Athletics Coach - Issue 2, 2018

I S S U E

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2 0 1 8

A T H L E T I C S

C O A C H L ATE S T RE SE ARCH

EXPERT OPINION

CO N TAC T

WRITERS

AT H L E T I C S A U S T R A L I A

Lv.2, 31 Aughtie Drive

BLAYNE ARNOLD

Albert Park VIC 3206

BE A RUNNER

e: coachaccreditation@athletics.org.au

Blayne’s private and professional life is all things

w: www.athletics.com.au

running. Passionate about all distances from the track to the road. You will not find a more passionate and knowledgeable running coach.

NICOLE BOEGMAN-STEWART JUMPS COACH Nicole is a Commonwealth Champion Long Jumper and currently one of Australia’s most knowledgeable jumps coaches.

DARREN WENSOR COACHINGYOUNG ATHLE TE S Track

and

Field

professional,

development

coach, educator and founder of the blog coachingyoungathletes.com.

C O P Y R I G H T © AT H L E T I C S A U S T R A L I A 2 0 1 8

FROM THE EDITOR

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hen Glen Mills, the coach of Usain Bolt, talks about how to be a better coach you can’t help but pay attention. I was recently reading an older interview with Mills where he stressed the importance of ongoing learning throughout his coaching career. For Mills, working on developing his knowledge, experience and qualifications have allowed him to best support his athletes and achieve success at the highest level of the sport.

This digital magazine is designed to offer you a way to continue your ongoing development and extend your knowledge in the comfort of your own home. It aims to achieve this in the following two ways: i) Sharing the latest peer-reviewed research and literature reviews. The science of physical performance is evolving and new peer-reviewed studies are being released regularly. This magazine will introduce some of the latest studies and link you to trusted sources of knowledge to assist you to keep up-to-date with the latest evidence based coaching practice. ii) Publishing opinion from top Australian and International coaches. Where the latest peerreviewed research can teach us the science of coaching and give us a theoretical basis for practice, hearing from our colleagues and experts can teach us more about its practical application. This magazine will share the opinions of some of the most respected coaches from Australia and abroad in the form of interviews, guest articles and summaries of their coaching practices and philosophies. Note that articles marked as ‘Opinion’ must be understood to be the personal thoughts of the article’s author and are provided for your consideration.

This edition of Athletics Coach also includes a few example programs and sessions from expert coaches and sports scientists. These are provided for your interest, but it is your responsibility as a coach to assess whether they are appropriate for the development level and objectives of your athletes and runners.

Thank you for taking the time to read this edition and I hope wherever and whoever you are coaching, you will find something to contribute to your ongoing development inside.

Blair Taylor

CONTENTS L ATE S T R E S E A RCH 6

K I D S C A N R U N A L L D AY New research reveals why kids can run all day and how it may affect how you should coach them.

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YO UTH CO M PE TITI O N I S N OT A GUIDE FOR ELITE PERFORMANCE

The latest research explains why coaches should not place excessive importance on youth competition

COACH’S OPINION 50

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BAREFOOT RUNNING

Blayne Arnold provides a detailed summary on the benefits and issues of barefoot running.

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V I B R AT I O N T R A I N I N G fad from the early 2000s or a novel component A of the training program for Track and Field athletes?

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I M P R O V I N G T H R O W I N G PERFORMANCE

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COMPONENTS OF SUCCESS IN THE 10 0M

HIGH JUMP IN HIGH SCHOOLS A suggested method to deliver High Jump sessions in schools for Teachers and beginning coaches.

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1 0 C O M M O N J A V E L I N M I S TA K E S I N Y O U N G AT H L E T E S

Darren Wensor explores common errors and his recommended remedy for young javelin throwers.

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Three studies that should influence how you approach coaching the throws.

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BUILDING SPEED W e examine advice from the world’s best coaches and determine three commonly occuring areas to focus on for building speed and acceleration.

P LY O M E T R I C S Four studies that all Accredited Coaches should understand on the effectiveness and rationale for plyometrics training.

AT T I T U D E A N D A P P R O A C H DETERMINES SUCCESS

Legendary jumps coach, Gary Bourne explores what it takes to perform at the highest level at international events.

LITER AT U R E R E V I E WS 12

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QUICK QUESTIONS: B E G I N N I N G P O L E V A U LT

Four quick questions submitted by coaches regarding how and when to start Pole Vault.

TH E COACH A N D ATH LE TE

Ranell Hobson’s highly acclaimed summary of the training factor for success in the sprints.

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COOL DOWNS

N I CO LE B O EG M A N -S TE WA RT ne of Australia’s most respected Jumps coaches O reflects on what she learnt from the world’s best.

quick summary of the literature regarding the A benefits (or lack thereof) of the cool down.

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AT H L E T E P A R T I C I P AT I O N Analysis of athlete participation from the Athletics Victoria Shield.

