Master Dissertation

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

THE MISPLACED WASTE

OF NEPAL Engaging the Community to Create a Sustainable Waste Management

by Başak Işık

1

Master Dissertation Project: The Misplaced Waste of Nepal Author: Başak Işık Academic promotor: Ignaas Back Academic year: 2019 - 2020 All rights reserved under International Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo-copying, recording or by any information storage retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or specific copyright owners. © 2020 Başak Işık Contact: basakisi@outlook.com

M.Sc. in Architecture: Resilient and Sustainable Strategies KU Leuven, Faculty of Architecture Campus Sint-Lucas Ghent, Belgium Class of 2020 www.arc.kuleuven.com www.internationalmasterofarchitecture.be

In collaboration with: CEPP Centre for Educational Policies and Practices 2

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | BaĹ&#x;ak IĹ&#x;Äąk

Acknowledgement I would like to express my sincere gratitude for the contribution made by my academic promotor Ignaas Back to improve my project. His positive and supportive approach has given me the motivation to enhance the master thesis at all stages. I appreciate that he has shared with me his valuable knowledge on the Nepali culture and architecture.

I also would like to extend my sincere thanks to my family for their love, support, and understanding. Their belief in my work and in my abilities has provided me with encouragement and patience throughout the duration of this project.

This challenging period would not have been finalized without their presence.

Special thanks to Jeroen Bauwens for being very thoughtful and helpful in this period. His support has helped me go through the pandemic as smoothly as possible and focus on my master thesis. His presence has made me feel at home.

Furthermore, I would like to thank him for reading my texts carefully and providing me with valuable advice.

Last but not least, I very much appreciate my friends who have shared my happiness and sadness during this time.

3

4

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Abstract Nepal is one of the many developing countries that are facing challenges in implementing an effective waste management program. The flaws of the system have severe negative impact on health, ecosystem and urban life. The reasons underlying the problem include the lack of social awareness, as well as the lack of technical and human resources.

This master dissertation consists of two stages.

In the research phase, information about the existing waste management system is collected and analyzed. Based on the data of waste composition, the potential of recycling is emphasized. The second stage, the design phase, focuses on developing an architectural strategy to tackle the waste management problem in Nepal. To this end, multi-functional waste management centers are proposed. These centers provide a small scale composting/segregation facility, an office and accomodations for the informal waste-pickers. These waste-pickers are the biggest yet disregarded contributers to the recycling chain. Lastly, the centers include a classroom that is suitable to the government’s ever increasing waste-awareness programs.

The centers are designed in Chapp Village and Kathmandu Municipality, a rural and an urban context respectively. Local building materials with low carbon footprint are used with contemporary building techniques. Moreover, the local architectural styles and the regional climate conditions have lead the design process. Besides the function, the form of the building plays an important role in changing the negative mindset of waste as an end-of-life material and waste-pickers as the untouchables of the society.

5

CHAPTER 1 |

INTRODUCTION 1.

2.

3.

Nepal | 12 Experiencing Nepal |14 Motivation | 16

CHAPTER 2 |

WASTE MANAGEMENT 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The Current Waste Management | 22 A Major Concern | 24 The Journey of Waste | 28 Cash for Trash | 30 • Scavengers’ Life is Worth an Award • Interviews • Photography A Toxic Land: Beyond the Expiry Date | 38 • Sisdol Landfill • 3D map • Spatial + Temporal Transformation • At Present • Analysis 6

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

CHAPTER 3 |

WHAT A WASTE! 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Composition of Waste | 50 3 Contexts - 1 Concern | 52 The Urban Context: Kathmandu | 54 • 3D map • Plan • Waste Generation and Composition The Rural Context: Chapp | 66 • 3D map • Plan • Waste Generation and Composition The Tourism Context: Ghorepani | 74 • 3D map • Plan • Waste Generation and Composition Objective & Methodology | 84

7

CHAPTER 4 |

RESEARCH BASED DESIGN 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Aim and Approach | 88 • Social Strategies Community center Building Functions Inspire to Aspire • Spatial Strategies Simplicity Flexibility Svagatam | Welcome Interconnection • Environmental Strategies Sun + wind + rain Odour Sense of Place Carbon Footprint The Program | 94 • What is a composting center?

• What is a recovery center?

Geography and Climate | 102 Chapp Analysis | 104 • Solar + Spatial Analysis • Housing + functions • Materials + Building Techniques Kathmandu Analysis | 110 • Solar + Spatial Analysis • Housing + functions • Materials + Building Techniques 8

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

CHAPTER 5 |

DESIGN PROPOSAL 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Chapp Project Location | 118 Chapp Intervention | 120 • Urban Plan • Urban Elevation • Elevation • Social Unit Ground Floor Plan • Social Unit First Floor Plan • Facility Floor Plan • Section Chapp Details | 134 • Roof • Floor Kathmandu Project Location | 140 Kathmandu Intervention | 142 • Urban Plan • Ground Floor Plan • First Floor Plan • Second Floor Plan • Elevation • Section Kathmandu Details | 154 • Roof • Floor

CHAPTER 6 |

BIBLIOGRAPHY 9

CHAPTER 1 |

INTRODUCTION

10

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

11

12

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Introduction Nepal is a landlocked republic located in the Himalayas in South Asia with a surface area of 147,181 km2. The mountainous and forested land is surrounded by the People’s Republic of China in the North and Republic of India in the South. The estimated population of the country is 29.7 million and the population density is 207 per km² [1]. As of 2018, 80% of this population lives in rural areas and 20% in urban areas [2]. Initially, there were 58 municipalities in the country but in 2011, 41 new municipalities were added.

Nepal is a country of diverse backgrounds. Different cultures, ethnic groups, religions, and languages co-exist in this land. In 2011, the Central Bureau of Statistics published the National Population and Housing Census 2011.

According to this census, there are 126 ethnic groups in the country and 123 languages are spoken as mother tongue. Nepal has 10 religions including Hinduism (81%), Buddhism (9%), Islam (4%), Kirat (3%), and Christianity (1%).

The diversity in the country is not limited to the society as altitude varies tremendously from 65 meters above sea level to 8848 meters (Everest

Summit) which is the highest point on earth.

Thus, the country displays a very diverse topography and climatic zones. There are 5 physiographic regions in Nepal, meaning there are 5 main landscape patterns. In parallel to this, there are 5 different climate regions in the North-South axis. The reason for this diversity is that the country is situated on the border of tectonic plates which cause the formation of mountains. When these tectonic plates collide, earthquake is experienced. Due to the fault lines, it sits on, Nepal has experienced severe earthquakes throughout the history. For instance, the Gorkha Earthquake in April 2015 is thought to have caused about 9000 fatalities and approximately 22 000 injuries. Moreover, the disaster caused great damages to buildings and infrastructure.

On our study trip to Nepal in February 2020, we have witnessed many ongoing construction works across the country. The harsh conditions of infrastructure were visible both in urban areas such as Kathmandu and Pokhara and rural areas such as Chapp. However, accessibility and transportation were big problems especially between the small villages and the big cities.

[1]

M. Zuberi, L. E. Rose, P. P. Karan, and R. R. Proud, “Nepal,” Britannica.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2020, [Online]. Available: https://www.britannica. com/place/Nepal.

[2] org.

13

“Nepal - Rural Population,” The World Bank, 2020. data.worldbank.

14

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | BaĹ&#x;ak IĹ&#x;Äąk

Experiencing Nepal As the plane was approaching the destination, I observed a variety of landscapes. High snowy mountains were followed by green hills and flat valleys. The Kathmandu valley seemed very dense and urbanized with 3-4 story buildings in poor condition.

The experience lasted approximately 3 weeks.

During this time, I have been to Chapp Village, Pokhara, Annapurna Conservation Area, and Kathmandu.

Having lived in megacities my whole life, the village experience was a unique part of the trip.

The most striking difference was that our daily life was aligned with the solar movement rather than an artificial schedule. For instance, we woke up with the sunrise and we had dinner with the sunset. Since the village was not lit up at nights, there were few things you could do after dinners such as talking to your host and the neighbors.

The meals were indigenous to the region. We had rice with a limited variety of vegetables almost every meal. I realized that the village lived in a cycle that is self-sufficient. The society was content with their own resources and needed a little extra from outside.

After the first week in the village, we traveled to Pokhara, a very touristic city on the outskirts of the Himalayas. The closest I felt to being home was here because tourism has turned the city into a global town. Thus, our activities involved a lot of features from international culture such as going to pubs and the open-air cinema. It was more common to see foreign faces around than Nepali, especially, in popular areas.

Just like the majority of the tourists, we continued our trip towards the mountains. A short bus

ride took us to the rural parts of the region which had a huge contrast with what we had seen in Pokhara. The following four days we traveled on foot on designated trails in nature. We woke up early, walked until the sunset, and spent the nights at the guesthouses that would occasionally have a shower. As we climbed higher, climate, vegetation, and accordingly architectural style changed.

Accessibility to most areas was impossible without walking. Thus, almost everything we saw around was local. Yet, it was still possible to have imported goods that are transported by donkeys, the locals on foot and occasionally jeeps.

The last part of our trip was in Kathmandu. The city is the largest in Nepal and is highly urbanized. Although Pokhara and Kathmandu were similar in the fact that both are highly urbanized, in other aspects they were different. To start with, Kathmandu has grown so fast that the expansion of the city erased the borders between the neighboring towns. Therefore, the valley is densely populated and very polluted. Secondly, in spite of globalization, the city preserved the traditional aspects of the Nepali culture which was subtler in Pokhara. The majority of our activities were within the borders of Thamel. We often heard that Thamel is an emerging center of the capital and is the center for accommodation, eating, and entertainment. In our last days, we had the chance to see the local attractions including the Durbar Square, Swayambhunath Temple, and Pashupatinath Temple.

To conclude, this unique and exciting trip has increased my knowledge of Nepal. A lot of times, I found myself amazed, yet some of my observations raised great concerns.

15

16

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | BaĹ&#x;ak IĹ&#x;Äąk

Motivation My interest in waste management in Nepal started in Chapp. As foreigners to the village, we have brought processed goods with us. Realizing that they had no trash bins or waste collection, we did not know how to deal with our waste. When I asked the local people what they would do with their waste, I was told to throw it in nature. This method has worked just fine for them, because their waste was unprocessed, bio-degradable materials. However, I have observed that western products such as plastic bags and packaged goods have slowly started to arrive at the village.

Being unaware of the different waste types, the locals continued their habit of littering in nature.

