Title: Is Neo-Shamanism cultural appropriation within the arts?
Author: Heather Russell
Publication Year/Date: May 2024
Document Version: Fine Art Hons dissertation
License: CC-BY-NC-ND
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-ncnd/4.0/
DOI: https://doi.org/10.20933/100001303
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Is Neo-Shamanism cultural appropriation within the Arts?
Fine Art (Hons)
Word count:7700
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a Bachelor of Arts (Hons) degree in Fine Art.
Duncan of Jordonstone College of Art and Design
University of Dundee 2024
Acknowledgements
I would firstly like to thank Dr Helen Gorrill for restoring my faith in my academic ability and her constant and unwavering support. Lia for giving her time and effort and acting as an inspiration. Debs for her ongoing support throughout my life and proof reading skills. My cat Mitsy for her therapeutic presence, PUDDO and their cookie dough desserts for the sugar kick and last but not least the consistent support of friends old and new.
Abstract This dissertation asks the question; ‘Is Neo Shamanism Cultural appropriation within the Arts?’ through critically analysing the works of artists Joseph Beuys, Ernest Neto and Marcus Coates.
The objective of this dissertation is to question the fine line between Neo Shamanism and cultural appropriation by exploring these artists and investigating the ways in which each artist uses Shamanism and what the use of Shamanism promotes. Chapter one sets out the ground work in order to fully understand Shamanism, before critically analysing Joseph Beuys; ‘I like America and America likes me’. This is then followed by Neto’s collaborative piece with the Huni Kuin tribe and compares the differences in both artist’s work. The second chapter looks at Neo Shamanism and investigates Coates’ performance work ‘Journey to the Lower world’ before looking at which parts of Coates’ performance compare to cultural appropriation as well as comparing it to his performance in ‘The Directors’. Chapter three looks at the long and bloodied History of the British Empire and how colonisation has led to Neo-shamanism. It examines how Coates’ behaviour echoes that of the British Empire and how the symbolism of the stag connects the two. It also includes a conversation with a Maori Shaman (Shaman X), her opinion on Neo Shamanism and her insecurity in being referred to as a Shaman being a by-product of colonisation. Finally, this dissertation will conclude by looking at how each artist used Neo-Shamanism within their work, to what effect and whether it is cultural appropriation
Table of Contents
Title page ……………………………………………………………………………………2
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………….3
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………4
List of illustrations 7
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………8
Chapter1
Shamans and the shamanic art practice………………………………………………………………………………………10
Joseph Beuys (1921-1986) ‘I like America and America likes me’1974…………………….…………………………………………………………… 11-14
Ernest Neto (1964) ‘Casa de Curo’ (‘Healing House’) (2016)…………………………………………………………………………………….15-16
Chapter 2 What is Neo Shamanism?....................................................................................................... 17
Marcus Coates (1968-present) ‘Journey to the Lower World’ (2004)…………………………………………………………………………………………………...17-19
Coates and Cultural appropriation……………………………………………………………………19 ‘The Directors’(2023)…………………………………………………………………20-21
Chapter 3
Neo-shamanism, the British Empire and cultural appropriation……………………………………………………………………… 21-23
The symbolism of the stag……………………………………………………………………………………….24-25
Conclusion
Bibliography
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figures
Figure 2.1:‘The Sorcerer’ cave painting (discovered 1940) image courtesy of ‘Therianthropes, Shamans and Sorcerers’ 10
Figure 2.2 Traditional Shaman wear from the Tomsk region, western Siberia. Image courtesy of The Russian Museum of Ethnography…………………………………………………………………………12
Figure 2.3Joseph Beuys,’I like America and America likes me’(1974),performed at the Ren`e Block art gallery, image courtesy of Kids of Dada……………………………………………………………………………………15
Figure 2.4Ernest Neto, ‘Casa de cura’(Healing house)(2016) hand-crotcheted installation. Image courtesy of Designboom……………………………………………………………………………………………………16
Figure 2.5Marcus Coates’ Journey to the Lower world’(2004),performance,image courtesy of Marcuscoates.co.uk 20
Introduction
I chose the area of shamanism because as a Healer and Artist myself, shamanism reflects my personal identity and my creative practice as a whole. Although I feel that there is a similarity between myself and the shaman, I importantly recognise that I am not a shaman and nor do I claim to be.
Shamanism combines religion, healing and art. The French word ‘séance’ (meaning to attempt to communicate with sprits) is derived from shamanic practice ‘without spirit the shaman cannot heal, problem solve or create’ (Wood 2002). Shamanism is the one of the world’s oldest forms of religion and has inspired many others. The Shaman is the original creative practitioner and performer, seen in palaeolithic cave art such as ‘The sorcerer’ discovered in ‘Les Trois-Freres’ (Wood 2022), which shows the shamanic transition from human to animal.
Neo-Shamanism is an eclectic collection of beliefs and activities drawn from literature, workshops, and the internet. It is an invented tradition of practices and beliefs based on a constructed metaphorical and romanticised “ideal” of the shaman concept which often differs considerably from traditional shamans (Townsend 2014). Neo-Shamanism appears to be growing in popularity. Weekend courses can be taken and books read on the subject but is the western white man just looking to fix his ‘shattered identity’ by becoming an ‘instant medicine man’ (Lindquist 1997) in an era of individualism?