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P A R T I C I P AT I O N D E V E L O P M E N T M O D E L C urrent best practice for long-term development.

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FURTHER READING

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www.aec.gov.au/Indigenous 13 23 26 Authorised by the Electoral Commissioner, Canberra Original artwork by Marcus Lee Design

ATHLETIC S COACH

AUTHORS Anthony Blazevich is a Professor of Biomechanics at Edith Cowan University

Sebastien Ratel is the Head Lecturer of Exercise Physiology at the Universite Clermont Auvergne

YES, YOUR KIDS CAN RU N A LL DAY TH E Y ’ V E G OT M US CLE S LI K E EN D U R A N CE ATH LE TE S

A recent study by Birat et al. (2018) demonstrated that prepubertal children were metabolically comparable to well-trained adult endurance athletes. This article, originally published by The Conversation summarises their findings.

We will go on to discuss the coaching implications and how this should affect the way coaches approach training young athletes.

Most of us know children who can run and play for hours and hours, taking only short rests.

As a parent or carer, it can be exhausting. For scientists, why this is the case has long been the source of debate – is it due to fitness? Or something else?

Our study published today looked at performance and recovery of children and adults doing strenuous cycling. It shows children not only out-perform most adults, but can perform as well as highly-trained adult endurance athletes, and then recover even faster afterwards.

Children’s Muscles are Different Repeated experiments have shown that the muscles of children tend to fatigue more slowly than adults (Lexell et al., 1992).

These results seem to fly in the face of what science would predict. For example, children have shorter limbs, so they have to take more steps and should therefore theoretically use more energy.

Children are also less able to make use of tendon energy return systems – that is, they store less energy in their tendons so they can’t reuse this energy to propel themselves during movement (Waugh, Korff & Blazevich, 2017).

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And children show greater activity in muscles that oppose or control movement, a reflection of the fact that typically they are less skillful, and therefore use more energy (Frost et al., 1997).

So how do their muscles stay fresh?

Originally published by The Conversation

Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise One possible explanation for the remarkable muscle endurance of children could be their different use of energy pathways (Ratel & Blazevich, 2017).

Anaerobic (“oxygen-independent”) pathways produce large amounts of energy without the need for oxygen - but tend to cause rapid fatigue. For example, sprinters rely on anaerobic metabolism to run fast over short distances.

Aerobic (“oxygen-dependent”) pathways tend to produce energy at a slower rate but allow us to work for many hours without muscle shut down, like in a well-run marathon.

We know from existing research that children seem to be able to get more of their energy from aerobic pathways than adults, minimising the fatiguing anaerobic contribution (Tanaka & Shindo, 1985). Their aerobic machinery also kicks into gear faster than adults, so they don’t need to rely as much on anaerobic metabolism when exercise first starts (Fawkner et al., 2010).

ABOVE Students at St. Joseph’s Kerang taking part in a running session.

BELOW A number of fun runs offer distances targeted at family entries.

Let’s go Cycling We tested our speculation in a study run by researchers at Université Clermont Auvergne, in France (Birat et al., 2018).

Children (average age 10.5 years), young adults (21.2 years) with a similar physical activity level as the children, and age- and heightmatched endurance-trained male athletes (21.5 years) were asked to complete two cycling tests on a stationary bicycle.

These benefits are believed to partly result from children having a greater proportion of so-called “slow-twitch” muscle fibres, which have a greater activity of important enzymes that drive release of energy from aerobic pathways.

In the first test, power output was continually increased until exhaustion. In the second test, the subject completed a 30-second all-out cycle sprint. These tests allowed us to measure numerous physiological responses to exercise, and to assess both the rate of fatigue and then recovery specifically during brief, maximal-intensity exercise.

Such findings prompted us to speculate that children’s muscles might actually respond to exercise in a similar way to adult endurance athletes, since they too show these characteristics.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

We found that the children fatigued as much in the all-out cycle as the endurance-trained athletes (about 40% loss of power), and much less than the untrained adults (about 50% loss).

But data collected during recovery from the exercise also revealed startling outcomes. The rate at which oxygen use declined after the exercise was the same in children and athletes. The rates at which heart rate returned to normal and lactate (a compound associated with muscle fatigue) cleared from the blood were even faster in the children, and again much faster than in untrained adults.

Data also show that the proportion of energy derived from aerobic pathways in the 30-second cycle sprint was similar in the children and athletes, and more than in untrained adults.

These data show that children’s muscles recover rapidly from high-intensity exercise, and possibly reveal why children are able to produce repeated exercise efforts when most of us adults continue to feel exhausted.

These results clearly show that fatigue rates in response to high-intensity exercise may be the same in children as they are in highly-trained adult endurance athletes, and that this is associated with an incredible generation of energy from aerobic energy pathways.

