engineering techniques, it could be possible to print fully functional replacement organs in the near future (31,32). These 3D printed organs could eventually be genetically modified to have enhanced functions.
Figure 3: Electrode for deep brain stimulation (DBS) being inserted into the brain of a patient with Parkinson’s disease. Images courtesy of Thomasbg. Available at http:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parkinson_surgery.jpg
Neural Enhancement Because it directly and invasively interacts with the human brain, neural engineering would have the highest potential for negative effects if it was used for enhancement purposes. Clinical neurostimulation techniques such as deep brain stimulation (DBS) with microelectrodes are already used to treat Parkinson’s disease, dystonia, and tremors (33). Also, neural prosthetics include integrated circuits, used to restore cognitive function to individuals with brain tissue loss, and cochlear implants that restore hearing (34). The increased use of these therapeutic methods could lead to the destigmatization of brain implants. Although neural engineering is a nascent science, implants in the prefrontal cortex of monkeys demonstrated a 10% increase in decision-making abilities (35). There would likely be similar neuroenhancement in humans if artificial neurotechnological devices were developed and implanted, possibly allowing humans to acquire superior perception, cognition, motor control, and positive moods (36). Additionally, there are direct communication pathways between an external device and the human brain, known as brain-computer interfaces (BCI), which can allow the brain to directly control a computer when a BCI is linked to the outer layers of the neocortex (37). Given the plasticity of the brain and the increased clinical use of neurostimulation devices and BCIs, it is possible that cybernetic organisms might exist in the future. These ‘cyborgs’ are humans who have synthetic elements infused in their body – they would be examples of human enhancement taken to the extreme. As early as 2007, a paper questioning the ethics of brain implants stated that “…there can be ethical problems inherent in the proper human uses of technologies and because brain chips are a very likely future technology, it is prudent to formulate policies and regulations that will mitigate their ill effects before the technologies are widespread” (38). Improvements to devices such as neurochips, neurocybernetics (integration of machines into living organisms), and neurobionics (substitution of failed and damaged brain areas with artificial, implantable information processing systems) could make the use of brain-enhancing implants more appealing and practical. There is a possibility that retinal implants and bionic eyes could become so advanced that upgrades to our FALL 2013
natural hardware may be advantageous. Bioelectronics and biomechatronics could also be used in human enhancement for the purpose of creating cyborgs. Currently, biocompatible nanoscale wires have been successfully embedded into engineered human tissues in a laboratory (39). Biorobots, with a biological brain and mechanical limbs, would be the ultimate form of cyborg technology, presently only created artificially. Mind uploading (whole brain emulation) and the exocortex are two purely theoretical enhancement technologies. Mind uploading would involve the copying of a conscious mind from a brain to a non-biological form, while an exocortex would involve an artificial external information processer that would augment the cognitive function of the brain.
Conclusion
“Biorobots, with a biological brain and mechanical limbs, would be the ultimate form of cyborg technology, presently only created artificially.”
Human enhancement refers to the use of technology designed and implemented not for medical reasons but for enhancing the human body. However, as the enhancing technology becomes more abstract and far-influencing, ethical concerns arise. In addition to possibly affecting the identity of an individual, there are social implications of biological enhancement through science: the wealthy may be the only ones with access, those who choose not to enhance themselves may be ostracized, or the enhancement technology could start an arms race between nations. Also, human ingenuity has given us a means of enhancing our brains through inventions such as written language, printing, and the Internet. Yesterday’s science fiction is today’s technology, and in a sense, human enhancement is the most extreme 29