This dissertation poses the questions ‘Is Neo-Shamanism cultural appropriation within the arts?’ This will be investigated by a visual analysis of Joseph Beuys’ performance (19211986) ‘I like America and America likes me’ (1974), Marcus Coates’ (1968-present) performance ‘Journey to the lower world’ (2004) and Ernest Neto’s collaborative installation as part of Vienna’s TBA 21 exhibition (1964-present) ‘Casa de Curo’ (2016). I shall be viewing these artworks through the lens of Roland Barthes 1967 paper ‘Death of the Author’ who uses a mixture of both structuralist and post structuralist approaches to visually analyse. The objective of this research is to question what is culturally acceptable when using NeoShamanism as an art tool. The key issues that will be discussed are; how each artist individually uses Neo-Shamanism within their work, what it promotes and if it crosses the line into cultural appropriation, and how the British Empire has influenced Neo-Shamanism, Shamanism and the viewpoint of the white middle class male artist.
In my research for this dissertation, I have discovered that although James Young covers cultural appropriation within the arts generally in his book ‘Cultural appropriation and the arts’ (2010) it seems that the topic of Neo-Shamanism being considered as cultural appropriation within the arts has not been considered.
This dissertation is formed of three chapters; chapter one will introduce shamanism, laying the groundwork for the rest of the dissertation and looking at the history of the shaman and the shaman as a ‘creator’. It will also cover the different gender roles of the shaman and how this is an important part of the Shaman’s performance. The chapter will then visually analyse Beuys’ ‘I like America and America likes me’ (1974) and raise questions of the ‘authenticity’ of Beuys’ claims as a shaman. Beuys strong political message throughout his work, his desire to heal America and perhaps himself and how due to being a by-product of his era he had no awareness of cultural appropriation. The chapter then goes on to compare Beuys work to Neto’s collaborative work with the Huni Kuin tribe in attempts to culturally protect instead of harm and what impact the collaborative work had, along with Neto’s views of being a healer contrasting that of Beuys’.
Chapter two will introduce Neo-Shamanism and compare it to that of the traditional shamanistic practice. It will then visually analyse Coates’ performance in ‘Journey to the Lower world’, drawing upon what is cultural appropriation within his work and then comparing it to his role in ‘The Directors’, a role which very much differed from ‘Journey to the lower world ’.
Chapter three looks at Neo-Shamanism, the British Empire and cultural appropriation. Looking specifically at how colonisation has shaped Neo-Shamanism and the way in which it has evolved. It also touches on the westerners ‘quest for authenticity’ (Lindquist 1995). It investigates how Coates’ individualist behaviour echoes that of the British Empire and why the symbolic status of ‘the stag’ shows Coates’ true intentions. The chapter then looks at a conversation with ‘Shaman X’; her views on Neo-Shamanism and how her ‘imposter syndrome’ may be the result of colonisation alongside the contrasting views on NeoShamanism within the Native American culture. The dissertation will then conclude by looking at how Beuys, Neto and Coates have all used Neo shamanism within their work and whether or not it could be considered cultural appropriation.
Shamans and the shamanic art practice
The words ‘shaman’ (Wood 2022) and ‘shamanism’ have been long used to describe a ‘medicine man’: a person who has appeared throughout history in a variety of cultures and traditions. The words’ root is taken from the Russian translation of the Tungusic (Wood 2022) ‘saman’ (Wood 2022). Shamanism is an integral part of society in certain parts of the world. It is regarded as the origin of all religions, dating back to the beginning of humanity. Evidence of such has even been found in Palaeolithic cave art (Wood 2022) These paintings and etchings sprawl along the walls, ceilings and floors of caves and capture animals such as bison, birds, horses and mammoths. Such evidence has been found in sites such as Altamira in Spain, and Lascaux, Les Trois-Freres and Chauvet in France. What is incredible is that amongst these images and handprints are evidence of two human/animal hybrids, or parahumans. These images have now become known as ‘’The Shaman’’ at Lascaux and ‘’The Sorcerer’’ at Les Trois Freres. The shaman is seen as a healer and does so through performed rituals, often through a trance-like state called ‘ecstasy’. The shaman was usually brought to this place of being by the use of the ‘hallucinogens of plant medicines' (Wood 2022). Paintings made by shamans were usually found in more remote parts (Wood 2022), perhaps due to the lack of urban development.
Performance art is also a vital part of being a shaman: it could be said that certain performance art techniques are inspired by the influence of the shaman who might be defined as the origin of all performance (Howell 1999). It has been known for shamans to exist of both genders, with males sometimes performing as females and females as males. To perform in gender role reversals as ‘two spirits’ (Young 2017), a shaman would then be considered the most powerful of all, sometimes going on to become a ‘warrior’ (Young 2017).
Therefore, the shaman’s clothing is an essential part of both their attire and performance, enabling their spiritual and creative process to speak to spirits in order to solve problems brought to them by the individual or the community. This could be described as ‘mimicry,’ a performance art technique which helps create a disguise adopted by ‘the object of the gaze’ (Howell 1990). Mimicry can be seen as ‘travesty’ – ‘pretending to be what one is not’. A shaman will often try to embody an animal through clothing and performance.
This chapter will explore two artists who use the influence of shamanism within their work. Joseph Beuys (1921-1986) was a ‘self-proclaimed’ shaman and used ritualistic performances to make political statements, employing the symbolic status of ‘shaman’ to heal society. In contrast, Ernest Neto (1964-present) works collaboratively with the Huni Kuin tribe within his native Brazil, gaining the trust of the tribe and raising awareness about them and their art.