“Fatigue rates in response to high-intensity exercise may be the same in children as they are in highly-trained adult endurance athletes”

How Children’s Muscles Work Such data provide strong hints as to how to optimise exercise and sporting performance in children.

Children might benefit from short, high-intensity exercise bouts to boost anaerobic capacity, and a focus on movement skill, muscular strength, and other physical attributes more than in adults.

ABOVE Power output over time during high intense exercise of endurance athletes, untrained adults and children.

is a key maturation step that allows metabolic diseases to take hold.

Adults (and adolescents), on the other hand, may need to place a greater emphasis on improving their muscle aerobic capacity.

It will be interesting in future to examine the link between muscle maturation and disease, and test whether the maintenance of our childhood muscles through exercise training might be the best medicine to prevent disease.

There may also be important health implications.

Metabolic diseases, including diabetes and many forms of cancer, are increasing in prevalence in adolescents and younger adults but are still rarely seen in children.

Either way, at least we now have some idea as to why children are able to play, and play, and play, when we adults need to take a break. Kids are already elite.

It might be the case that the loss of muscle aerobic capacity between childhood and early adulthood

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L ATE S T RE SE ARCH

Editors Note: Coaching Implications for Athletics It would be easy to look at the summary of this study in isoloation and assume the that these results support the inclusion of regular and intense long distance running for prepubertal children. However, the authors state the opposite, suggesting that aerobic metabolic training in children may not be beneficial. Instead, training for prepubertal children should focus on developing the anaerobic system or movement technique training to improve mechanical efficiency.

This supports the existing evidence base on the suitability of endurance running for children. Pate & Greene (2014) argued that intense distance training for young athletes was unlikely to be signficantly beneficial - perhaps due to the unique aerobic qualities of young runners. This is supported by Blankson & Brenner (2016), who emphasised that distance running for children needs to be driven by the child - not parents or coach - with a focus on enjoyment rather than performance.

These findings support the inclusion of the IAAF Kids’ Athletics program for Primary-aged students: 1) By building the running, jumping and throwing technique to improve mechanical efficiency of young athletes, we are giving them the necessary skills to achieve athletic success in their future years.

2) A program with multiple repetitions of fast-paced games that develop young athlete’s anaerobic system will build the necessary agility, balance and coordination for their long-term athletic development.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

YOUTH COMPETITION IS NOT A GUIDE FOR ELITE PERFORMANCE Youth sport is becoming an increasingly serious business, driven by the belief that early success is an accurate indicator of potential

A recent study published in the Journal of Sports Sciences has revealed that for junior Track and Field athletes, performances at one age grade were poor predictors of performance at subsequent age grades (Kearney, Hayes & Nevill, 2018). Over 130,000 performances were analysed between 2005 and 2015, making this one of the largest long-term studies completed on the correlation between junior and elite performances.

An analysis revealed that of the top 20 ranked senior athletes, only nine percent of males and 13

percent of females were also ranked in the top 20 at Under 13 level.

Of the athletes who were ranked in the top 20 at Under 13, less than 14% were still ranked in the top 20 and less than 30% were ranked anywhere at all on the national rankings by Under 20. These results suggest that; a) performances when an athlete is Under 13 is a very weak indicator of future success and b) success at Under 13 level

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L ATE S T RE SE ARCH

does not appear to be a major driving factor for long term participation in the sport.

Less than 30 percent of athletes who had been top ranked at Under 13 were still listed anywhere on the national rankings by Under 20

The lack of correlation between performances at junior and senior level was not limited to the top performing junior athletes. Among the broader Track and Field population, there was poor correlation between performances from one age grade to a later grade. The earliest age where an athlete’s performances began to correlate reliably with future performance was noted between Under 17 and Under 20 for female athletes or Under 18 and Under 20 for male athletes.

role in performance outcomes of junior athletes, where there is often considerable varation due to the onset of puberty and athletes with vastly different experience in the sport. It was hypothesized that athletes who begin specialising in an event at a younger age may be at a competitive advantage at Under 13 level, but be a disadvantage in later years as athletes with a more broad base of physical fitness surpass them in their teenage years.

The researchers identified numerous reasons for this discrepency in developing athlete’s ability.

As Accredited Coaches should already be aware, developmental and training ages play significant

Performances at one age grade were poor predictors of performance at subsequent age grades

The study also focussed heavily on the role that the relative age effect had on competition performance. The researchers noted that athletes born earlier in the selection year were significantly more likely to experience success from Under 9 to Under 17 levels. The older an athlete was in their given age grade was the most reliable indicator of athlete success at youth level. For example, the top performing Under 13 males were 14 times more likely to be born in the first three months than in the rest of the year.

The coaching implication from this study is to avoid placing significance on competition for junior athletes. The development years should instead focus on building the foundation for physical competance of all athletes and introducing the technical model of the events in an age-appropriate and enjoyable way. If formal competition is to play a role in the program of junior athletes, results should be taken with a grain of salt and the focus should be on enjoyment and the development of competition skills for the future.

