are not on the list. Nevertheless, professor Birch’s list are included here to give a broader perspective of the impact of The Garden City Movement internationally.

5.2 The Expression of The Garden City Movement Legacies in Cities

Proliferation of Public Spaces Public parks, common gardens and urban squares where people meet and social interactions happen are considered important by the majority of people living in city nowadays. Not only city municipalities that underline their significance in the planning policies, even many private developers have recognised the importance of those spaces in improving the overall value of the land which they are going to develop.

The Garden City Movement Legacies could be traced in many expressions in cities all around the globe nowadays. Some of those expressions are:

Zoning System Zoning is a common practice in the city planning today in order to control orderly development of city to create healthy, sustainable and pleasant living environment. The Ward and Centre Diagram by Ebenezer Howard (Figure 4) is the initial concept of zoning which aims to plan city developments in accordance with their functions.

Figure 23. Screenshot of the Victoria Urban Design Guidelines, Element 3 Public Spaces, showing how public space for community engagement is highly valued in contemporary cities and recommended in the urban design guide.

Source: The State of Victoria Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning 2017, Urban Design Guidelines for Victoria, The State of Victoria Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning, Melbourne, viewed 4 June 2018, http://www.urban-design-guidelines.planning.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_ file/0004/440986/UDGV-03-Public-Spaces.PDF

Design Excellence Assessment As legacies of the Garden City Movement, the building appearances become important.

People have come to the realisation that how the buildings looks would affect the whole character of the city and consequently the quality of life of its citizens. Therefore, many city councils assemble boards of architecture experts to assess the developments in their municipalities, especially for public buildings that would affect a greater number of people.

Figure 22. Proposed Plan of Darra by John Sulman showing the use of zoning in planning and design of new towns in Australia.

Source: Sulman, John 1921, An Introduction to the Study of Town Planning in Australia, Government Printer of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 3 June 2018, https://canvas.sydney.edu.au/courses/2646/files/2162297?module_item_id=198376

Figure 24. Photographs of the launching of Green Square Cultural Precint

by The City of Sydney Council. As part of the event is also the public display of the design of the surrounding neighborhood. Source: City of Sydney 2018, Green Square Community and Cultural Precinct, City of Sydney, Sydney, viewed 4 June 2018, http:// www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/vision/ green-square/city-of-sydney-developments/community-cultural-precinct

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Modern Transportation System

Sustainable and Resilient City

Howard envision about the urban growth and how to manage that growth effectively by creating a transportation network that will allow every resident and an easy commuting from one centre to another in efficient time. Now every city in the world competes to have the best transport system that would make that vision a reality. One of the examples is the Greater Sydney Region plan which aims to realise a 30-minutes city, where everyone can reach everywhere in the metropolitan city in just 30 minutes. The master plan of this metropolitan area could find its resemblance in Howard’s No 5 Diagram (Figure 3)

Howard initial idea is probably only about growing people’s own food in their backyard. But, this idea of sustainable community has gone further into what is called green cities, that aim to promote an environmental friendly cities with zero-sum waste and energy and resilient to global challenges such as massive urbanisation, refugee crisis and climate change. Young (2002, p.221) concludes, “In achieving a symbiotic relationship between humanity and nature and a new synergy between ecology, democracy, economy, religion, and technology, the green city will, as Ebenezer Howard hoped for his own project,‘lead society on to a far higher destiny than it has ever yet ventured to hope for, though such a future has often been foretold by daring spirits.’”

(Right) Figure 26. Cover of the book “Green Cities” by Asian Development Bank.

Source: Asian Development Bank 2012, Green Cities, Asian Development Bank, Mandaluyong City, viewed 4 June 2018, https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30059/green-cities.pdf

Relevancy of Principles The legacies of the Garden City Movement become the evidences that the principles of The Garden City Principles is still relevant nowadays. Those principles have been evolving into what is expressed in the cities’ forms, designs, systems, policies, regulations, visions and anticipations for the future challenges as explained in this section.