Joseph Beuys (1921-1986) ‘I like America and America likes me’ 1974
Joseph Beuys was a German performance artist/sculptor/self-taught shaman/political activist and pioneering environmentalist. He was part of the avant-garde movement and considered to be one of ‘the best post-war artists’ (Hallet 2023) by some, but a ‘charlatan’(Dege 2021) and proven liar by others. His work bared ritualistic themes via art and performance with his art being described as reminiscent of the cave paintings found in Lascaux (Laing 2016). Beuys
served in the German Air Force during World War Two where his plane crashed in the frozen Crimea. He claimed at the time that he was ‘saved’ by the Tartar tribe and wrapped in fat, lard and felt in order to stay alive, although this was later proven to be untrue. “Who would, or could, pose for photographs after a plane crash, when severely injured?” the art historian Benjamin H.D. Buchloh famously asked in a 1980s Art Forum essay. “And who took the photographs? The Tartars with their fat-and-felt camera?’’ (Phillips 2021).
The accusations of being a charlatan, however, did not stop Beuys as he continued to use felt as his ‘artistic identity’ throughout many of his performances and sculptural works, including ‘Homogeneous Infiltration for Piano’ (1966, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris), installations such as ‘The Pack’ (1969, Neue Galerie, Kassel), and performances ‘Felt’ (TV, 1970)
In his performance ‘I like America and America likes me’ (1974), Beuys makes a strong political statement on the post-war societal structures of America. However, the ritualistic/shamanic elements of the performance have been questioned due to there being no evidence of Beuys having actually reached a state of ‘ecstasy’ before the performance (something which Beuys claims is not true) (Beuys 2010).
As Carmen Alonsoa (2010 p35) explains in the book Joseph Beuys: ‘Nonetheless, it must be noted that the factor of ecstasy, which is indispensable in shamanism, is missing from his actions. It is therefore worth examining the aspects of shamanism which Beuys chose to incorporate in his oeuvre.’ However, it could be argued that what Beuys was really attempting to achieve was reaching ecstasy through his artistic means: ‘Shamanism was and still is, a technique of ecstasy utilising artistic means to address various types of suffering or imbalances; the Shaman is a practitioner of the human soul.’ (Wood 2022 p16) This poses the question of what matters more, Beuys’s authenticity as a shaman or as an artist making a comment on the societal structure of post-war America?
On the other hand, was shamanism merely an act that Beuys portrayed in an effort to boost his ego? It cannot be questioned what an effect Germany losing the war would have had on Beuys, particularly having fought as an RAF pilot. Perhaps questioning another country’s societal structure made Beuys feel less ‘inferior’ Having survived the crash physically perhaps his spiritual wellbeing was left behind with it: ‘Shamanism came into being at a time when man could not help feeling inferior in relation to his environment. He began to carry on the struggle for existence by spiritual means and came to attach special importance to the state of his soul as a condition of survival’ (Lommel 1969).
‘I like America and America likes me’ could be seen as part of Beuys’s ‘spiritual’ recovery not only from the crash but from the war. Joseph Beuys’s performance was filmed in black and white at the René Block Gallery New York. The back of Beuys is seen as he walks down a corridor with a small crowd of people surrounding him. He wears formal attire including his ‘trademark’ trilby hat, a waistcoat, and what looks like a shotgun secured to the left-hand side of his body. He shields his eyes as he walks towards a 1970s style ambulance where two men wait for him and fold thick brown felt around the entirety of his body in a considered and almost ritualistic manner. The next image we are presented with is (what is presumed to be) Beuys on a stretcher being transported into the back of the ambulance, the felt now only seen surrounding his face whilst a white linen blanket covers the rest of his body, secured with a fastened strap across his midriff. He is moved into the narrow rear of the ambulance much resembling a body being inserted into a drawer within a mortuary chamber.
Our attention is brought to the overwhelming sirens blaring, a way for Beuys to tell Americans to pay attention to the emergency at hand. As the camera faces towards the back of the ambulance the viewer sees the outline of Beuys’s body completely covered by the white linen blanket, with the head rest sitting upright, although his face still remains completely covered. White curtains surround him, giving a sense of serenity which contrasts with the harsh background of sirens as the ambulance gathers pace, visible through the viewing panel of the motorway at the rear. Two men and a woman escort the stretcher from the ambulance into the gallery entrance as two members of the public seated against a building look on. There is a sense of urgency yet a contradictory feeling of calm in terms of how the building is approached. Beuys’s head is wrapped in almost a ‘cocoon’ of felt, enveloped and protected from the outside world. Perhaps enveloping his meditative state before he performs as a shaman. He is then guided into the building by a smiling man, the cocoon of felt still wrapped around his head and torso, muttering inaudible words underneath his breath as he begins to unfurl. As it is taken off, we are faced with the image of a coyote behind caged fencing, with straw bedding in the background. This is an animal which is usually seen as a threat towards mankind and yet can represent the ‘untamed’ spirit of America. Beuys enters the door of the cage where he will spend the next three days. Over the course of these three days, the coyote’s behaviour goes from mildly aggressive (tearing apart a blanket in the room) to one of acknowledgement and acceptance that Beuys was only there to heal not harm. Over the course of these three days, it was noted that a copy of the Wall Street Journal was put into the cage which the coyote urinated on. In some Native American
beliefs, the coyote is seen not only as a trickster but as a sign of transformation (Mann 2017). This is a hugely symbolic moment within the performance. The urination on the Wall Street Journal reflects Beuys’s opinion of capitalism within America. The entire journey, the unveiling of the felt and the entering of the cage, leads to a near ‘climax’. Beuys enters with no hesitancy. He holds the felt in front of him as the coyote sniffs him and almost playfully leaps away.
