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natural areas through the formal protection of existing natural spaces can be characterised as a struggle in the face of development rather than a strategy contributing to new greenspace creation. In the mid1990s to mid-2000s a number of nature reserves were established, including the Hansta, (1999), Sätraskogen (2006), Nackareservatet (2006), and Flaten (2007) reserves. As part of its winning bid for European Capital, Stockholm highlighted its nature preserve efforts and planned for the creation of 26 additional reserves. The Stockholm City Plan of 2010, called “The Walkable City,” replaced the City’s 1999 plan in guiding the use of land and water in Stockholm. While the 1999 plan had focused on sustainable development and “building the city inwards,” the 2010 version outlined urban development strategies for sustainable growth toward attaining a vision of Stockholm as a “world-class city” by 2030. World-class, in this case, is associated largely with business, innovation, and with becoming a “smart city.” The plan’s strategies for ensuring greenspace quality are fairly vague and while greenspace disparities are recognised in the document, the only clear proposal to address them is through social planning. A more recent, whole-city vision was adopted in 2015, laying out a four-part sustainability agenda that includes concepts of equal opportunity, ecological lifestyles, accessibility and security.10 Author: Melissa García-Lamarca
Notes 1) 2013 Stockholm Statistics department (see: http://statistik.stockholm.se/attachments/article/21/facts%20and%20figures% 202013_webb.pdf). The foreign-born population constitutes 23% of city residents. For more details on 2011 country-of-birth breakdown: http://statistik.stockholm.se/temp_eng/a-tabeller/tv3d9e.html?t=a7&sprak=eng 2) In the last decade, Stockholm has seen a significant number of jobs created in high-tech companies, but service-oriented jobs still dominate. 3) Disparities have risen at four times the pace of the United States. (See: http://www.reuters.com/article/us-swedeninequality-idUSBRE82K0W320120321) 4) Of 13 European capital cities, Stockholm has seen the greatest rise in segregation between the rich and the poor in the past 10 years. For more information on spatial segregation and inequality in Sweden and other European countries, see Van Ham and Tammaru, 2015. In May 2013 Stockholm - in particular the neighbourhood of Husby - was the centre of rioting, led largely by members of immigrant communities. (See: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-22650267) 5) Or 40% when nature reserves are included in the definition of ‘greenspace.’ 6) Some of the reasons why Stockholm won include: the integration of environmental aspects into budgeting, operational planning, reporting, and monitoring; its reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 25% per capita in ten years; and its decision to be fossil fuel free by 2050. (See http://ec.europa.eu/environment/europeangreencapital/winning-cities/2010-stockholm/) 7) For more information on the campaign by the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives , see: http:// archive.iclei.org/index.php?id=10829 8) For more information on the Hammarby Sjöstad project, see: https://www.thenatureofcities.com/2014/02/12/hammarbysjostad-a-new-generation-of-sustainable-urban-eco-districts/ 9) For more information on the Stockholm Royal Seaport projects, see: http://international.stockholm.se/globalassets/ovrigabilder-och-filer/visionsrs2030_medium.pdf 10) “Vision 2040 - A Stockholm for Everyone” was approved by Stockholm City Council in 2015. It focuses on: 1. A Stockholm that stands united (good schools for all, good social services to ensure equal opportunities, etc.); 2. An eco-smart Stockholm (sustainable construction and residences, eco-friendly life and a clean and beautiful urban environment); 3. A financially sustainable Stockholm (unique work opportunities, lifetime learning, smartest city in the world) and 4. A democratically sustainable Stockholm (lively democracy throughout the city, freedom from discrimination for all, an accessible, safe, and secure city for everyone).