The situation was much worse in Kathmandu.

Due to the migration from the rural areas, the population of the valley has been rapidly increasing. While the rural migrants have adapted the economic development and the consumption of global products, they have kept their habits of littering. Therefore, seeing garbage on the streets and people dumping big piles on the rivers were common sights during the trip. This observation was limited to Thamel which is a popular and developed area. However, as I have learned, Thamel is among the finer places regarding waste management. My experience in Pokhara and even the remote areas of Annapurna did not prove me wrong. I have noticed a lack of awareness among the people.

I, personally, have found this problem very alarming as the accessibility of non-bio-degradable products is escalating whereas the habit of littering persists. This interest has provided me with a strong motivation to research this issue further and develop an architectural strategy to tackle the problem.

17

CHAPTER 2 |

WASTE MANAGEMENT

18

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

19

Kathmandu Valley, Nepal (Takahashi 2012)

[1]

K. Takahashi, “Nepal - Life Without Exit,” Kuni Takahashi Photogra-

phy.

https://kuni.photoshelter.com/gallery-image/Nepal-Life-Without-Exit-ongoing/

G0000j9Cjn_Trt60/I0000Y_FVUgFlcFo/C0000f1HI9xXbQBY.

20

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık Bagmati River, Nepal (Chitrakar, 2013)

[1]

A. Doyle, “Nature’s ‘alarming’ decline threatens food, water, energy: U.N.,”

Reuters, Oslo, Mar. 23, 2018.

21

The Municipalities & Districts in Nepal

[1]

Solid Waste Management in Nepal: Current status and policy recommen-

dations. Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank, 2013.

22

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Waste Management “Western products such as plastic bags and packaged snacks have been introduced into the Nepali market so quickly that there was no time to make a smooth transition in the way people dispose waste”, says Michael Kirati, a resident of Chapp village. Then he adds that the Nepali people know by ancestral experience how to deal with bio-degradable waste which had been the only type for many years. However, the majority of the people are not aware of the consequences of littering non-biodegradable materials into the nature. They think throwing a chocolate package has the same consequences as throwing a banana peel.

A study conducted by Asian Development Bank indicates that the annual waste generation in Nepal was 524,000 tons in 2012. Estimations show that approximately 50 to 75% of the total waste produced comes from households. Furthermore, the household waste in the Terai districts is nearly 80% higher than in the mountain districts. According to the analysis, the composition of the total waste produced is as follows; 56% organic waste, 16% plastics, 16% paper and paper products.

On average, NRs2,840 ($30) is spent per ton of waste for collection, transport, and disposal.

This number is more or less equal to 10% of the municipal revenues. The majority of the financial resources goes to street sweeping and collection, and after that to transportation. The small amount that remains, if there is any, is spent on the disposal. Unfortunately, the majority of the municipalities do not use sanitary landfills, except 6 of them. Forty-five districts dump openly on the roadsides or riversides. This results in the pollution and contamination of rivers that provide water for the citizens.

There are many reasons underlying the garbage problem. Among which, the lack of infrastructure, an effective management office, proper laws and its application and resources constitute the biggest problems.

Due to the high percentage of biodegradable and recyclable waste, there is a huge potential for recycling, re-using and producing compost from organic waste nationwide. According to the findings, if the recovery in the system is maximized, only 10% of the total disposal ends up in the landfills [3].

[3]

Solid Waste Management in Nepal: Current status and policy recom-

mendations. Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank, 2013.

23

24

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

A Major Concern Nepal is one of the developing countries that have major challenges in dealing with waste.

Urban growth and economic development have evolved very rapidly that the regulations and the awareness of the society could not follow [1].

Similarly, the western products and the western consumption style have been adopted by more and more people each year. Since the majority of the Nepali people live in the rural areas, they have dealt with the waste as they know how. However, the waste produced in rural areas is very different than urban waste. First of all, villages are smaller in scale than cities. They are less populated and have weaker network with the neighboring areas. Thus, most of the villages in Nepal are self-sufficient. The necessary goods are produced from natural materials, used for many years and disposed in nature. For instance, littering an organic material on a trail does not harm as it would be composted quickly. On contrary, littering a plastic bag on a busy concrete street would have a great negative impact as it would not disappear by nature. The behavioural patterns of the society initiated the waste problem and the government’s lack of capacity and interest have made it a greater issue.

[1]

R. Singh, H. Yabar, N. Nozaki, and R. Rakwal, “Analyzing Waste Prob-

lems in Developing Countries: Lessons for Kathmandu, Nepal through Analysis of the Waste System in Tsukuba City, Japan,” J. Sci. Res. Reports, vol. 8, no. 6, pp.

1–13, 2015, doi: 10.9734/jsrr/2015/20346.

25

Kathmandu Valley, Nepal (Baral 2018)

[1]

N. Baral, “Photo-essay: Plastic blights the beauty of Kathmandu,” The

Third Pole, Apr. 05, 2018.

26

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

The developed countries, on the other hand, acted on time and face less challenges today.

Many of these countries have implemented laws and regulations, created awareness among the citizens and designed the waste management process. The Nepali government has also taken some steps towards solving the problem.

The government have asked for help from international resources. So far, Germany, India, and Japan sponsored projects and companies such as Asian Development Bank have participated in the search of a solution [2]. Besides, new regulations have been implemented. Some of the laws that have been made are [3]: • Solid waste management and resource mobilization act- 1987 • Municipality act -1990 • National solid waste management policy-1996 • Environment protection and regulation -1997 • Local self governance act/rules-1996/97 • New solid waste management act- under process • Private sector participation through high level commission Despite all this progress, there are still severe health and environmental problems due to mismanagement. To start with, there is no proper schedule for waste collection. It is known that the collection service works more systematically in wealthier or highly visible neighborhoods. In the rest of the sites, the process is rather sporadic.

Moreover, there are neighborhoods where waste collection does not happen. There are cases in the recent history where garbage is not collected for several weeks due to the strike of workers or the riot of the societies residing near the landfills.

Consequently, people litter on the riverbanks, on the roadsides, and on the abandoned plots. As a result, waste is co-mingled without segregation.

Even though, a minority practices segregation, the collection service, and the disposal sites are not suitable for it. Thus everything gets mixed either during collection or at the final disposal site.

A big portion of these sites is neither sanitary nor engineered. The landfills are chosen disregarding the fertility of the ground or the proximity to the rivers. The chemical and medical waste collected from industries and hospitals are disposed on these landfills together with the rest.

Therefore, air pollution and river contamination are inevitable in these areas. The leachate harms the ecosystem greatly and results in severe health problems for the residents of the nearby villages. The limited amount of sanitary landfills does not work efficiently either. Although, they are engineered, the over-use of their capacity damages the mechanism.

There are many reasons underlying the problem including the lack of financial, technical and human resources. Moreover, there is the ineffectiveness in using the existing resources. Lastly, residents’ perception regarding the waste management brings us today.

[2]

M. B. Dangi, E. Schoenberger, and J. J. Boland, “Foreign aid in waste

management: A case of Kathmandu, Nepal,” Habitat Int., vol. 49, pp. 393–402, 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.06.010.

[3]

K. Giri, “SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

OF LANDFILL SITE,” Tribhuvan University, 2011.

27

28

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

The Journey of Waste:

From Collection to Disposal According to a survey conducted by Asian Development Bank, almost three quarters of the households do not segregate their waste. Moreover, even the sorted out garbage sometimes mixes with the rest due to the ineffective collection system. The majority of the 30% that segregates lives in the rural areas of Nepal and use the organic waste to feed their animals.

There is no standard collection system within the country. Municipalities manage the process independently and the efficiency ratio of collection* varies from 0 to 94.9%. There are many factors that affect this ratio such as equipment, vehicles and planning. For instance, in some municipalities the collection is done twice a week or sometimes twice a month.

Kathmandu is among the 6 municipalities that have an efficiency higher than 80%. Furthermore, the capital city is among the 6 municipalities that use sanitary landfills. In fact, all of the three largest waste generators (Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Pokhara) use sanitary landfills. Therefore, more than one third of the waste generated in Nepal ends up in one of these landfills [1].

There are only 3 landfills in the country that are technically designed by engineers. These landfills are; Gokarna landfill site, Sisdol landfill site and Pokhara landfill site.

Sisdol Landfill is designed by Fukuoka City Environmental Bureau in Japan and it operates mainly for Kathmandu Municipality. It is located 20 km north-west from the capital. The site has two basins with a total area of 20,701 m2. The capacity of these basins is equal to 274,995 m3 [2].

The waste generated in the capital first arrives

at one of the few transfer stations in the country, Teku Station. From here it is transfered to the final disposal site in Sisdol.

# of municipalities

The graph below shows the number of municipalities and the disposal method they are applying [3].

[1]

Solid Waste Management in Nepal: Current status and policy recom-

mendations. Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank, 2013.

[2]

S. Panthee, “Possible methods of preventing groundwater contamina-

tion at landfill sites; case studies from Nepal,” Bull. Dep. Geol., vol. 11, no. December 2008, pp. 51–60, 1970, doi: 10.3126/bdg.v11i0.1542.

[3]

Solid Waste Management in Nepal: Current status and policy recom-

mendations. Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank, 2013.

29

30

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Cash for Trash

Scavenger’s Life is Worth an Award Valerie Leonard is a French-American photographer that focuses her work on humanistic and environmental issues. In 2017, she won the second place - silver star award on her project Cash for Trash, also known as Trash Slaves. The photographs from this project portray the waste disposal in Kathmandu Valley in Nepal.

The Sisdol Landfill site is the final disposal of the garbage produced in the capital. This place is home to an army of individuals who are called ‘waste-pickers’. Their livelihood depends on the valuable materials they find in the pile, after a day long search. While doing so they are exposed to great health and safety problems as waste is not segregated. For instance, medical waste from the hospitals and chemical and biological waste from the industries end up in the landfill together with the household waste.

Although, their job is very important for recycling, they are neither recognized by the government nor appreciated by the society. Even the basic needs such as healhcare and education are not available for the waste-pickers.

The following pictures from Valerie Leonard reveal the background process of waste after the final disposal in Sisdol Landfill Site[1].

[1]

L. Valerie, “Cash for Trash,” Valerie Leonard Photography, 2017.

https://www.valerieleonard.fr/cash-for-trash.

31

“It’s 5 o’clock am in the landfill near Kathmandu. Silah is waiting for the trucks that will dump the garbage. All day long, she will recycle plastic bags with her bare hands. She will make 3.50$.”