The scene jumps to Beuys preparing (shepherd’s crook still in hand) to wrap himself in felt. Ominous music follows his actions, building a climax yet again.
The next scene shows Beuys bent over, cocooned in felt and leaving a trail of it on the floor in front of him. Taking on the image of a shepherd, he holds the crook back to front horizontally facing the coyote. The coyote then starts to playfully tug on the material and ‘mouth’ the cane as the music continues to play.
After three days and with his full body still cocooned in felt, Beuys is led from the cage by two men
The final scene then presents us with an anti-climax where Beuys can be seen wandering around in what looks like an airport, shielding his eyes.
Although critics over the years have taken issue with Beuys’s authenticity as a ‘shaman’, there is one thing that has been agreed upon and that is his authenticity as an artist and a ‘societal peace maker’: ‘Beuys encouraged us to love the abnormal, preferring an allencompassing grounding in humanity; in real people and their lived experiences. In order for modern America to love itself, it must learn from Beuys, and embrace today’s coyote.’ (Yeung 2023). It seems that Beuys’s message is as relevant in the present day as it was in 1970s America.
Ernest Neto’s ‘Casa de Curo’ (‘Healing House’) 2016
In complete contrast to Beuys’s art, Neto’s modern-day work provides no ‘fairytale’ in terms of his involvement with the tribe. He works collaboratively with the Huni Kuin tribe and hopes to bring awareness to their tribe as they continue to fight for their land rights and preservation of their culture and art. (Cigainairo 2022). During the exhibition project ‘Aru Kuxipa’, it was decided by the curator Daniela Zyman to create a project which was about ‘exploring “ancestral futures” and preserving the ancient knowledge of indigenous peoples for contemporary society.’ (Cigainairo 2022). He had earned such a level of trust with the tribe that members donated drawings of their sacred medicine plants and the leader of the tribe even donated his ceremonial tunic, head dress and feather wand to the exhibition project at Vienna’s TBA 21.
Unlike Beuys, Neto takes no ownership over being the shaman/healer: ‘The Art is the healer, brother,' he responds. 'I'm just something in between.’ (Cigainairo 2022) Neto suggests that he is just ‘the middle man’ that has enabled this exhibition project to come together.
Part of the project involved using spices and herbs native to the tribal region, such as lavender, cloves, saffron and turmeric. These were then weighed down into stretchy material, giving sculptural forms that engage and invite the audience to take part by climbing through tunnels surrounded by beautiful sensory colours and crochet, becoming part of the experience.
The ‘Casa de Curo’ (‘Healing House’) itself is created using hand-crocheted techniques not dissimilar to those the tribe would use themselves, and brings the viewers’ awareness to the standalone sculpture as a place to sit together and heal.
In the interview with Ernest Neto from the book, The Edges of the World (2000 p14), he states: ‘If you make an exhibition with a single sculpture in the middle of a big room, you focus all of your attention on the work because you’ve cleaned away everything else around it. It becomes a kind of totem; it becomes almost religious, in the sense that the viewer becomes awed.’
The house itself is hand-crocheted aqua blue (a vision of calm) within yellow diamonds, and to the front of the house is an orange teardrop-shaped symbol which hosts a bench but also allows the occupant room to stand. The surrounding wall has a print of hand-drawn pictures of fish, rivers and nature on a white backdrop.
‘For western people there is a disconnection between the one who is thinking and the object,’ Neto explains. ‘From the indigenous perspective this is not possible: there is no separation between us and nature, the subject and the object.’ Neto’s method of making as an artist falls in line with the rules of shamanism as his sculptures incorporate the audience/subject as part of the object.
Beuys’s art serves in making a political statement about post-war America, that society needs to wake up. The coyote urinating on the Wall Street Journal was reflective of Beuys’s opinion of post-war America and that in order to ‘heal’, America first needed to transform and to learn to love itself. His authenticity as a shaman, however, was questioned by art critics at the time, as there was no evidence to back up this story. In contrast, Neto works
collaboratively in his homeland, Brazil, with the Huni Kuin tribe, building up such a level of trust that the tribe have gifted him a ceremonial gown and headdress. Neto sees himself as the ‘middle man,’ and does not use the project to boost his career or ego as an artist.
What is Neo Shamanism?
This chapter will compare Neo-Shamanism and traditional Shamanic practice. It will also analyse Coates’s performance ‘Journey to the Lower World’ and look at the fine line between Neo-Shamanism and ‘cultural appropriation’ within his work, and the damage that this can potentially do to individuals within a culture. It also touches upon Coates’s role within ‘The Directors’, which sees him taking on a role which is reflective of those living with psychosis, not one which is used to massage his artistic ego.
Neo-Shamanism is an eclectic collection of beliefs and activities drawn from literature, workshops, and the internet. It is an invented tradition of practices and beliefs based on a constructed metaphorical, romanticised “ideal” of the shaman concept which often differs considerably from traditional shamans (Townsend 2014).