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BAREFOOT RUNNING It should be understood that barefoot running is neither good nor bad - it’s just different.

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e have probably all heard so much conflicting information regarding barefoot running that it can be hard to keep up with what is the current best practice. This article will serve as a review of the current scientific literature comparing the differences between running barefoot and shod (wearing shoes).

The past decade has seen a rise in popularity and interest in barefoot running (Rothschild, 2012).

This popularity in part stems from an increase in research, which proposed benefits of barefoot running for injury reduction (De Wit, De Clercq & Aerts, 2000; Burkett, Kohrt & Buchbinder, 1985; Robbins & Hanna, 1997). In fact, it has been reported that up to 79% of runners will sustain a

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AUTHOR Blayne Arnold is a Level 3 IAAF Coach and Head Coach of Be a Runner.

running-related injury in any given year (van Gent et al., 2007). It is therefore not surprising that any strategy that appears to reduce the risk of injury receives considerable public attention. Recent biomechanical evidence suggests that barefoot running changes running technique, which in turn reduces the musculoskeletal loads experienced during initial foot contact (Lieberman et al., 2010).

This change is considered to be primarily the result of a difference in foot strike pattern between the two conditions (Kurz & Stergiou, 2003; Kurz & Stergiou, 2004). That is, barefoot runners tend to adopt a forefoot strike pattern, whereas shod runners tend to adopt a rear-foot strike pattern.

Further contributing to the popularity of barefoot running is the argument that humans have evolved

LITER ATURE RE VIE W

ABOVE LEFT The effects of barefoot running on soft or sandy surfaces have been well studied and the evidence reviweed in the January 2018 edition of Athletics Coach ABOVE Rnning on harder surfaces, such as forest tracks, has been hypothesized to be a good way to tell if your running technique results in a landing that is too hard.

to run barefoot. According to Bramble and Lieberman (2004), fossil evidence exists that Homo populations have been running for approximately two million years. Earliest records of humans using footwear, however, trace back only 10,000 years (Rothschild, 2012).

Based on these factors alone, it has been argued that barefoot running is natural and therefore the most effective mechanism for running. Throughout the evolution of the human species there have been significant changes in lifestyle and culture, which has seen a reduced need to run for survival. While running for survival is no longer a necessity, it does provide an avenue for recreation and competition. The Modern Olympic Games catapulted interest and subsequently participation of running within modern society. Additionally, the understanding that regular physical

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activity is associated with improved health has seen running continue to surge in popularity as a recreational pursuit (Friedman & Knight, 1978). In the 1970’s, the modern running shoe was created (Lieberman, 2012), which was the first running shoe to provide support in the sole in the form of a cushioned heel. The additional support in modern running shoes is built on the premise that support will act to absorb shock associated with initial foot contact and thereby reduce the likelihood of injury. Despite this contention, no high quality evidence exists to suggest that shoes reduce the likelihood of a running injury. Coupled with emerging evidence that suggests that reverting to barefoot running may reduce the risk of injury, it is not surprising that there has been significant interest in barefoot running.

ATHLETIC S COACH

The Differences Between Barefoot and Shod The recent popularity of barefoot running has seen multiple studies compare the biomechanics of barefoot and shod running (Divert et al., 2008; Hall, Barton, Jones & Morrissey, 2013). The results have revealed significant differences in spatio-temporal, kinematic, and kinetic parameters (please refer to the January edition of Athletics Coach for definitions). The most common spatio-temporal changes observed in barefoot running compared to shod running have included increased stride frequency (Bonacci et al., 2013; Divert et al., 2005) and reduced stride length (Kerrigan et al., 2009). Further, kinematic changes observed in barefoot runners include reduced in ankle dorsiflexion (Braunstein et al., 2010) and increased knee flexion at initial contact (Williams, Green & Wurzinger, 2012) compared to shod runners. Presumably, these spatio-temporal and kinematic changes are due to a change in the foot strike pattern adopted by individuals who run barefoot compared to shod. Typically, shod runners adopt a rear-foot strike pattern, while barefoot runners adopt a fore foot striking pattern.

FIGURE 1 Vertical ground reaction forces for barefoot running with a rear-foot strike pattern (Lieberman et al., 2010)

FIGURE 2 Vertical ground reaction forces for shod running with a rear-foot strike pattern.

(Lieberman et al., 2010)

Further Research If you are interested in learning more about the evidence-base for barefoot running, visit the Harvard University Biomechanics of Footstrikes and Applications to Running Barefoot or in Minimal Footwear webpage.