Valerie Leonard

32

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

33

34

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

“Every day, 140 trucks dump 1,400 tons of garbage on this hill. Most of the people working in this landfill lost their homes during the 2015 earthquake. Despite their daily efforts to improve their situation, 15 millions of scavengers live at the bottom of the economic pyramid and struggle with their families to survive.”

Valerie Leonard

35

“Recycling in landfills is considered one of the worst forms of work. The risks related to the health and physical development of workers, as well as the obstacles that this work imposes on their education and psychological development, make recycling a particularly harmful activity for teenagers.�

Valerie Leonard

36

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

37

Sisdol Landfill Site

Kolpu Khola River

38

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

A Toxic Land: Beyond the Expiry Date Sisdol Landfill Site is located in Nuwakot, in the north-west of Kathmandu Municipality. The site receives the waste of both the capital and Lalitpur. It started operating in June 2005 as a short-term project, since it would be replaced by Banchare Danda landfill. This alternative landfill was planned to be ready within 12 to 14 months.

However, it is still not opened [1]. Today, Sisdol landfill is still operating, although its full capacity was reached in 2008.

Since the Sisdol landfill is adjacent to Kolpu Khola river, the uncontrolled disposal of waste poses great environmental and health risks. It is especially a threat to the residents of nearby villages as they use the river water for irrigation [2].

The site has been home to many scavengers who help recycling the waste as their livelihood.

These waste-pickers are very important contributers of the recyling chain. Yet, they are the most vulnerable actors as they have no safety, protection or care offered to them. Where selling raw materials bring million dollars for the ones on top of the pyramid, as Valerie Leonard describes it, recyclers suffer at the bottom in this corrupted system[3].

[1]

A. Ojha, “Kathmandu Metropolitan City once again starts waste segre-

gation campaign,” Kathmandu Post, 2020.

[2]

A. Matsumoto, “The Study on the Solid Waste Management for the

Kathmandu Valley,” vol. I, no.

[3]

L. Valerie, “Cash for Trash,” Valerie Leonard Photography, 2017.

https://www.valerieleonard.fr/cash-for-trash.

39

40

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

41

Sisdol Dumping Site Plan | 2004 Scale: 1:5000

Year 2004

Sisdol Dumping Site Plan | 2010 Scale: 1:5000

Year 2010 Landfill

Trees

Settlements

River 42

Sisdol Dumping Site Plan | 2013 Scale: 1:5000

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Year 2013

Sisdol Dumping Site Plan | 2016 Scale: 1:5000

Year 2016 Scale: 1:10 000 43

Plan | 2019 Scale: 1:5000

Landfill

Trees

Settlements

River 44

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Year 2019 Scale: 1:5000 45

Kolpu Khola River | 1093

46

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Analysis of the Maps The maps are drawn based on the historical satellite images provided by Google Earth. Although, it is not 100% accurate, it gives the general idea of the transformation that occurred in Sisdol between the years 2004 and 2019 [1].

was content with it. Locals have tried being vocal about it several times, however, each time the government compensated the villagers with seasonal money rather than solving the problem [3].

Land Use Pattern | 2006

As seen on the maps, the area that is designated as landfill used to be vegetation in 2004, before the project started. In time, the surface area of the landfill has expanded. In addition to that, the number of roads and structures have increased.

The project has caused great environmental and biological impacts. There has been a loss of agricultural land due to the development of infrastructure. Water quality has decreased due to the amount of waste and leachate generation.

This has affected 85% of the locals whose livelihood depend on agriculture, because the river water is used for irrigation. Air quality has also declined as a result of the dumping activities and vehicular emission. This affects the health of the locals. A field survey from 2011 presents that 40% of the fifty respondents either have asthma or respiratory problems. Other impacts include noise, vibration and aesthetical issues.

In terms of biological impacts, a significant damage is caused by the Sisdol Landfill project. There has been a loss of vegetation and terrestrial fauna. Furthermore, the leachate that is produced due to anaerobic decomposition of waste has been discharged in the Kolpu Khola river. This results in the loss of aquatic life and its habitat [2].

In 2011, the residents of the area were surveyed about their perceptions of the landfill site. 98.8% of them were disapproving of the site, while 1.2%

Land Use Pattern | 2006

10%

18.7%

11%

60.3%

Agriculture land (Irrigated) Forest land Other (Wet land, pasture land, etc.)

Agriculture land (Non-irrigated)

[1]

Google, “Google Earth Pro.” 2020.

[2]

K. Giri, “SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF

LANDFILL SITE,” Tribhuvan University, 2011.

[3]

A. Ojha, “Locals Offer 500 Ropanis to Dump Stinking Sisdole,” Kath-

mandu Post, Kathmandu, Oct. 06, 2018.

47

CHAPTER 3 |

WHAT A WASTE!

48

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

49

2% - Textile

1% - Rubber + Leather 5% - Others

2% - Metals 3% - Glass 9% - Paper products

12% Plastics

66% Organic waste

Composition of Household Waste in 58 Municipalities [1]

1% - Rubber + Leather 2% - Textile

8% - Others

1% - Metals 1% - Glass 22% Organic Waste

45% Paper products

2% - Textile

21% Plastics

1% - Rubber + Leather

Composition of Institutional Waste in 58 Municipalities [1]

4% - Others

2% - Metals 4% - Glass

23% Paper products

43% Organic waste

22% Plastics

Composition of Commercial Waste in 58 Municipalities [1]

[1]

Solid Waste Management in Nepal: Current status and policy recom-

mendations. Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank, 2013.

50

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | BaĹ&#x;ak IĹ&#x;Äąk

average daily waste generation

The institutional waste category consists of offices and schools. Paper products contributes almost half of the composition of this type. It is then followed by organic waste (22%) and plastics (21%).

Waste generated from commercial places such as dining places, shops and hotels fit into the commercial waste category. Organic waste is the most dominant type of waste as illustrated.

Plastics and paper products follow it. The organic waste is mainly generated by the hotels, cafes and restaurants. On the other hand, shops generate rather more plastic waste.

These numbers are promising a great potential for re-cycling, re-using and composting. With the maximum efficiency, the garbage that is dumped at the landfills could be reduced below 10% of the total waste generated [1].

kg/household

average daily waste generation

Solid waste originates from three main sources: households, instutitions and commercial places.

Studies show that the majority (50% - 70%) of the total waste generated comes from households. Industrial and commercial waste follow it. However, this balance changes in favor of the industrial and commercial waste in very touristic or highly urbanized cities.

There are several factors that affect the amount of waste generated in a household. One of the biggest factors is the income level of the house.

The consumption rate increases proportionally with the income level. Thus, houses where the monthly expenditures exceed 40,000 Nepali Rupees (300 Euros) generate twice as much waste as households with monthly expenditures lower than 5,000 Rupees (37 Euros).

kg/household

Composition of Waste

Average monthly expenditure | Nepali Rupees/household

Another factor is the ecological location. The average daily waste generation in Terai Municipalities is 0.88 kg per household. This number declines to 0.72 kg/house in Hill Municipalities and 0.49 kg/house in Mountain Municipalities.

The regions with higher economic development tend to generate more waste. On contrary, rural regions generate much less as the organic waste is re-used to feed the animals there.

[1]

Solid Waste Management in Nepal: Current status and policy recom-

mendations. Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank, 2013.

51

Kathmandu, Nepal (Bruneel, 2020)

Chapp, Nepal (Bruneel, 2020)

Everest Trail, Nepal (Byers, 2019)

[1], [3]

Bruneel, S. (2020). Untitled [Digital image]

[2]

A. C. Byers, “Everest Fights Back,� Nepali Times, Khumbu, Sep. 18, 2019.

52

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | BaĹ&#x;ak IĹ&#x;Äąk

Case Studies The composition of household waste differs depending on the ecological region the household belongs to. Therefore, 3 different locations in Nepal are selected to compare the composition of household waste generated. These locations are Kathmandu municipality, Chapp village and Ghorepani village.

Kathmandu is the capital of the country and it is the most urbanized city with a population of more than 1 million. The city contributes to nearly 80% of the total waste generation in the country.

Due to rapid and uncontrolled urbanization and an increase in the consumption as a result of the economical development, waste management has become a major concern in Kathmandu.

On the other hand, Chapp Village is a very good example of the rural settlements in Nepal. Due to the difficulty in accessing the area and the isolation of the village, the residents live a self-sufficient life. Most of the goods are produced from natural materials and are used for many years.

The end-of-life scenario for these products is going back to nature. Therefore, there is little damage done.

Ghorepani Village is similar to Chapp in terms of the living patterns of its residents. However, it is one of the most touristic places and the visitors have great impact on the village lifestyle as well as on the waste generation. The local people rather produce and consume organic products.

Thus, the waste generated by them is mainly bio-degradable. However, since their main source of income is tourism, they try to provide a more westernized hospitality to the visitors. This directly affects the type of waste generated and the way it should be disposed.

53

Kathmandu, Nepal (Bruneel, 2020)

54

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Kathmandu Kathmandu is the capital city of Nepal. Hence it is the largest metropolis and has the highest population in the country. Besides, it is the center of economy and the industrial development.

It is located in the Bagmati Province. The city is situated in a hilly region with an elevation of 1,324 metres.

Kathmandu was founded by Raja Gunakamadeva in 723 AC. The word ‘Kathmandu’ derives from kath, meaning wood in Nepali, and mandir, meaning temple. The etymology of the word refers to the wooden temple that still stands in the center of the city and is used to accommodate holy men.

Kathmandu has become the commercial and bussiness center of the country thus received a lot of migrants from the rural areas of Nepal.

The growing rate of the city has been recorded near 4%. Due to the migration, the capital is ethnically very diverse. Newar makes up 30% of the population and they are the largest ethnic group.

Matwali (25%), Khas Brahmins (20%) and Chettris (18.5%) are the other large ethnic groups in the city. The primary religions in Kathmandu are Hinduism and Buddhism and Nepali is the most spoken language [1][2].

[22]

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Kathmandu National Cap-

ital, Nepal,” Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2016, [Online]. Available: https://www.britannica.com/place/Kathmandu.

[23]

“Kathmandu Population 2020,” World Population Review. https://

worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/kathmandu-population/ (accessed Apr. 18, 2020).

55

Kathmandu, Nepal (Colombo)

[1]

E. Turner, “10 Architectural Treasures to Visit in Nepal,� Architectural Di-

gest, Jan. 2020.