A traditional shaman is known within their community not only as the healer but as the ‘problem solver’, and they use divination techniques, known as ‘spiritual problem solving’ (Mokelke 2017). The shaman enters a trance like state where they will ask the spirits what the problem is and for the recommended form of treatment.
Marcus Coates (1968-present) ‘Journey to the Lower World’ (2004)
Marcus Coates is a British contemporary artist/ornithologist who takes inspiration from shamanic influences in his work. His work includes installations and performances that have been recorded as video art. He takes influence from shamanistic rituals and attempts to ‘communicate’ with the ‘lower world’. The aim of Coates’s work is to contrast natural and manmade processes.
As mentioned in chapter one, shamanism shares aspects of performance art, particularly the technique of ‘mimicry’ which involves the performer imitating to entertain or ridicule. ‘Most of my work up until now has been about developing different mimicking strategies to explore whether there is a shared consciousness between ourselves and non-humans’ (Coates 2005).
In the following visual analysis of ‘Journey to the Lower World’, you can see that Coates ridicules the animals by wearing their skin, ridicules shamanistic practices, and ridicules the
working class facing detrimental/real-life problems. ‘While remaining deeply uneasy about the employment of artists in the public sphere as ‘problem solvers’, Coates has said that often the most valuable thing that comes out of such performances is the audience’s sense that they are being listened to.’(Frieze2007) But although it is claimed that Coates felt ‘uneasy’ this did not stop him from using the role of the shaman to be ‘the problem solver’ and was Coates really interested in listening to their needs or using their situation in order to further his artistic career? ‘While the humour of these works springs from the naivety of the desires they embody, by subjecting himself to such vivid, visceral experiences Coates holds on to the possibility of personal transformation and so restrains them from snide satire.’(Frieze 2007) Particularly when personal transformation seemed his only real goal.
Coates took part in a residency for ‘Further Up In The Air’ where he worked with a small group of residents from Liverpool, Linosa Close in Sheil Park housing estate, a predominantly working-class area. The residents faced the demolition of the tower block and for them the future was uncertain. Coates plays the part of ‘The Shaman’ for the community, bringing them answers from the ‘lower world’. The audience have asked Coates the question ‘Who will protect the site as a whole?’. Coates will then find the answer to this question through entering a ‘meditative state’ aided by playing shamanic music and journeying to the ‘lower world’ dressed in the skin of a stag. The following is a segment taken from his performance:
The guttural animal noises are continuous whilst the shamanic drumming plays in the background and the audience’s reaction changes from bemused to bewildered. Coates spins in circles until dizzy, then bows his head and presses his antlers against the doorway. Coates continues the noises which climax to a higher pitched sound before Coates kneels over in the middle of the floor and whistles like a bird whilst tapping his cheeks. One-woman recoils but with laughter in her eyes. He sits down and continues the animalistic noises. He then spits the remaining water out before exiting the room and removing the stag head and hide from his body by undoing the straps.
Coates unties the keys from his shoes. He describes using the lift to the building to go down to the ‘lower world’ and lists the different birds and animals he meets in the darkness, which could not offer him much help and were ‘shrugging him off’, while pointing him in a ‘general direction’. Coates patronisingly describes what each breed of bird looks like to the audience
and talks in a serious tone whilst explaining his endeavours. His meetings with various birds sound almost hallucinatory whilst he describes the birds as changing shapes and sizes. One bird is a ‘sparrowhawk’ which he knew wanted to talk to him due to the way it's ‘primary feathers angled themselves in different directions. Coates tells the audience that this ‘symbolises’ them all working together as a community and not going separate ways. He then tells them that their ‘protector’ is the group, and that this is their most ‘valuable’ asset. He nervously licks his lips whilst the camera pans to the unimpressed audience. He asks what their opinion is and one old lady replies that they have tried for years to bring the community together as a group but people ‘aren’t interested’ or are ‘too busy’: she thinks that they won’t ever be able to bring everyone together. Coates tells her that they can only keep trying to get more people to join and if ‘they do, they do’ and if ‘they don’t, they don’t’ He is then greeted with a round of applause and shakes the hands of the audience. The scene changes to the outside of the tower block with one old lady commenting ‘so think positively then?’
Coates and cultural appropriation
The Cambridge Dictionary definition of cultural appropriation is as follows: ‘The act of taking or using things from a culture that is not your own especially without showing that you understand or respect that culture’ (Cambridge Dictionary 2023). Coates explained: ‘Lots of things worried me such as questions of ethics, appropriating rites from another culture, setting myself up as a medium, my lack of training’ (Coates 2005)
Does Coates’s two-day workshop mean that his work does not qualify as ‘cultural appropriation’ within the art world? Where is the line drawn? When the artist himself has been aware of his work being received as cultural appropriation? Or is it his status as a middle-class white man from London ‘helping’ working class communities by giving them ‘answers’ that they already know? Or was it, as Coates himself said, ‘Just an exotic middle
class self-help exercise’ (Coates 2005), an ego boosts to help promote his status within society whilst demeaning others from a lower social status? ‘The residents were anxious about the future, so maybe my shamanic techniques could be of use’, he said (Coates 2005).
The Directors (2023)
In a more recent performance, ‘The Directors’ at Churchill Garden State London, Coates is set the task of exploring what it feels like to live with psychosis by living the very ‘real’ experience of five individuals who direct Coates as ‘offscreen voices.’