Kinetic differences also exist when comparing the ground reaction forces (GRFs) between barefoot and shod running. Barefoot running is associated with lower peak vertical GRFs compared to shod running. Another kinetic difference between barefoot and shod running is the initial rate of loading. Interestingly, rear-foot striking when barefoot is associated with higher loading rates compared to shod rear-foot striking (Figure 1 & 2). This may be due to the passive attenuation and absorption of forces through the cushioning of the shoe (Shih & Shiang, 2013).

Considerable research exists examining the transition of foot strike pattern between shod and barefoot running. There is a general understanding that individuals will typically rear-foot strike when shod (Kurz & Stergiou, 2003), while when barefoot they will fore foot strike (Kurz & Stergiou, 2004). However, it should be noted that a change from shod to barefoot running and vice-versa, does not always lead to an alteration in the foot strike pattern adopted by individuals. Differences exist when considering the condition to which the individual is habituated. That is, the condition the individual is accustomed to (either barefoot or shod running). It has been shown that for individuals habituated to shod running, less than a quarter transfer to a fore foot strike when barefoot compared to their natural rear-foot strike pattern when shod (Lieberman et al., 2010).

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LITER ATURE RE VIE W

While for individuals habituated to barefoot running, the majority (75%) run with a fore foot strike pattern when barefoot and when shod only 50% transferred to a rear-foot striking pattern. Interestingly, not all individuals within a barefoot habituated group exhibit a fore foot strike pattern when running in their accustomed condition. This may suggest that habituation cannot be used to predict foot strike patterning, but rather it should be considered as a contributing factor.

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TOP The Bondi Barefoot Race has become a popular event for recreational runners.

ABOVE LEFT Video analysising ground force generated when running barefoot click to play in Youtube.

ABOVE RIGHT Video analysising ground force generated when running shod click to play in Youtube.

ATHLETIC S COACH

A number of mechanisms have been proposed to explain the differences in strike pattern adopted for each condition.

Firstly, it is believed that the design of the modern running shoe promotes rear-foot striking as significant cushioning and support are situated at the rear of the shoe under the heel (Barnes & Smith, 1994; Butler, Davis & Hamill, 2006).

A rear-foot strike pattern in barefoot running is associated with high initial impact peaks (Figure 1), and it is likely that individuals try to avoid these by selecting a fore foot strike pattern.

Other factors that influence foot strike pattern include: running speed, distance, and training level (Hatala et al., 2013). For example, it has been shown that running speed has a considerable effect on the foot strike pattern adopted. At slower running speeds, a rear-foot strike pattern is typically adopted, while at increasing running speeds individuals typically adopt a mid-foot to fore foot strike pattern (Keller et al., 1996; Nigg, Bahlsen, Luethi & Stokes, 1987).

Summary It should be understood that barefoot running is neither good or bad it’s just different. There are many reasons why a coach may want an athlete to incorporate some barefoot running into their training. My best advice, is that as barefoot running is the exact same as any other new training stimulus, it should be introduced and progressed gradually to avoid increased risk of injury.

Full Papers Available Rothschild, C.E., Primitive running: a survey analysis of runners’ interest, participation, and implementation.

J. Strength Cond Res, 2012. 26(8): p. 2021-2026.

De Wit, B., D. De Clercq, and P. Aerts, Biomechanical analysis of the stance phase during barefoot and shod running.

J Biomech, 2000. 33(3): p. 269-278.

Lieberman, D.E., et al., Foot strike patterns and collision forces in habitually barefoot versus shod runners.

Nature, 2010. 463(7280): p. 531-535.

Divert, C., et al., Barefoot-shod running differences: shoe or mass effect?

Int J Sports Med, 2008. 29(6): p. 512-518.

Kurz, M.J. and N. Stergiou, The spanning set indicates that variability during the stance period of running is affected by footwear. Gait Posture, 2003. 17(2): p. 132-135.

Kurz, M.J. and N. Stergiou, Does footwear affect ankle coordination strategies?

J Am Podiatr Med Assoc, 2004. 94(1): p. 53-58.

Shih, Y., K.L. Lin, and T.Y. Shiang, Is the foot striking pattern more important than barefoot or shod conditions in running? Gait Posture, 2013. 38(3): p. 490-494.

Kerrigan, D.C., et al., The effect of running shoes on lower extremity joint torques.

PM R, 2009. 1(12): p. 1058-63.

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LITER ATURE RE VIE W

ABOVE LEFT Zola Budd was notable for training and running in barefeet throughout her running career. More recently...

ABOVE RIGHT . . .Yemeni 5000m runner Abudllah Al-Qwabani has followed in her footsteps.

LEFT A number of specialist shoes have been developed to offer an equivalent experience to barefoot running, while still offering some physical protection.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

P LYO M E T R I C S FO U R S T U D I E S TH AT YO U M US T R E A D

This article will examine four key research papers on the benefits and sport-specific effectiveness of plyometric training. We will examine their findings and place the results in the context of the wider peer-reviewed literature and expert opinion on the topic.