56

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Narrow streets and brick houses with carved windows and doors represent the traditional architecture of the city. The Durbar square is the best-preserved area to have an insight into Nepali architecture. The old palace of the Malla kings, the Golden Temple and Swayambhunath stupa are among the most notable structures in Kathmandu. In 1979, Kathmandu Valley was selected as a UNESCO World Heritage site, for its cultural and historic importance. However, the urban sprawl has caused the site to move to the List of World Heritage in Danger, in 2003 [1].

Due to its location on the fault line, Nepal has faced several destructive earthquakes that affected the architecture and urbanism. The 1934 earthquake destroyed many traditional structures and lead up to the construction of modern-style buildings. Similarly, on April 25, 2015, another earthquake with a magnitude of 7.8 hit central Nepal. More than 9,000 people died and 23,000 people were injured. The earthquake destroyed many landmarks and historical buildings. Today, the effects of it are still visible in the city [2].

[1]

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Kathmandu National Cap-

ital, Nepal,” Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2016, [Online]. Available: https://www.britannica.com/place/Kathmandu.

[2]

E. Turner, “10 Architectural Treasures to Visit in Nepal,” Architectural

Digest, Jan. 2020.

57

58

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

59

Thamel R

egion

Bishnumati River

Durbar Square

Trees

River

Settlements from the old map of Kathmandu | Date unknown 60

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

n

Garden of Dreams

Scale: 1:5000

Google Earth Satellite Map | 2019 61

Kathmandu, Nepal (Chitrakar, 2013)

[1]

C. Harvey, “These Disturbing Photos Of Children Playing In Garbage Show

Just How Bad Pollution Can Be,� Bussiness Insider, Oct. 2014.

62

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | BaĹ&#x;ak IĹ&#x;Äąk

Waste Generation, Composition & Disposal As the largest city of Nepal, Kathmandu generates a significantly higher amount of waste than the other areas. There is an increase in waste generation due to the increase in urban population and economic development.

In fact, the city grows so fast that the already poor waste management system lags behind.

The main responsibility of waste management belongs to the Kathmandu Metropolitan City. The process of waste includes street sweeping, waste collection, transportation and final disposal. Furthermore, the Ministry of Urban Development (MOUD), Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development (MOFALD) and Solid Waste Management Technical Support Centre (SWMTSC) are also involved in the process. MOFALD monitors and evaluates the process whereas MOUD is accountable for drainage and sanitation. SWMTSC provides technical support and ensures that the system works properly and eco-friendly [1].

Between the years 2010-2012, approximately 24.34% (2.45 million Euros) of the total municipal budget was spent on solid waste management [2]. Due to the lack of necessary resources (e.g. human resources) and skills, the process is managed inefficiently. It is claimed that only 30% of the waste is properly collected and disposed [3]. The wealthy and highly-visible areas are provided with a good collection service. In contrast, there are neighborhoods where the service works without a schedule and on rare occasions.

Similarly, some neighborhoods, especially the poorer areas suffer from no service. Therefore, piles of garbage dumped on the roads or riversides have become an ordinary scene. Littering 63

Kathmandu, Nepal (Chitrakar, 2013)

[1]

C. Harvey, “These Disturbing Photos Of Children Playing In Garbage Show

Just How Bad Pollution Can Be,� Bussiness Insider, Oct. 2014.

64

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

is a common habit among citizens. If there is a river bed nearby, people dump their garbage in it and resulting in the contamination and the pollution of the river water. Many severe health and environmental problems emerge from this issue.

Segregation is not a common practice neither at human scale nor at urban scale. Even if a household puts effort into segregating their waste, there are no facilities to collect and dispose waste separately. Thus, in the end, all types of waste end up co-mingled. Unfortunately, many hospitals and industries are also irresponsible in the way they deal with their special waste. Medical and chemical waste are known to be risky both for the health and the environment. Therefore, they should be disposed in special ways. However, in Kathmandu, these dangerous materials end up in the city landfill (Sisdol).

According to the data provided by the Asian Development Bank, the majority of the waste of Kathmandu is biodegradable. The numbers indicate that a great percentage of the waste could be recycled instead of exhausting the landfill.

Several campaigns have been organized by the government, local NGOs and SWMTSC to raise awareness. They collaborated with the educational institutions to promote the 3R, Reduce, Recycle, Re-use. However, 82% of the households are not aware of waste management.

[25]

“Solid Waste Management of Kathmandu Metropolitan City,” pp. 321–

342, 2015, [Online]. Available: https://oagnep.gov.np/old/downloadfile/Enviroment

Organic Plastics Paper products Glass Other

Household 64 % 16% 9% 4% 7%

Institutional 20% 25% 44% 1% 10%

Audit 2071_1434876762.pdf.

Commercial 45% 24% 23% 3% 5%

[8]

Solid Waste Management in Nepal: Current status and policy recom-

mendations. Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank, 2013.

[14]

K. Giri, “SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF

LANDFILL SITE,” Tribhuvan University, 2011.

65

Chapp Village, Nepal (Işık, 2020)

66

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Chapp Chapp is a small mountainous village that is located in the Makwanpur District. It lies within the Narayani Zone, in the south of Kathmandu. Access to the village is possible by jeep or tuc-tuc from the capital and the drive is approximately 6 hours due to poor infrastructure.

The village doesn’t have a proper center as it is spread on a large area. The elementary school that is at the end of the main road to the village is sometimes a gathering point. The town lacks definitive borders. The upper road on the East and the valley following the stream in the West are perceived as a border by the villagers.

Houses are located at a distance from each other. One reason to this is the spacious rice terraces that are down-hill from the structures and provide food for the household. Due to this setting the hillsides are distinctly divided in plots of farmland.

It is possible to see a cluster of houses in some areas with a small center. This is due to the tradition of settling down next to the family members.

The access from one house to the other is done by foot, through a network of trails. Although there is no use of vehicles among the villagers, some dirt roads exist [1].

[1]

W. Vervenne and J. T. de Maisières, The Post-School On continuity and

identity Kalidevi, Nepal. Leuven: KU Leuven, 2018.

67

68

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

69

River Bed

Trees

River

Settlements

Google Earth Satellite Map | 2019 70

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Kali Devi School

Host Family’s House

Scale: 1:5000 71

Chapp Village Section Scale: 1:5000

900 m Chapp Elementary School| 889 m 850 m

72

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | BaĹ&#x;ak IĹ&#x;Äąk

Waste Generation, Composition & Disposal The 8-day long experience in the village provided some insights into life in Chapp. The daily habits of the residents in the village is more aligned with the solar movement than people living in urban areas. There is almost no light after sunset. The only exception is the single bulb shining in each house. Due to the lack of electricity, there is a lack of technological tools. There are also no vehicles and people walk through the paths while moving around.

Littering is a very common way of getting rid of waste in the village. However, this is barely an issue as almost all the waste is organic. For instance, the residents consume what they grow in the fields. They cook on a pit inside the house where they burn logs. The food is usually rice served with a side vegetable, very limited in variety. The members of the family consume everything on their plates. Unedible food is re-used as feed for animals or is thrown into nature.

The majority of the waste generated is bio-degradable. The construction pattern is an example to that. New structures are only made if necessary. In addition, the houses are very compact with a few pieces of furniture. Thus, building a house does not require a lot of materials. Moreover, the materials used are all natural. Bamboo, tree trunks, animal dung, sand, stone and hay are some of the commonly used materials. As local materials are used for construction, the transportation is handled with barrows. However, we have witnessed a few concrete buildings. Concrete is considered as an expensive and a higher-class material. Building with concrete generates non-biodegradable waste and it is ominous

considering the littering habit of the villagers.

It is possible to spot western products in the village. Clothes, phones, solar panels, tooth brushes and barrels are some examples. These products are very low in quantity and they are used for a very long period. For instance, our host family members put on the same clothes everyday. This very sustainable way of living is due to the isolation from the urban areas.

Chapp is generally a self sufficient village. However, there are some threatening changes such as the application of concrete for construction.

Furthermore, the village shop sells packaged goods. As there is no awareness about the types of waste, the residents keep the same habit of littering regardless of the product. Many trails have plastic packages and plastic bags laying around the vegetation. According to Michael Kirati, a resident of Chapp village, people find using plastic bags easier than weaving reusable mesh bags. The women of the village find single use plastic bags more effortless than producing a mesh bag that takes so much time to weave.

However, they are not yet aware of the negative impacts of littering.

73

74

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Ghorepani Ghorepani is a small village that is located in the Annapurna Conservation Area in northern-central Nepal. The area lies within Myagdi District in the Dhaulagiri Zone. It is situated at an elevation of approximately 2870 meters.

The word ‘Ghorepani’ derives from ghora, meaning horses in Nepali, and pani, meaning water.

The etymology of the word indicates that the village used to be a rest stop for ancient passersby.

However, with the arrival of novel infrastructure, Ghorepani has become an unnecessary route.

This resulted in a shift in the main income source of the village from trading to tourism. Therefore, there are many guesthouses and hotels that provide accommodation and food for the mountain trekkers. The majority of these trekkers spend the night in the town before a pre-dawn trek to Poon Hill observatory to watch the sunrise at 3210 meters.

Ghorepani is a part of a major trail linking several villages that can be reached by foot. Every tourist requires a national park permit to visit the area. According to the records of Tourist Police Office in 2072 BS (2015-2016 AD) 19,348 visitors were in Ghorepani. This number increased to 45,685 in the following year [1].

[1]

RASTRIYA SAMACHAR SAMITI, “Tourism rebounds in Myagdi’s

Ghorepani,” The Himalayan Times, Apr. 17, 2017.

75

76

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

77

Trees

River

Settlements

Google Earth Satellite Map | 2019 78

Ghorepani Village Plan | 2017 The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık Scale: 1:5000

Scale: 1:2000 79

Ghorepani Village Section Scale: 1:5000

Poonhill Observation Point | 3177 m

Ghorepani Village Center| 2833 m

80

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Waste Generation, Composition & Disposal There are 16 natural, protected areas in Nepal which make %18 of the country. However, according to Nepal Tourism Board (2001), %98 of the visitors go to four protected areas: Annapurna Conservation Area, Sagarmatha National Park, Chitwan National Park and Langtang National Park. Annapurna alone received %60 of all trekkers in 2001 and this number is increasing annually.

The popularity of Annapurna comes as no surprise considering its unique nature and great biodiversity. Besides hosting the deepest valley (Kali Gandaki) and one of the highest peaks (Annapurna) on earth, the conservation area is the habitat of 1226 species of plants, 475 species of birds and more than 100 species of mammals including endangered ones [1].