Figure 25. Master Plan of Greater Sydney Region Plan 2018 Source: Greater Sydney Commission 2018, Greater Sydney Region Plan, A Metropolis of Three Cities, Greater Sydney Commission, Sydney viewed in 4 June 2018, https://www.greater.sydney/metropolis-of-three-cities

Nevertheless, there are some principles that have been left behind because it is no longer relevant. One of those is the number of people that Howard envision to live in the Garden City. The exact number of 32000 could never be realised in the past and would not be relevant with the rapid-growing and rapid-moving population nowadays. Moreover, contemporary research shows that more density could be better for cities in terms of sustainability (Black 1996, p.55). The other principles that is also no longer relevant is the strict separation of the industrial and residential area. While at Howard’s era, industry is associated with manufacturing activity that produce pollution and much noise that should always be separated from residential area for health and amenity reason. But, nowadays there are financial service, tourism and creative industry that generate tolerable level of polution so that could be well-integrated with the residential area ini a mixeduse development. This strict separation principle is criticised intensively by Jane Jacob who advocates mixed primary uses of districts in order to create thriving and successful cities (Jacobs 1961, 152) 15

List of References ACT Planning and Land Authority, Garden City Values and Principles, ACT Planning and Land Authority, Canberra, viewed 3

June 2018, http://www.planning.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/890993/gardencity_values.pdf Banerjee, Jacqueline 2013, Port Sunlight, Wirral, Chesire: Introduction, The Victorian Web, Providence, viewed 2 June 2018

http://www.victorianweb.org/art/architecture/portsunlight/1.html Birch, Eugenie L. 2002, ‘The Five Generation of The Garden City, Tracing Howard’s Legacy in Twentieth Century Residential

Planning’, in Parsons and Schuyler (ed.), From Garden City to Green City, The Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, The

Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Black, John 1996, ‘Higher Density Housing and Transport in Australian Cities’, in Hayashi Y., Roy J. (ed.) Transport, Land Use and the Environment, Springer, Boston, MA. Greater Sydney Commission 2018, Greater Sydney Region Plan, A Metropolis of Three Cities, Greater Sydney Commission,

Sydney viewed in 4 June 2018, https://www.greater.sydney/metropolis-of-three-cities Howard, Ebenezer 1902, Garden Cities of To-morrow, Cornell University, New York, viewed 31 May 2018, http://urbanplan

ning.library.cornell.edu/DOCS/howard.htm Hubbard, Edward and Shippobottom, Michael 2005, A Guide To Port Sunlight Village (2nd Revised Edition), Liverpool Uni

versity Press, Liverpool.

Jacobs, Jane 1961, The Death and Life of Great America Cities, Random House, Inc., New York.

Lucas, Ian W 2007, Port Sunlight Village Conservation & Management Plan, Byrom Clark Roberts Conservation Architect,

Manchester, viewed in 2 June 2018, https://canvas.sydney.edu.au/courses/2646/files/2369652/download?down

load_frd=1 Sulman, John 1921, An Introduction to the Study of Town Planning in Australia, Government Printer of New South Wales,

Sydney, viewed 3 June 2018, https://canvas.sydney.edu.au/courses/2646/files/2162297?module_item_id=198376 The International Garden City Institute n.d., Canberra, Letchworth Garden City Heritage Foundation, Letchworth viewed 3

June 2018, http://www.gardencitiesinstitute.com/resources/garden-cities/canberra The Royal Geographical Society 2013, Housing Bubbles, A Self Guided Walk Around Port Sunlight on the Wirral, The Royal

Geographical Society, London, viewed 2 June 2018, https://www.discoveringbritain.org/content/discoveringbritain/

walk%20booklets/Port%20Sunlight%20walk%20-%20written%20guide%202016.pdf The State of Victoria Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning 2017, Urban Design Guidelines for Victoria,

The State of Victoria Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning, Melbourne viewed in 4 June 2018,

http://www.urban-design-guidelines.planning.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/440986/UDGV-03-Public-Spac es.PDF Young, Robert F. 2002, ‘Green Cities and The Urban Future’, in Parsons and Schuyler (ed.), From Garden City to Green

City, The Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

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