Coates markets himself as a shaman and problem solver in ‘Journey to the Lower World’. But in a role reversal, participating in ‘The Directors’ he was not in the position of power and instead those who were vulnerable oversaw him: ‘It’s refreshing that the work does not proclaim that it is offering care or support; nor does Coates position himself as an artist somehow entitled to become a temporary healthcare professional. He acknowledges his amateur status and ignorance and is willing to learn. And despite attempting to perform his director’s actual life he does not claim these experiences as his own’ (Hines2022)
Perhaps considering ‘Journey to the Lower World’ was made at the beginning of Coates’s artistic journey (2004) in comparison to ‘The Directors’, which was filmed last year, there has been a progression in terms of inner growth which has allowed Coates to forget his ego and to truly embody the experience of something or somebody ‘other’ to himself.
Coates’s self-doubt and awareness that his work may fall under the definition of ‘cultural appropriation has had, however, no effect on the art world’s critique of this performance: ‘He exposes the disconnects within us and the societies we have created. New ways of relating are proposed and put into practice.’ (MacGarry 2023) Was telling the community in Sheil Close to work ‘closer as a community’, some of those most downtrodden by his own social class and about to lose their homes, really the best way to problem-solve and ‘re-relate’? The damage of Coates’s work can in actuality leave members of a culture and community in further disconnect with a damaging and long-lasting impression, as covered by James O.
Young in ‘Cultural Appropriation and the Arts’ (2010): ‘These false or distorted impressions of culture could be harmful in at least a few ways. They could create or perpetuate stereotypes that lead to discrimination against individual members of a culture. Harm of this sort might limit the economic or educational opportunities of members of a culture. More insidiously, members of a culture may come to see themselves and their culture as they appear to outsiders. This could also cause harm to the insider’s ‘culture’ (Young 2010 )
Of course, it could be argued that Coates has ‘freedom of expression’, but with this comes an increase in his social value and responsibility. This is doubly the case when he places himself in a position to help those that he deems ‘in need of his help’.
Coates’s work ethic in ‘Journey to the Lower World’ draws upon the thin line between NeoShamanism and cultural appropriation. Was this performance, so early on in his art career, simply used to boost his artistic career as well as his ego to the detriment of others? His role in ‘The Directors’ proves that Coates now chooses more thought-provoking roles, which provide the audience with an awareness of living with psychosis.
Chapter three will explore in more detail the effects of colonialism and cultural appropriation on Coates work and the question of what is considered Neo shamanism.
Neo Shamanism, the British Empire and cultural appropriation
‘Behind me trails the shadow of the tears of native peoples. Below me I march on the shadow of the lands my peoples have raped’ (Kremer, 2000)
This chapter will consider the role colonialism has played in the way Neo Shamanism has evolved. It will look in more detail at how it has been used by westerners and ‘the white man’ as ‘a quest for authenticity.’ (Lindquist, 1995) It will also examine how Coates’ individualist behaviour echoes that of the British Empire and why the symbolic status of ‘the stag’ reveals Coates’ true intents. It will then conclude with a conversation with an Australian based Māori ‘shaman’ (Shaman X) her insecurities about being called ‘a shaman’ and her views on Neo Shamanism Used as part of my research for this dissertation alongside the contrasting view on Neo Shamanism within the Native American culture.
The British Empire has a bloodied and formidable past with ‘imperial activities’ that were both ‘long lasting’ and ‘far reaching’. (Brain, 2019) The British Empire began to form in the sixteenth century which then grew vastly in size. By the twentieth century the British Empire extended to a quarter of the world’s land and it controlled one fifth of its population. (Lloyd, 2007)
During this time, the British Empire ravaged many countries, savagely killing thousands upon thousands of people. As the militant Chartist leader Ernest Jones said in 1851, “On its colonies the sun never sets, but the blood never dries.” (Newsinger, 2013) Britain has a long history of taking what does not belong to the nation; from stealing cultural identities to displacing various indigenous communities around the world. (Potter, 2006) Items which
have been looted from such communities have now been featured in the British Museum’s ‘’unofficial’’ ‘stolen goods tour’. (Procter 2019) The tour includes items such as the Elgin marbles and Hoa Hakananaia’a amongst other stolen property. It still owns many items which countries have appealed to have sent back such as ‘The Benin Bronzes’. (Little, 2023) The Benin Bronzes have been held by Britain for decades and Nigeria has repeatedly asked for them back. 2018 saw Britain offering to return them, however this was conditional as they were only ‘on loan’(Little, 2023) and had to be returned to Britain after being shown in the Royal Museum which Nigeria opened in 2021.
However, whilst the British Empire attempted to ravage countries, there was a significant fight back, and in some instances, Shamans played an important role:
Many of the movements of resistance to colonialism have appeared as messianic revolts led by millennial prophets and saviours. Among various Guaraní groups in Paraguay, shamans led groups on messianic pilgrimages, seeking to find the Land Without Evil. The very existence of the Land Without Evil offered the Guaraní hope, security and courage in the face of the hunger, sickness and death that followed the Spanish conquest (Sullivan, 2022)
The British Museum has been accused of telling a multitude of lies in terms of how the loot was ‘saved’ or ‘salvaged’ instead of returning loot that is not lawfully theirs.They have been advised by a leading human rights lawyer Geoffery Robertson QC to ‘wash their hands of the blood’. (Procter, 2019)
Whilst colonialism has a bloodied, tainted past with a lasting legacy of cultural appropriation and entitlement, without it, a blending of cultures and a mixing of creative endeavours and skill sets would not have been possible. From this global communication, a new take on being a shaman evolved: Neo Shamanism. Neo Shamanism emerged within the second half of the twentieth century with North American and European non-indigenous audiences gaining further interest in shamanic knowledge and practises. (Scuro & Rodd, 2015)
A neo-shaman can be also referred to as an ‘instant medicine man’. (Lindquist, 1997) They are defined as a white person who would travel around the U.S. and Western Europe holding courses for other non-indigenous people. The followers of the ‘self-appointed’ medicine men would often take on Native American names which would then enable them to give courses in ‘Native American Medicine’ and travel.