During the high season of 2018, the trails of Annapurna were visited by 360 trekkers per day [2].

This was the highest number recorded since it first opened its doors to tourists in 1957. It is a frightening number. Estimations present that an average group of 15 trekkers produces 15 kg of waste in 10 days excluding the biodegradable and burnable garbage. Between the years 1979

and 1988, 422 metric tons of disposable waste, 141 tons of non-biodegradable waste and 207 tons of oxygen gas cylinders were generated.

840 expedition teams on the mountains were charged with the duty. Due to the lack of effective management and policies, waste disposal has become the hosts’ responsibility in many places [3].

ACAP, Annapurna Conservation Area Project, started in 1986 with a decentralized bottom-up approach. The main purpose of the project is to educate the local people to be able to manage their own environment with minimal intervention from the government. Furthermore, local committees have been created and given legal permission to take decisions regarding the ecological sustainability of their habitat. However, the struggle is the lack of awareness among the residents. The local people are not yet capable of seeing the impact of tourism on the ecosystem.

Alternatively, the positive socioeconomic impact of tourism results in the ignorance of its negative impacts. As a result, ACAP focuses on educating the locals through formal and informal channels [4].

[1]

[3]

G. P. Nyaupane and B. Thapa, “Perceptions of environmental impacts

S. K. Nepal, “Tourism in protected areas,” Tour. Manag., vol. 5, no. 2,

of tourism: A case study at ACAP, Nepal,” Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol., vol. 13,

pp. 118–122, 1984, doi: 10.1016/0261-5177(84)90059-1.

no. 1, pp. 51–61, 2006, doi: 10.1080/13504500609469661.

[4]

[2]

of tourism: A case study at ACAP, Nepal,” Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol., vol. 13,

R. RAMJI, “Annapurna Circuit witnesses highest number of tourists in

G. P. Nyaupane and B. Thapa, “Perceptions of environmental impacts

no. 1, pp. 51–61, 2006, doi: 10.1080/13504500609469661.

2018,” The Himalayan Times, Jan. 21, 2019.

81

Ghorepani, Nepal (IĹ&#x;Äąk, 2020)

82

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık Ghorepani, Nepal (Işık, 2020)

83

Objective The objective of this master thesis is to tackle the waste management problem in Nepal. The inefficiency of waste management and the lack of awareness among the citizens result in the creation of dirty environments and the over-use of landfills. The existing disposal method causes severe health and environmental problems.

However, there is a great potential in material recovery that minimizes the waste that ends up in landfills. The composition of waste indicates that around 90% of it could be recycled. Although an army of unofficial waste-pickers makes their living by recycling waste, they are recognized as the ‘untouchables’* of society.

Thus, in this master thesis, a prototype for a community recycling center is designed and applied in various locations. The purpose of these centers is to receive unwanted products and to make new use of it. The ultimate goal is to engage the community with the process and raise awareness. In this way, open dumping decreases, the never-ending need for landfills dramatically reduces and waste becomes resource again. Likewise, contamination and pollution of the rivers and air decline. Consequently, the unbalanced ecosystem recovers, and health issues decrease. Upcycling of waste helps to strengthen the economy and promotes a circular economy model over the linear model.

*Untouchable, also called Dalit, is a member of low-caste Hindu groups whose habits of life involve polluting activities.

84

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Methodology The proposed centers have four functions: educational (classroom), commercial (management office), residential (housing units), and infrastructure (waste facility). Before the design process, these functions are researched further. For instance, Valerie Leonard’s photography project in Sisdol Landfill provides an insight into waste-pickers’ lives. The interviews illustrate the working conditions of the unofficial workers. Similarly, articles help to understand how composting and recovery centers function.

Two sites are selected to design the prototype center: Chapp Village and Kathmandu City. Chapp is an example of a rural area and Kathmandu is the most urbanized city in the country. The climate, use of space, local materials and traditional building techniques in these locations are analyzed.

The design process starts by selecting an easily accessible and visible site in order to engage with the community. This is followed by orienting the building according to the physical factors. Another strategy in orienting the building is to define public and private spaces. The classroom and the management office intend to be more welcoming whereas the facility and the residential units have more privacy and secondary access. Yet, it is important that all functions are interconnected.

Lastly, landscape is used as a visual and odorous buffer zone as well as regulating the temperature.

85

CHAPTER 4 |

RESEARCH BASED DESIGN

86

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

87

Social Strategies Community Center Facilities that deal with solid waste are usually places that are situated far from the city centers with almost no contact with society.

Besides the factors such as the odor and surface area, one of the main reasons that the whole process goes unnoticed is the negative impression of waste. The linear consumption cycle lets us perceive the world as ‘take-makedispose’. The industries that ‘make’ products and the facilities that ‘dispose of’ them are hidden from the eye. Therefore, the majority of the people are not aware of resources being exhausted, and trash mountains piling up. Although the communities from the rural areas of the developing countries are careful with their biological waste, the increasing arrival of processed goods to these places constitutes a severe problem.

The proposed designs aim to expose the disposal process to draw attention to the existence of the problem and to create awareness among the people. The design goes against conventional ideas by placing it at a central location and providing a welcoming architecture through materiality, form, and functions. Besides hosting a recycling facility, the social activities that are offered in the building help attracting people. As a result, the waste center becomes a community center where people engage with each other and learn about waste management. Thus, the community takes part in creating a more sustainable management.

social awareness

classroom

office + residence

community center

inclusion of waste-pickers

recycle facility

small scale recovery

88

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | BaĹ&#x;ak IĹ&#x;Äąk

Building Functions The prototypes have four functions including a teaching zone, management zone, a waste recovery facility, and a residential zone. The teaching area is the heart of social interactions and public engagement. It is an environment where people of all ages can come together and learn about waste management. This space is designed according to the demand for the ever-increasing waste awareness programs that are provided by the government, private companies, and NGOs. Although its primary function is to create an interactive learning environment, it also serves as a gathering area. In Chapp, the center is located in close proximity to the school. Due to the small population of the village and the existing education center, there is only one classroom in the project. This classroom can be used as an extra teaching space when necessary for the school.

Similarly, the community waste center can take advantage of the school building if needed. The classroom can also function as a meeting room since it is interconnected with the management office. On the other hand, the community center in Kathmandu puts a greater focus on teaching and therefore has more spaces provided for it.

The main reason for this is the large population.

Furthermore, the management unit in Kathmandu is bigger in scale due to the frequency and the amount of waste recycling. Consequently, there are more people working in the urban center, thus more residential units are designed. These units are arranged around a courtyard and accessed by an open gallery system. In Chapp, there are two residential units sharing entrance and terraces. In both centers, the units provide the

basic needs of a waste-picker family. Lastly, both centers have a recycling facility, yet with a different function. Considering the composition and the amount of waste in Chapp, composting is more important. On the other hand, in the proposal for Kathmandu, waste is not processed, it is segregated. After the separation, the three primary waste types (organic, paper, plastic) are stored to be delivered to corresponding waste-processing plants.

Inspire to Aspire Besides the functions, the buildings aim to change the negative mindset of the society about waste as an end-of-life material and waste-pickers as the untouchables. The architecture of the prototypes plays a vital role in engaging the community with this issue. The primary purpose is to draw the attention of people with the form of the building. In order to do that, the common prejudice of unattractive waste centers should be broken down. In this case, both of the proposals intend to be welcoming and social. The transitions between indoor and outdoor, vertical, and horizontal connections through the courtyard and the use of landscape help creating a curious and home-like environment. Moreover, the materials of the building are inspired by the local architecture. Due to the locality and the small scale of the centers, the use of industrialized materials is limited to a minimum.

89

Spatial Strategies Simplicity Structures in the rural areas of Nepal have very simple spatial organizations. They answer the basic needs of the inhabitants and are minimally furnished. The buildings consist of one up to three stories. Generally, each level has an open floor plan, undivided by walls or apparats. The spaces are defined on a vertical axis as the ground floor is used for living and cooking and the upper floor is used for sleeping. Due to the lack of furniture and divisions, the surfaces have multi-functional purposes. The proposed project in Chapp Village follows these principles. First of all, the residential units have two levels. The ground floor is for social activities such as cooking, living and hosting guests. It is surrounded by two semi-open porches; private and public. The stairs to the upper level are accessed by the porch. The upper floor has a very open plan that can accommodate families of different sizes. Similarly, the classroom has little furnish. It has a round shape with a rammed earth seating attached to the wall. The chairs can be organized in different ways that allow different social interactions. The project in Thamel, Kathmandu proposes simple but more defined spaces. All functions are arranged around the courtyard and accessed by an open gallery system.

Last of all, besides the social aspect, simplicity and the use of basic geometric forms are important for the earthquake resistance of the structures.

90

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Flexibility

Inter-connection

The simplicity of traditional Nepali houses provides a significant amount of flexibility. For instance, during meals the whole ground floor is used as a kitchen and a dining room. However, once the meal is over the room becomes the living space. Multi-functional use is visible in the housing units and the teaching spaces of both projects.

During our site trip to Chapp village, we observed how the weather conditions shape the architecture and society. Due to its location, the village has a sub-tropical climate. It is characterized by hot summers and mild winters. Being exposed to warm temperatures, the locals spend most of their time outside. They frequently change between indoor and outdoor. They keep the windows and doors open to remove the treshold between in and out. This reflects on architecture as in-between places such as porches, terraces, and courtyards. Similarly, these semi-open spaces are fundamental elements of Newari architecture in Kathmandu. The courtyard typology helps the natural ventilation, solar penetration, and privacy. Moreover, it helps to expand the social activities beyond the walls. Considering the dense urbanization in the city, the typology is especially important to keep the connection with nature, because many inhabitants of the city migrated from the rural areas in search of a better life.

All taken into account, the proposed centers intend to create inter-connected spaces between the interior and exterior. Both of the structures are arranged around a courtyard. These courtyards play a vital role in linking a variety of functions. In Chapp, the inner garden is located between the social units and the facility. This helps to create direct visual contact between the units, yet still physically separates them with a smooth public-private transition. Similarly, the courtyard of the project in Kathmandu integrates the different functions.

Besides providing horizontal access between the units on the same level, the gallery openings help the vertical connection of different elevations.

/svagatam/ [adv.]

Svagatam (स् व ागतम् ) means ‘Welcome to you!’ in Nepali language.