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2 L O W A N D M O D E R AT E P LY O M E T R I C T R A I N I N G FREQUENCY PRODUCES G R E AT E R J U M P I N G AND SPRINTING GAINS COMPARED WITH HIG H FREQUENCY

E VA L U AT I O N O F P LY O M E T R I C E X E R C I S E TRAINING, WEIGHT TRAINING AND THEIR C O M B I N AT I O N O N VERTICAL JUMPING PERFORMANCE AND LEG STRENGTH Fatouros et al. 2000, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.

de Villarreal, Saez Saez, Gonzalez-Badillo & Izquierdo, 2008. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

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EFFECTS OF A P LY O M E T R I C S INTERVENTION PROGR AM ON SPRINT PERFORMANCE

R E S I S TA N C E T R A I N I N G A M O N G YO U T H AT H L E T E S : SAFETY EFFICACY AND INJURY PREVENTION EFFECTS

Rimmer and Sleivert. 2000, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Faigenbaum & Myer. 2009, Journal of Sports Medicine.

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LEFT Upper-body plyometric exercises are less well studied - but Vossen et al. (2000) found that plyometric push-ups increased throwing distance.

RIGHT Box jumps are a staple of a traditional plyometrics program for building lower body strength.

BELOW Plyometric medicine ball throws may be an effective way to develop the power and stability required to for block starts

ABOVE Velestrum et aspit, tem et, odiciassiur ant plabore iliqui ditae voluinum reperum.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

1 E VA L U AT I O N O F P LY O M E T R I C E X E R C I S E TRAINING, WEIGHT TRAINING AND THEIR C O M B I N AT I O N O N VERTICAL JUMPING PERFORMANCE AND LEG STRENGTH Fatouros et al. 2000, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.

Click here to read the full text

Vertical jumping ability has been correlated with success in High Jump and linked to acceleration and sprinting performance (Schiffer, 2009; Marques & Izquierdo, 2014). Previous research has indicated that both plyometric and weight training may improve vertical jump height and maximal leg strength (Anderst, Eksten & Koceja, 1994, but the most effective training method remained unclear (Clutch, Wilton, McGown & Bryce, 1983).

This study examined the effectiveness of plyometric training, weight training, and a combination of the two for improving leg strength and vertical jumping ability.

The authors found that both plyometric training and weight training improved vertical jump height and leg strength compared to the control group, but a combination of plyometrics and traditional leg exercises achieved the greatest improvements in the selected parameters.

The results indicate that long-term plyometric training is capable of improving vertical jumping ability, but its combination with weight training is even more beneficial

Key Finding 1

Key Finding 2

One needs to be weight trained to enjoy positive adaptations to plyometric training

Training intensity, volume, and exercise selection should follow the principle of progressive overload

The participants in this study had not previously undergone plyometric training, but had enough previous strength training to be able to sustain the necessary plyometric loads. The metric that the researchers used was to only include participants who were able to back-squat 1.5 times their body weight.

The authors attribute the successful outcomes observed for all treatment groups on the training model - starting with lower intensity exercises that worked single joints, and progressively increasing load and complexity. Training progressed from focusing on basic strength and exercise technique, to developing maximal strength and finally converting maximal strength to power.

The implication for coaches is that prior to commencing a plyometric program, you must ensure that your athlete has the required base strength to be able to handle the training load.

This finding is supported by Ford et al. (1983), who found no improvement from plyometrics training in untrained High School students.

The practical coaching implication is that exercises such as power jumps, snatches and push presses must be included in the training program to introduce power development once strength is sufficient (Bauer, Thayer & Baras, 1990)

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LITER ATURE RE VIE W

BELOW AND BELOW RIGHT Traditional gym and plyometric programs used in this study.

Exercise

Weeks Used

Exercise

Weeks Used

Barbell Squats Leg Presses Leg Curls Standing Calf Raises Jump Squats (with barbell) Cleans Snatches Push Presses Front/Side Lunges Step Ups Sitting Calf Raises Dead Lifts

1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 9 - 12 9 - 12 9 - 12 9 - 12 1 - 12 1 - 12 1 - 12 1 - 12

Squat Jumps

1 - 12

Jumps over Cones Repeat Triple Jumps Single Leg Hops Double Leg Hops Alternate Leg Bounds Depth Jumps Box Jumps

1 - 12 1 - 12 1 - 12 1 - 12 1 - 12 6 - 12 6 - 12

3 Training sessions per week Weeks 1-2 = 80 foot contacts Weeks 3-12 = 1 High Intensity (220 Foot Contacts) 2. Int. Intensity (150-170 Foot Contacts) 3. Low Intensity (120 Foot Contacts)

3 Training sessions per week 1. High Intensity (2 x 6, 1 x 4, 1 x 2) 2. Int. Intensity (2 x 10, 2 x 8) 3. Low Intensity (4 x 12)

Box jumps and depth jumps started at 30cm and progressed up to 80cm by week 12.