Neo Shamanism has been seen as the western white man’s ‘quest for authenticity’ (Lindquist, 1997) - a ‘souljourn’; something which both Beuys and Coates strived for. They both followed the course of Neo Shamanism, as mentioned in Chapters One and Two, but for different reasons and within different historical contexts. ‘Spirituality is a political resource, used to reconstruct a shattered identity’. (Lindquist, 1997) As previously mentioned in Chapter One, Beuys attached a fantasy narrative to claim his ‘shamanic authenticity’. Perhaps Beuys hoped that by using shamanism within his work he could heal America’s identity as well as his own which left him after his plane crashed into the frozen Crimea. In contrast and from living in a modern day society, Coates, who would have had greater global awareness of cultural appropriation and the impact of colonialism (as previously mentioned in Chapter Two) seemed to use the shamanic appeal of his work to boost his artistic identity, as discussed in ‘Shamanic performances on the Urban scene by Galina Lindquist’ (1997):
One moulds one’s public persona increasingly according to one’s choice, with a large variety of means to hand (admittedly, within limitations imposed by one’s place within the societal structure). The result, the emerging ‘Individual’ and the life-world he has created for himself, far from being evident, is in greater need of legitimation than ever before. This concerns lifestyles, leisure occupations, social relations, and importantly for the present study, the newly-made traditions and the emergent forms of spirituality
It has been agreed by specialists that the role of the ‘traditional’ shaman is ‘inherited’ (Djoszegi and Eliade, 2023) and by definition of inheritance it is meant that the spirit ‘chooses’ the shaman. Other forms of ‘inheritance’ include an inner calling, instruction or vocation or the so called ‘shaman illness’. (Djoszegi and Eliade, 2023) The study of the shaman is not something that can be ‘taught’ in the usual way through books and scholars. Instead, is taught by the spirits by reaching a state of ecstasy (see Chapter One): ‘No one voluntarily ventures into the shaman role, nor does a candidate have time to study the role.’(Djoszegi and Eliade, 2023)
In comparison, when a westerner learns ‘to be’ a (Neo) shaman, it is often taught to them by listening to an audio tape, reading a book or taking part in a short course; something which often comes with a costly price tag. A true shaman will never charge for their services and will only heal those who belong to their community. (Ratkovičová, 2016) Coates undertook a two day course (Coates, 2005) in Neo Shamanism (Shepard 2016) and never mentioned being ‘chosen’ by the spirits. He simply ‘bought’ his identity as a shaman and his privilege enabled
him to buy more ‘authenticity’ than others from less advantaged backgrounds. By some Native American standards (as mentioned above), this does not guarantee Coates’ right to become a shaman, as shamanism cannot simply be ‘taught’. Coates, therefore, would be considered by some Native Americans to be an ‘instant medicine man’. (Lindquist, 1997)
The symbolism of the stag Coates is very much a product of an individualist era with his social status and personal artistic accomplishments being awarded even if it meant exploiting and buying his guise by purchasing the hide of a stag. This is also interesting to note as Coates claims the ‘stag’ as his spirit animal. (Coates, 2005) According to Native American beliefs, the stag itself is symbolic of ‘spiritual superiority’. (Oldale, 2020) It is also associated with the ‘male only’ premarriage celebration in Britain. The ‘stag do’, is so named because a stag/buck is seen as the ‘leader of the pack or herd’ and is connected to ’virility’, ’male vigour and ardour’ and ‘strength and vitality’. (Oldale, 2020). It is believed that ‘the stag’ is derived from the hairy large horned god of the Pagans and Celts ‘Cernunnos’ (Bourlet, 2023) who represented fertility and wealth as well as the underworld, and at one point was a point of worship for ancient Britons. (Bourlet, 2023) It is no coincidence that Coates chose the stag, an animal symbolic for status and power, when he stood in front of a working-class audience in a housing complex. They sat there at his disposal, willing, innocent and receptive, unaware that they were being used as stepping stones in order to further his career. Did he wish to be admired as a spiritual leader? Did he want to be revered as a Pagan god?
Conversation with Shaman X
For the purpose of this dissertation, I took part in a conversation with someone who I will refer to ‘Shaman X’ in order to find out about how to be an authentic shaman in modern times without being deemed as a ‘instant medicine man’. She is a practising shaman living in Australia who has Māori ancestry and who comes from a long line of witch doctors. Although she comes from a background of healing (unlike Coates), she struggles with her authenticity:
I only started using the word shaman or medicine woman very quietly when clients began to call me that, to be honest it didn’t and still doesn’t feel quite right as I wasn’t traditionally taught and was afraid of being a phoney. I am mostly of Celtic origin. But as I soon learnt from also working with Aboriginal and Native American spirits that they will come to those who listen, no matter what race.