The primary goal of this thesis is to engage the community in creating a more sustainable waste management. Creating social awareness starts with drawing attention to the existence of the issue. Since architecture is a very strong tool that shapes the mentality of society, it is crucial to take advantage of it. Therefore, if the proposed waste management centers resemble the characteristics of a local house, the users feel more welcome. Houses are the places where people and architecture have a deep, meaningful connection. They reflect the identity of the users and are shaped by the lifestyle of the inhabitants. Thus, in order to create a strong connection between the building and the visitors, some local housing features are implemented in the design. These include the use of local materials, inter-connected interior/exterior spaces and the organization of the public/ private units.

91

Environmental Strategies Sun [Chapp] cross ventilation

In order to maximize the solar gains, the buildings are oriented towards the south with the openings of the social units. To avoid solar penetration, especially during summer, a roof overhang is used.

In both buildings, openings have double frames; glass window in the inside, a shutter in the outside.

[Chapp] natural ventilation

[Kathmandu] cross ventilation

[Chapp] rain protection

Wind The wind is particularly important for cross ventilation and odour removal. In Chapp, the structure plays a crucial role in natural ventilation. The clean air is captured by the windows that are placed oppositely. Then, the warm air is sucked through the inner bamboo structure towards the opening on the roof. In Kathmandu, cross ventilation is provided by designing single-banked units that have openings both towards the courtyard and the outside.

[Kathmandu] rain protection

Rain [Chapp] solar penetration

[Kathmandu] solar penetration

The prevalent climate in Chapp is sub-tropical and in Kathmandu warm temperate. In both climatic zones, the precipitation drastically changes from season to season. In the proposals, a roof overhang is used to protect the walls from the seasonal heavy rain. Furthermore, the roofs are pitched and the buildings are found on a stone plinth.

landscape as buffer zone + wind direction

92

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | BaĹ&#x;ak IĹ&#x;Äąk

Odour There are several strategies to avoid the foul smell.

First of all, the amount of odour is proportional with the scale of the facility. The bigger the facility, the more smell emitted. Moreover, longer storage times will result in more smell. Therefore, both of the waste facilities are small scale. The easy accessibility and the locality of the centers are intended to minimize the storage time of waste.

A composting facility is designed in Chapp whereas a segregation facility is designed in Kathmandu. Due to the nature of composting, there is more odour released in Chapp. To tackle the smell, the facility in the village is situated downhill from the community center and oriented according to the wind. As a result, the odour is naturally carried away towards the valley, in the opposite direction from the village center. Natural ventilation is possible through the central bamboo structure that acts like a chimney. In Kathmandu, the facility emits much less odour since waste is not processed in the building. The most crucial part here is the short storage time. In both facilities, landscape is used to create a visual and odorous buffer zone. Lastly, daily and thorough cleaning is very important to prevent the disturbing smell.

and the architecture. Giving up on the traditionally used materials, techniques and typologies change the dynamics of the society and the behaviorology.

Eventually, it leads to the extinction of the vernacular culture. In order to prevent this from happening, this master thesis focuses on preserving the traditional approach to architecture. Yet, it intends to combine traditional features with contemporary functions.

Carbon-Footprint Today, we are facing urgent environmental problems such as global warming, air pollution, and waste disposal. Globalization and the linear economy model are among the reasons for the majority of these problems. While the traditional methods focus on the use of local and earth-based materials, modern techniques have made the processed building materials widely accessible. From manufacturing to transportation, these materials produce a great amount of carbon dioxide. Generally, they are not designed to have an end-of-life scenario.

Therefore, they end up making vast wastelands.

Designing with a low carbon footprint is one of the aims of this thesis. The focus is on using local and earth-based materials. In Chapp, rammed earth is used for the walls of the building whereas in Kathmandu bricks are preferred. In both projects, wood and bamboo are used for the structure, and stone is used for the plinth. In Chapp, hay and straw are used for the roof, and in Kathmandu clay roof slates cover the roof. The use of concrete is minimized as it is only applied in the foundation and the ring beam.

Sense of Place The traditional architecture of Nepal is the reflection of their culture, lifestyle, and environment. The materiality and construction techniques represent the local resources and the evolution of the local craftsmanship.

These factors define the identity of the inhabitants 93

94

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

What is a ... composting center?

A composting center is a place where bio-waste is converted into a biologically stable product that could be reused as soil fertilizer.

The composting process consists of 4 stages: reception, fermentation, maturation and storage.

It takes approximately 60 days for the organic waste to decompose into a usable compost material [1]. After the reception of waste, in the fermentation stage the natural decomposition starts. At this stage, temperature rises and there is a high demand of oxygen. This is followed by the maturation phase, where the digestion of more resistant organic waste occurs. Here, the most important parameter is the moisture level as it should be kept below 60%. The final step is the storage of the compost material before being sold. The finished product is mostly used in agriculture or gardening. The compost can be stored maximum 3 months, otherwise it might start losing its characteristics [2].

The space organization of the facility is aligned with the phases. Each step requires its own room.

The most crucial part of the building to minimize the environmental impact is the reception area.

After segregation, bio-waste is mixed with bulking

material. In large scale facilities, a turner is used to mix the pile, whereas in small scale facilities mixing can be done manually. The mixture is then transfered to the fermentation room. Therefore, the 2 spaces should have a direct connection in the building. Before the start of fermentation, the mixed waste is placed on the floor forming a long line. This is called a ‘windrow’.

The fermentation stage is the most important of the whole process. The temperature is expected to rise quickly and the consumption of oxygen increases. Thus, ventilation of this room is important. The maturation room should be separated from the fermentation room. At this stage decomposing continues, however, the temperature drops and the demand for air continues. If there is no roof, the windrow should be covered with a canvas, as it helps preventing loss of moisture.

Moreover, in order to not ruin the phase, excess of water should be avoided. The last operational area is the storage room. This area should be connected to outside for the transportation of the finished product. Finally, an extra space is required to store cleaning materials and the tools used in the process.

[1]

[2]

“Tackling Waste through Community-Based Composting BANGLA-

DESH.”

R. Plana, Envipark, and BCNecologia, “Handbook for small scale com-

posting facility management,” pp. 1–114, 2014.

95

Steps of composting (SCOW)

[1]

R. Plana, Envipark, and BCNecologia, “Handbook for small scale com-

posting facility management,” pp. 1–114, 2014.

96

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık Organic composting center (The NYC Compost Project)

[1] post.

97

“Compost Operation,” Red Hook Farms. http://www.added-value.org/com-

98

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

What is a ... material recovery center?

A material recovery center is a waste management plant where recyclable waste is received, sorted out and sold to manufacturers.

The recycling process consists of 3 stages: reception, segregation and storage. Depending on the scale of the plant, the variety of waste that is dealt with might differ. For instance, some largescale facilities receive construction and demolition waste. In addition, these centers might further process the material. On the other hand, small-scale facilities manage a limited amount of waste types such as paper, plastic, glass and etc…

The reception stage is where the recyclable waste is collected. This stage requires a separate room that has direct connection to the street. In order to avoid visual disturbance, sound pollution, smell and congestion in the circulation, it is important to have a side road that branches out from the main road. Reception is followed by the segregation stage. This is where the co-mingled waste is sorted out into different types of materials. Since, the proposed center in Thamel is a small-scale facility, it focuses on recycling organic, paper and plastic products. After these

materials are received in the reception area, they are transferred to the segregation room. It is important that the spaces are well-connected to each other. After the sorting out, each material is transferred to the room it is stored. Accordingly, the facility has four rooms for storage; plastic, paper, organic and the residue. The materials are stored in the corresponding room until it is sold to a manufacturer to be used as raw materials. On the other hand, the residue that cannot be recycled is put separately to be transferred to a landfill. The storage rooms do not have to be interconnected as they function separately.

Moreover, each room should be easily accessible from outside for transportation vehicles.

One of the vital things to consider while designing a material recovery center is the odour. Recycling centers, especially composting centers, could have a disturbing smell. There are several factors that effect the density of the odour including the scale of the facility, the frequency of the process and the type of waste. The smaller the facility, the less smell released. Similarly, if the time between the arrival and the delivery of waste is short, then there is less odour.

[1]

[2]

“Tackling Waste through Community-Based Composting BANGLA-

DESH.”

R. Plana, Envipark, and BCNecologia, “Handbook for small scale com-

posting facility management,” pp. 1–114, 2014.

99

Sunset Park Material Recovery Facility (Selldorf Architects)

[1, 3] 2014.

Selldorf Architects, “Sunset Park Material Recovery Facility,� Archdaily, https://www.archdaily.com/509387/sunset-park-material-recovery-facility-sell-

dorf-architects.

100

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık Metal Recycling Plant (Dekleva Gregoric Architects)

[1]

M. Ivanišin and D. Kozole, “METAL RECYCLING PLANT,” Dekleva Gregoric

Architects, 2007. https://www.dekleva-gregoric.com/metal-recycling-plant.

101

High Mountains [2500-8848m] Middle Mountains [2000-2500m] Hills [700-2000m] Churia Hills [300-700m] Terai [60-300m]

KATHMANDU

CHAPP

102

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Geography & Climate Analysis Nepal expands about 800 kilometers longitudinally and 200 kilometers perpendicularly. Altitude varies from 65 meters above sea level to 8848 meters (Everest Summit) which is the highest point on earth. Thus, the country displays a very diverse topography and climatic zones. There are 5 physiographic regions in Nepal, meaning there are 5 main landscape patterns. These regions are; High Mountains, Middle Mountains, Hills, Churia Hills and Terai.

Winter, from October to March, and summer, from April to September, are the 2 main seasons in the country. Mansoon influences the summer greatly and it divides the season into two; hot and dry period, from April to mid-June, and a warm rainy period, from mid-June to September.

Nepal has 5 climatic zones. These are; Tundra, Alpine, Cool Temperate, Warm Temperate and Sub-tropical. Tundra climate prevails above 5000 meters, allowing only a few settlements. Alpine is the other dominant climate type in the High Mountains region. It is dry and cold with a very low annual precipitation.

The Middle Mountains region covers the area between 2000-2500m. The prevalent climate in the

region is cool temperate. Temperature falls below 0°C during winter and rises up to 21°C during summer. The annual rainfall is approximately 2000 mm. The highest precipitation occurs in July, August and September.

Kathmandu is located in the Hills region. The dominant climate in this region is warm temperate. The summers are significantly warmer than cool temperate climate while the average temperature during winter is only a little warmer.