The combined group performed a plyometrics session, rested for 180 minutes, and then performed the weights session as described (above left).

Weeks 1-2 = 70% 1RM Weeks 3-12 = 80-95% 1RM

Key Finding 3 A combination of plyometric training and weight training on the same day did not result in any adverse effects

Results showed that combination training decreased ground time or the amortization phase between jumps (thereby decreasing the time that the feet were in contact with the ground between jumps). This adaptation might have occurred because of a better utilization of the stored elastic energy, resulting in a higher jump and increased flight time (and thus reduced ground time)

The general consensus when this article was published was that plyometrics and weight training should not be performed on the same day. This has evolved over the years with further evidence to support ‘Complex Training’, - combined plyometrics and weights program (Ebben, 2002).

The practical coaching implication from this study was that complex training may be advantageous and that performing plyometric activities prior to weights ensured that participants were able to perform the drills with the proper technique and full explosiveness.

21

ATHLETIC S COACH

It is critical for a coach employing plyometric exercises to understand the optimal training load to maximise training efficiency and prevent overtraining. It is understood that in traditional weight lifting training that moderate volume of training at high intensity can produce greater strength gains than low and high volume (GonzalezBadillo, Izuierdo & Gorostiaga, 2006) but evidence for optimal plyometrics training load is limited.

2 L O W A N D M O D E R AT E P LY O M E T R I C T R A I N I N G FREQUENCY PRODUCES G R E AT E R J U M P I N G AND SPRINTING GAINS COMPARED WITH HIG H FREQUENCY

This study examined the effectiveness of three different plyometric programs over a seven-week period - a 1 day per week program, a 2 days per week program, and a 4 days per week program.

de Villarreal, Saez Saez, Gonzalez-Badillo & Izquierdo, 2008. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

The authors found that all three training programs improved 20 metre sprint time with no significant difference in the improvement observed between plyometrics program. Therefore, the 1 day a week program was found the most efficient for improving sprinting performance.

Click here to read the full text

Jumping performance, as measured by a countermovement jump and drop jump, was significantly improved only in participants from the 2 days and 4 days per week programs.

However, there was no signficant difference in the improvement observed between programs, making the two day a week program the most efficient for coaches looking to improve jumping height.

The present results also showed improved sprint ability after shortterm plyometric training

Key Finding 4 BELOW The basic structure of the training session used by this study

More is not always better - Significant improvements in speed can be achieved with lower plyometric training frequency Significant improvement in 20 metre sprint time was achieved in just 7 weeks, using a training program that only trained for half an hour once a week with only 15 minutes of plyometric work.

The practical coaching implication for sprints coaches is that plyometrics may be most efficient when used in lower frequencies at higher intensities. This is especially important to know when you consider that the combination of plyometrics and traditional weight training is the most effective method to build leg strength, so it is important to achieve the best balance between the two methods of strength training.

Exercise

Time/Reps

Submaximal Running Dynamic Stretches Submaximal Long Jump Submaximal Vertical Jump Drop Jumps 20cm

5 mins 5 mins 10 20 2 x 10 [1min] 2 x 10 [1min] 2 x 10 [1min]

Drop Jumps 40cm Drop Jumps 60cm

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LITER ATURE RE VIE W

ABOVE 20 Metre sprint times for 1-day per week group (7S), 2-days per week group (14S) and 4-days per week group (28S), pre- and post- training and after 7 weeks detraining.

BELOW Optimum Elite Fitness demonstrate a simple Drop Jump, similar to the type used in this study.

Click on the video to view on Youtube.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

3 EFFECTS OF A P LY O M E T R I C S INTERVENTION PROGR AM ON SPRINT PERFORMANCE Rimmer and Sleivert. 2000, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Click here to read the full text

This study has been selected as an important resource for coaches as it provides a proposed mechanism for how plyometric training may improve sprinting performance. In addition, this study provides an evidence-based training program that can improve sprinting performance using sprinting-specific plyometric exercises.

The study examined 32 representative-level rugby or touch rugby players who had no recent history of plyometric training. They were assigned to either a control group, a plyometric training group or a sprint training group.

The study found that plyometric training resulted in signifcant improvement in 40 metre sprint times and was equally effective as sprint training in improving speed. The increase in speed from the plyometrics group was not explainable by increased stridge length or stride frequency, but by reduced ground contact time.

Sprint time over 40 m was significantly improved in the plyometrics group

Key Finding 5 The effects of a sprint-specific plyometrics program appear to be greatest over the initial acceleration period (0-10m) The authors attribute the improvement in sprinting performance noted in the plyometrics group primarily to the acceleration phase, where bounding exercises are likely to be most specific to running. This is believed to be because the two movements share similar ground contact times (longer than maximum speed running) and force production.