Is colonialism to blame for her imposter syndrome even when she comes from a long line of healers? Shaman X states, ‘There is a saying from the Native Americans that says ‘White on the outside red on the inside’ meaning that we carry the spirit of the shaman inside of us’. This has been supported by many Native scholars, for example in the research report ‘Altered States, Conflicting Cultures: Shamans, Neo-shamans and Academics by Robert J Wallis’:
On the other hand, some genuine Native shamans do encourage Neo Shamanic practice and are willing to teach. Black Elk, controversial among many Native scholars, published his medicine practices via Neihardt (1932), possibly intending his visions and life story to be read by both Natives and Westerners.
Arguably, due to being a British native, perhaps Coates felt an entitlement to take what does not belong to him when the British Empire itself has a long history of doing the same.
The shaman’s role was one of great importance, via giving hope to those who saw none in an extremely trying time. Coates, however, used shamanism and the symbolic status of ‘the stag’ as a guise in which to intimidate and overpower. It was not used to lead those in need to places of comfort like the shamans of the past, rather it was used for his own benefit and greed within the art world. Coates, much like the British Empire, hoped to step on the shoulders of those made most vulnerable by society in order to elevate his own position in order to command and conquer. Beuys, however, was a product of an era of nationalism and can almost be excused for his behaviour. It seems that the ‘authentic’ shaman is someone who adheres to the calling via a ‘calling from spirit’ and not via the western approach of listening to an audio tape/reading a book or, in regard to Coates, attending a costly two-day workshop.
Conclusion
This dissertation set out to discuss if Neo Shamanism is cultural appropriation within the arts by critically analysing the works of Beuys; ‘I like America and America likes me’, Neto; ‘Casa de Curo’ and finally Coates in; ‘Journey to the lower world’. Also, by looking at how colonialism has created Neo Shamanism and different artist’s attitudes towards it.
It seemed that Beuys, although a charlatan, used Neo-shamanism to create an overall political message: to heal America in a time of post war. He was also perhaps looking to heal and be healed himself having suffered from the after-effects of being a pilot in WWII and being part
of the Nazi Hitler youth group. Beuys’ cultural appropriation was a by-product of an era of nationalism, at a time when people had little understanding of it.
Neto, unlike Coates and Beuys, looks for no ego boost within his art; ‘The art is the healer brother, I’m just something in between.’ (Cigainairo 2022). He looks to engage, to collaborate and to promote a tribe from his native Brazil. His important work looks to connect a minority tribe with the wider world. As a token of the trust built on the foundations of the project, the chief donated his head dress and ceremonial gown. Hopefully Neto’s explorative work with the tribe will leave a lasting impression for years to come and will help the tribe and the community around them build stronger bonds.
In modern day society, there is a concerted effort to right the damage inflicted on indigenous cultural expression within the arts, yet some Native Americans have been known to teach neo-shamanism within the community with ‘Black Elk’ publishing his medicine practices for natives and westerners to read alike.
Coates work is symbolic of the British Empire, it is not by mere coincidence that he chooses the stag, he wants to be perceived just as the British Empire did as ‘leader of the pack or herd’ (Oldale 2010) and is reflective of what is inexplicably wrong within the art world today. This study has found that it was difficult to find a negative critique of ‘Journey to the Lower World’ or any of Coates work. Does being a graduate of the RA mean that Coates is perhaps protected by a network of male critics and artists? Is he another male artist taking advantage of those more vulnerable to boost his own ego? His work in ‘Journey to the lower world’ which he almost half admits is an ‘exotic self-help exercise’ (Coates 2022) could also have a huge cultural impact; ‘These false or distorted impressions of culture could be harmful in at least a few ways’ (Young 2010). This may have done irreversible damage, not only to shamanic tribes with shamans such as ‘Shaman X’ questioning her own authenticity and being afraid of being ‘phoney’, but to the working-class community that he deemed to be helping. The demise of the Sheil housing complex was only used to promote an ego trip on his journey to becoming another ‘celebrated’ white male artist. If only Coates had looked to Neto for inspiration and guidance on how to truly build trust and collaborate within a community rather than for self-gain. ‘For western people there is a disconnection between the one who is thinking and the object,’ Neto explains. ‘From the indigenous perspective this is not possible: there is no separation between us and the nature, the subject and the object.’
Although Coates would perhaps like to think otherwise, ‘Coates has said that often the most
valuable thing that comes out of such performances is the audience’s sense that they are being listened to.’ (Frieze 2007) Yet this isn’t true. And yet, perhaps his role in ‘The Directors’ has helped ‘redeem’ himself whilst working with people with psychosis to raise awareness and actually feel their struggle But is this too much too late? Considering the beginning of Coates art career was 19 years prior and ‘Journey to the lower world’ was clearly used to propel this journey. As a white middle-class male, his work disconnects himself not only from the shamanic community but from the reality of those who face dire circumstances instead of bringing him closer. He shows a complete and utter disregard and lack of respect for culture, people and religion. Coates’ decision to embody the shaman is deemed as a rite of passage from the colonial days of the British empire who took everything in their path. His predecessors didn’t know better but Coates did; ‘Lots of things worried me such as questions of ethics, appropriating rites from another culture, setting myself up as a medium, my lack of training’ (Coates 2005). He will continue to take what is not rightly his unless his protective network around him chooses not to stand guard. Making him vulnerable just like the community of the Sheil housing complex, just like the British empire without its troops, land and loot. Because after all, what is a stag without its herd?
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