Summers have an average temperature of 22°C which is hospitable for outdoor events. Winter temperature is around 10°C and it drops below 5°C in the month of January. The precipitation drastically changes from season to season.

Rainfall is below 100 mm per month from October to April whereas it is above 400 mm from June to August.

Chapp Village lies within the sub-tropical climate zone. The mean temperature during winter is 15°C and during summer it rises above 30°C. This climate type is dominated by the mansoon.

During the rainy period the rainfall increases up to 550 mm, however during the rest of the year the average precipitation is between 4 – 72 mm.

[2] [1]

“Meteoblue Weather,” Meteoblue weather close to you. https://www.

S. Bodach, W. Lang, and J. Hamhaber, “Climate responsive building

design strategies of vernacular architecture in Nepal,” Energy Build., vol. 81, pp.

meteoblue.com/ (accessed May 03, 2020).

227–242, 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.06.022.

103

Solar diagram - The longer faรงade of the house faces south and it is parallel to the rice terraces for stability reasons.

Space diagram - Houses do not have definitive borders.

Outdoor spaces are a part of the house as much as indoor spaces. Toilets and barns are located outside. Gardens host several functions such as washing the body, laundry or the dishes.

104

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Chapp: Materials & Building Techniques Chapp is a hilly village which does not have a proper center or definitive borders. The houses are situated at a distance from each other creating a loose settlement structure. Most of the houses are facing the south with the longer façade to absorb more sun.

Houses are surrounded with a narrow veranda and a garden. Downhill from the houses lie the rice terraces which provide food for the household. The architecture is very compact, simple and functional. Generally, the houses consist of 2 floors. The floors are not necessarily divided by walls but they are rather open. The ground floor serves as the living area and the kitchen.

The second floor is reached by an outdoor staircase and is used for sleeping and sometimes for watching TV. The lack of walls and furniture create unidentified spaces that are used for multiple functions.

The toilet and the animal barn are located outside the house as separate units. Since there is no water connection to the structure, all kind of washing activities are done in the garden using a barrel filled with water. Using local resources as building materials is common for economic and social reasons. It is cheaper to use local materials since there is no need for transportation.

Similarly, the residents are more experienced in the craftsmanship of local materials and they know their specifications better due to experience. However, there are some materials that are imported such as corrugated metal sheets and concrete. Generally, bamboo or wood are used for the structure. Sun dried earth bricks and local 105

Analysis - Majority of the houses have 2 or 3 storeys and a sloped roof. Height of a single floor is between 1.60 and 1.90 meters. The advantage of having low ceilings is the easier heat regulation.

Openings are placed on 3 faรงades. Their placement is crucial for natural ventilation as it helps cooling down the building and refreshing the smoky air during cooking.

Function diagram [1st floor] - The second floor is the private part of the house.

This space is used for sleeping, changing clothes and in some cases for watching television.

Function diagram [ground floor] - Ground floor is the more public part of the house. The guests are welcomed here. This space is used for cooking and eating.

It is also used as the living room.

106

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

stones are used as an infill material. Again, stones or concrete is used for the foundation.

Mud plaster is used as finishing material. Lastly, corrugated metal sheets, hay or thatch are used for the roofing.

The structures have many openings mostly on 3 sides of their façade. However, glass is not a common material, thus these openings are only covered by wooden plates. The big openings allow sunlight during winter and natural ventilation during hot summer days. Similarly, the wall thickness (between 50-70 cm) helps thermal insulation. Some of the structures have elevated ceilings that help ventilation greatly, on the other hand it prevents thermal insulation. However, majority of the structures have overhung roofs that protect the façades from heavy rain during the monsoon.

It is recommended for subtropical climate that the houses are oriented their long axis east-west to reduce solar heat gains. Similarly, the openings should be medium sized with some shading to avoid too much direct sun light. Lastly, light building materials are suggested for the hot and humid monsoon period. [1]

[1]

S. Bodach, W. Lang, and J. Hamhaber, “Climate responsive building

design strategies of vernacular architecture in Nepal,” Energy Build., vol. 81, pp.

227–242, 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.06.022.

107

108

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | BaĹ&#x;ak IĹ&#x;Äąk

Material diagram - On the left is a local house from Chapp. The foundation is made of local stones and the structure is formed with wood. The filling of the first floor is most likely sun-dried bricks or local stones. Mud plaster is used as a finishing material on the walls of the first floor. However, the walls of the second floor is totally different as wooden panels are used for filling and no finishing is applied. This is a common building technique in Chapp to regulate heat. During winter, families sleep downstairs as it is warmer and during summer they prefer upstairs as it is better ventilated.

For the roofing, corrugated sheet is a preffered material for its durability against water.

However, hay and straw are also commonly used for roofing.

109

84 °

38 °

0.6 m/s Solar diagram - The longer façade faces south. Sloped roof prevents summer sun (84 °) but allows winter sun (38 °).

Wind pattern is westerly with an average speed of 0.6 m/s.

Space diagram - Due to the high value of land and limited space, houses are built vertically. Buildings are adjacent to eacher blocking the 2 side façades. However, the door front is used as an outdoor extension.

110

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Kathmandu: Materials & Building Techniques Due to the increasing population, Kathmandu’s border is expanding. There is limited space in the central areas, thus, the land is very valuable. As a result of it, structures are built adjacent to each other or at very close proximity. Unlike Chapp, large gardens, separate barns, and single-story houses are very rare. Generally, buildings have a simple rectangular plan and expand vertically.

The traditional structures are composed of three to four stories. Usually, the ground floor is not inhabited. It is used as shops, storage spaces, or occasionally as barns. Bedrooms are located on the first floor. The second floor hosts the living room. The attic is used for cooking and praying. Most of the dwellings are arranged around a courtyard that provides sunlight, natural ventilation, and opportunities for social interactions. Outdoor conditions are comfortable since the prevalent climate is warm temperate.

Yet, the temperatures drop especially between the months of November and February. Therefore, proper insulation is necessary for winter, and ventilation and shading are required during summer.

The large façades of the buildings are parallel to the street and preferably face the south.

Studies suggest that maximum solar radiation can be achieved by orienting the building 10 ° to the west of the south. On the other hand, to prevent the steep summer sun, roof overhangs and window shutters are used.

Thick walls provide a high thermal mass and time-lag, thus, reduces the need for heating.

111

Analysis - The traditional houses have, on average, 3.5 storeys. However, the contemporary structures have more storeys. The big openings on the front faรงade look over the street. Buildings usually have an internal courtyard. The back faรงade of the buildings face this courtyard.

Stairs are situated here, and they are connected to the houses via gallery system.

Function Diagram - Ground floor is not inhabited. It is used for storage or as a shop.

The bedrooms are located on the first floor. The second floor hosts the living room. The attic is used for cooking and praying.

The wall thickness in traditional buildings are up to 1 meter.

These heavy walls have long time lag. The roof on the other hand is made of lighter materials and not insulated as much as the walls. Yet, this is barely a problem since the attic is only used in the morning and in the evening. Contemporary constructions have lighter walls with short time lag. Though, residents prefer the traditional method as they feel thermally more comfortable in old buildings.

112

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Furthermore, medium-sized windows help to regulate the indoor climate. For natural ventilation, courtyard typology and single-banked rooms are suggested. Protection from the heavy rain during the monsoon season is possible by overhung roofs and a raised plinth.

Sloped roofs are one of the most characteristic features of the traditional houses in Kathmandu. The ideal angle of the roof slope is 27°. It is made of lighter materials and not insulated as much as the walls. Yet, this is barely a problem since the attic is only used in the morning and in the evening. Yet, it is recommended to insulate the roof well as otherwise, it would cause rapid heat loss.

Generally, the modern structures adopt the international style with a little attention to the regional climate. For instance, contemporary constructions have lighter walls with short time lag. However, residents prefer the traditional method as they feel thermally more comfortable in old buildings. The use of concrete is becoming more and more common, and the number of floors are increasing.

[1]

A. K. Upadhyay, H. Yoshida, and H. B. Rijal, “Climate Responsive

Building Design in the Kathmandu Valley,” J. Asian Archit. Build. Eng., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 169–176, 2006, doi: 10.3130/jaabe.5.169.

[2]

S. Bodach, W. Lang, and J. Hamhaber, “Climate responsive building

design strategies of vernacular architecture in Nepal,” Energy Build., vol. 81, pp.

227–242, 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.06.022.

[3]

M. of P. P. and Works and D. of U. D. and B. Construction, “Nepal na-

tional building code,” 1994.

113

[1] sive

114

S. building

Bodach, design

W.

Lang,

strategies

and of

J.

Hamhaber,

vernacular

“Climate

architecture

in

responNepal,�

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Material diagram - On the left is a traditional Newari house from Kathmandu. The foundation is made of local stones. In order to protect the building from flooding during the monsoon season, the plinth has a depth of 60-80 centimeters. Wood is used for the structure and the frames of the traditional houses. Yet, concrete is gaining more and more popularity.

The main walling material is sun-dried or burnt clay bricks with a thickness between 28 – 70 cm. Burnt brick is usually used in the outer side of the walls whereas sundried bricks are preferred in the inner side. Due to the thick filling, the building has a high thermal mass. For the roofing, burnt clay tiles are used. These tiles are placed on top of a 4-10 cm thick mud layer creating a water inclusive design.

115

CHAPTER 5 |

THE DESIGN PROPOSAL [RURAL]

116

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

117

Si

te

River Bed

118

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Kali Devi School

119

Scale: 1:5000

Urban Plan

120

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

121

Scale: 1:500

Urban Elevation

122

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

123

Scale: 1:200

Elevation

124

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

125

Scale: 1:100

Social Unit Ground Floor Plan

126

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

127

Scale: 1:100

Housing First Floor Plan

128

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

129

Scale: 1:100

Facility Floor Plan

130

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

131

Scale: 1:100

Section

132

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

133

Scale: 1:100

Roof Detail

Hay and

Wooden Attached Bamboo

Bamboo

Bamboo Attached

134

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Hay and Straw

Wooden Ring | Attached to the Bamboo Structure Bamboo Poles 8 cm

Bamboo Structure 15 cm | Attached to the Roof

135

Scale: 1:20

Floor Detail

Stone T Earth/ce Ramme Stone F

Bambo

Woode

Concre Ring fo Attache Bambo

Concre Ring fo Attache Ramme

136

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Stone Tiles 3 cm Earth/cement Mortar 2 cm Rammed Earth 8 cm Stone Floor 22 cm Bamboo Structure

Wooden Plate + Screw Concrete Ring foundation | Attached to the Bamboo Structure

Concrete Ring foundation | Attached to the Rammed Earth Walls

137

Scale: 1:20

CHAPTER 5 |

THE DESIGN PROPOSAL [URBAN]

138

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

139

Bishnumati River

Durbar Square

140

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Site

Garden of Dreams

141

Scale: 1:5000

Amri t Stre

et| अ मृत म ार

्ग

Urban Plan

Chhaya Shopping Center

142

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Hotel

Hostel

Kesarmahal Street | क

ाठमाडौँ

Hotel

Kaiser Mahal Historical Landmark 143

Scale: 1:500

Dead End

Kesarmahal Roa

Ground Floor Plan

144

d The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Hostel

Hotel

ad | काठमाडौँ

Hotel

145

Scale: 1:200

Dead End

Kesarmahal Roa

First Floor Plan

146

d

ad | काठमाडौँ

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

147

Scale: 1:200

Dead End

Kesarmahal Roa

Second Floor Plan

148

d

ad | काठमाडौँ

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

149

Scale: 1:200

Front Elevation

150

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

151

Scale: 1:100

Section

152

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

153

Scale: 1:100

Roof Detail

Clay Ti Bambo Bambo Bambo Bambo

Ridge T Ridge F

Bambo

154

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Clay Tiles 3 x 25 x 20 cm Bamboo Battens 5 cm Bamboo Structure 10 cm Bamboo Sheets 4 cm Bamboo Structure 10 cm

Ridge Tile Ridge Fast Roll

Fig 1.

Bamboo Structure 10 cm

Fig 2.

[1, 2]

Comunal Taller de Arquitectura, “Rural House in Puebla,” Archdaily, 2014.

https://www.archdaily.com/868726/vivienda-en-puebla-comunal-taller-de-arquitectura

155

Scale: 1:20

Floor Detail

Stone T Earth/c Ramme Bambo Second

Bambo 5 - 8 cm

Bambo Each 15

Adobe

156

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Stone Tiles 3 cm Earth/cement Mortar 2 cm Rammed Earth 9 cm Bamboo Flooring 4 cm Secondary Beams 12 cm

Bamboo Handrail | 5 - 8 cm diameter

Bamboo Beams Each 15 cm diameter

Adobe Bricks

Each: 40 x 20 x 12.5 cm

157

Scale: 1:20

CHAPTER 6 |

BIBLIOGRAPHY

158

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

159

Journal Articles [8] S. Panthee, “Possible methods of preventing groundwater contamination at landfill sites; case studies from Nepal,” Bull.

Dep. Geol., vol. 11, no. December 2008, pp.

51–60, 1970, doi: 10.3126/bdg.v11i0.1542.

[1] R. Singh, H. Yabar, N. Nozaki, and R. Rakwal, “Analyzing Waste Problems in Developing Countries: Lessons for Kathmandu, Nepal through Analysis of the Waste System in Tsukuba City, Japan,” J. Sci. Res. Reports, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 1–13, 2015, doi: 10.9734/jsrr/2015/20346.

[9] M. of P. P. and Works and D. of U. D. and B. Construction, “Nepal national building code,” 1994.

[2] “Solid Waste Management of Kathmandu Metropolitan City,” pp. 321–342, 2015, [Online].

Available: https://oagnep.gov.np/old/downloadfile/Enviroment Audit 2071_1434876762.pdf.

[10] T. D. Jones, J. A. Talbott, and W. D. Gibson, “Design of an MSW composting facility,” Proc.

Natl. Waste Process. Conf., pp. 31–36, 1990.

[3] CKV Clean Kathmandu Valley Project, “Detailed Design and As-built Drawings for Improvement Work.”

[11] R. Plana, Envipark, and BCNecologia, “Handbook for small scale composting facility management,” pp. 1–114, 2014.

[4] S. K. Nepal, “Tourism in protected areas,” Tour. Manag., vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 118–122, 1984, doi: 10.1016/0261-5177(84)90059-1.

[12] “Tackling Waste through Community-Based Composting BANGLADESH.”

[5] G. P. Nyaupane and B. Thapa, “Perceptions of environmental impacts of tourism: A case study at ACAP, Nepal,” Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol., vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 51–61, 2006, doi: 10.1080/13504500609469661.

[13] S. Bodach, W. Lang, and J. Hamhaber, “Climate responsive building design strategies of vernacular architecture in Nepal,” Energy Build., vol. 81, pp. 227–242, 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.06.022.

[6] A. Holden, “Investigating trekkers’ attitudes to the environment of Annapurna, Nepal,” Tour. Manag., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 341–344, 2003, doi: 10.1016/S0261-5177(02)00079-1.

[14] A. K. Upadhyay, H. Yoshida, and H. B. Rijal, “Climate Responsive Building Design in the Kathmandu Valley,” J. Asian Archit. Build. Eng., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 169–176, 2006, doi: 10.3130/ jaabe.5.169.

[7] M. B. Dangi, E. Schoenberger, and J. J. Boland, “Foreign aid in waste management: A case of Kathmandu, Nepal,” Habitat Int., vol.

49, pp. 393–402, 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.06.010.

[15] Emergency Architects, Foundation of Public Interests, Study of habitat typologies and Solutions for their seismic reinforcement, Nepal, 2016.

160

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

Books [17] S. K. Paudel, “Bamboo School Building,” pp. 1–27, 2009, [Online]. Available: http://sheltercentre.org/sites/default/files/CON_BambooSchoolBuilding_INBAR.pdf.

[1] Solid Waste Management in Nepal: Current status and policy recommendations. Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank, 2013.

[15] Village Volunteers, Manual on Building Bamboo Houses.

[2] W. Vervenne and J. T. de Maisières, The Post-School On continuity and identity Kalidevi, Nepal. Leuven: KU Leuven, 2018.

[3] Community Architects Network, Bamboo Construction Source Book. Hunnarshala Foundation for Building Technology and Innovations, 2013.

161

Newspaper Articles

Other

[1] RASTRIYA SAMACHAR SAMITI, “Tourism rebounds in Myagdi’s Ghorepani,” The Himalayan Times, Apr. 17, 2017.

[1] M. Zuberi, L. E. Rose, P. P. Karan, and R. R. Proud, “Nepal,” Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2020, [Online]. Available: https:// www.britannica.com/place/Nepal.

[2] R. RAMJI, “Annapurna Circuit witnesses highest number of tourists in 2018,” The Himalayan Times, Jan. 21, 2019.

[2] “Nepal - Rural Population,” The World Bank, 2020. data.worldbank.org.

[3] A. Ojha, “Kathmandu Metropolitan City once again starts waste segregation campaign,” Kathmandu Post, 2020.

[3] L. Valerie, “Cash for Trash,” Valerie Leonard Photography, 2017. https://www.valerieleonard.fr/cash-for-trash.

[4] A. Ojha, “Locals Offer 500 Ropanis to Dump Stinking Sisdole,” Kathmandu Post, Kathmandu, Oct. 06, 2018.

[4]

Google, “Google Earth Pro.” 2020.

[5] K. Takahashi, “Nepal - Life Without Exit,” Kuni Takahashi Photography. https://kuni.photoshelter.com/gallery-image/Nepal-Life-Without-Exit-ongoing/G0000j9Cjn_Trt60/I0000Y_ FVUgFlcFo/C0000f1HI9xXbQBY.

[5] A. C. Byers, “Everest Fights Back,” Nepali Times, Khumbu, Sep. 18, 2019.

[6] A. Doyle, “Nature’s ‘alarming’ decline threatens food, water, energy: U.N.,” Reuters, Oslo, Mar. 23, 2018.

[6] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Kathmandu National Capital, Nepal,” Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2016, [Online]. Available: https://www.britannica.com/ place/Kathmandu.

[7] C. Harvey, “These Disturbing Photos Of Children Playing In Garbage Show Just How Bad Pollution Can Be,” Bussiness Insider, Oct. 2014.

[7] “Kathmandu Population 2020,” World Population Review. https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/kathmandu-population/ (accessed Apr. 18, 2020).

[8] N. Baral, “Photo-essay: Plastic blights the beauty of Kathmandu,” The Third Pole, Apr. 05, 2018.

[8] “Meteoblue Weather,” Meteoblue weather close to you. https://www.meteoblue.com/ (accessed May 03, 2020).

[9] “Local levels form panel to tackle waste woes,” The Himalayan Times, Kathmandu, Aug. 05, 2018.

162

The Misplaced Waste of Nepal | Başak Işık

[9] “Compost Operation,” Red Hook Farms. http://www.added-value.org/compost.

[17] LEAD Nepal, “Documentary - Waste Management In Nepal _ Climate Change, Disasters, Gender & Air Pollution,” Youtube, 2019. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=u5U-gn1xrgI.

[10] M. Ivanišin and D. Kozole, “METAL RECYCLING PLANT,” Dekleva Gregoric Architects, 2007. https://www.dekleva-gregoric.com/metal-recycling-plant.

[18] S. Regmi, “WASTE MANAGEMENT IN NEPAL [PART ONE],” Youtube, 2016. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=GiQj3LeVGmc.

[11] Selldorf Architects, “Sunset Park Material Recovery Facility,” Archdaily, 2014. https://www. archdaily.com/509387/sunset-park-material-recovery-facility-selldorf-architects.

[19] S. Regmi, “WASTE MANAGEMENT IN NEPAL [PART TWO],” Youtube, 2016. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=67kpMWJjTzU.

[12] Š. Vaškevič, “Nepal, country full of garbage or just desperate people without resources?,” Zajímej, 2018. https://zajimej.se/ nepal-country-full-of-garbage-or-just-desperatepeople-without-resources/.

[20] Comunal Taller de Arquitectura, “Rural House in Puebla,” Archdaily, 2014. https://www. archdaily.com/868726/vivienda-en-puebla-comunal-taller-de-arquitectura

[13] Building with bamboo and earth, Design, Build, Educate. Retrieved Date: 04.2018. http:// abari.earth/project/ [14] S. Schröder, “How to Make Bamboo Rain Gutters,” Guadua Bamboo. https://www.guaduabamboo.com/blog/how-to-make-bamboo-raingutters.

[15] J. Stewart, “Eye-Opening History of Round Homes and Why Curves Matter in Architecture,” My Modern Met, Apr. 2017.

[16] Annapurna Post, “Sisdol Tilak,” Youtube, 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bT1NP_82tTc.

163