Conversely, the improvement in sprinting performance observed in the sprinting training group, was only observed between the 20-30 metre interval. This suggests that plyometrics and sprinting training may be improving different aspects of sprinting performance, supporting the argument for a combination of plyometrics and sprint training.

ABOVE The longer ground contact times of the acceleration phase may closely match the movement of bounding.

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LITER ATURE RE VIE W

BELOW Sprint-specific plyometrics program used in this study.

Week Exercise 1 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Double-leg Tuck Jump Double-leg Speed Jump Double-leg Tuck Jump Single-leg Tuck Jump Double-leg Speed Jump Double-leg Bound Single-leg Tuck Jump Double-leg Speed Jump Single-leg Hop Double-leg Bound Single-leg Tuck Jump Single-leg Hop Alternate-leg Bound Single-leg Hop Single-leg Speed Hop Alternate-leg Bound Alternate-leg Stairbound Single-leg Hop Single-leg Speed Hop Alternate-leg Bound Alternate-leg Stairbound Single-leg Hop Single-leg Speed Hop Alternate-leg Bound Sprint Bound Alternate-leg Stairbound Sprint Bound Single-leg Speed Hop Alternate-leg Stairbound

BELOW Sprint training regime used by the sprint group.

Sets x Reps 5x8 5x8 5x8 2x5 5x8 2x6 2x8 4 x 10 4x8 4x6 2x8 4x8 5x8 2x8 2x8 8x8 3x8 2x8 2x8 7 x 10 3 x 10 2x8 4x8 2 x 10 5 x 10 3 x 10 8 x 10 4x8 4 x 12

25

Week Distance

Reps

1

5 5 5 2 5 2 2 4 4 4 2 4 5 2 2 8 3 2 2 7 3 2 4 2 5 3 8 4 4

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

40 40 40 25 40 50 40 55 40 50 40 40 40 40 35 40 30 40 35 50 40 40 35 50 40 40 40 35 55

ATHLETIC S COACH

4 R E S I S TA N C E T R A I N I N G A M O N G YO U T H AT H L E T E S : SAFETY EFFICACY AND INJURY PREVENTION EFFECTS Faigenbaum & Myer. 2009, Journal of Sports Medicine.

Click here to read the full text

One of the challenges when coaching young athletes is identifying how to design appropriate conditioning sessions that develop physical competency in a safe and age-appropriate manner.

Plyometrics have been demonstrated to improve speed (Meylan & Malatesta, 2009), balance (Paterno et al., 2004) and strength (Matos & Winsley, 2007), however there has been limited research on the effect plyometric training may have on short-term and long-term physical health.

This literature review analyses the safety and injury prevention effects of a range of resistance training methods, such as free weights, weight machines and plyometrics.

The study found that plyometric training is a “relatively safe and effective� method of training for children and adolescents, provided the loads prescribed are appropriate and progressed gradually over time.

Advanced training programmes that include weightlifting movements and plyometrics are now recommended as part of performance-enhancing and injury-reducing youth programmes Key Finding 6

Key Finding 7

For optimal performance and health outcomes, load should never be of an intensity, volume or frequency that exceeds the athlete’s ability to perform technically sound movements

Coaches must not simply super-impose an adult-based program on children and should avoid treating children as minature adults Training Intensity for children should commence with low intensity drills and only when technique has been perfected and able to be repeated (including under fatigue) should children progress to more complex and intense exercises.

Progression from low-intensity to high-intensity should be followed every session.

The primary risk of injury from plyometrics was where the load was inappropriate for the developmental and training age of the athlete.

The authors give the example of a 12-year-old boy who developed exertional rhabdomyolysis after performing over 250 repetitive squat jumps in a physical education class.

Faigenbaum & Chu (2001) argue that training volume should commence with single sets of 6-10 reps and progress to multiple sets of 6-10 reps. Recovery should range from 120 seconds to 300 seconds when performing high eccentric loads. For young athletes, plyometrics should be conducted up to two times per week on nonconsecutive days (Faigenbaum, 2006).

Coaches should employ gradual progression with young athletes and place a heavy emphasis on correct technique. If the load or intensity is ever at a volume where correct technique is compromised, the activity should be stopped and volume must be decreased to prevent injury.

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Key Recommendations for Youth Plyometrics Participants must have the emotional maturity to accept and follow coach instructions Footwear must have good traction and support Begin the session with dynamic warm-up activities Include exercises for all of the major muscle groups, including hips, abdomen and lower back Focus should be on proper technique - not load Qualified supervisors should always monitor the athlete Qualified supervisors should observe the athlete and ammend the programme to make it more appropriate when load is excessive Lifestyle factors such as sleep, nutrition and hydration should be addressed

Sport-Specific Plyometrics Drop Jumps, Depth Jumps, Sprint Bound

18+ Years of Age

High Intensity Plyometrics Bounding, Multiple Unilateral Hopping

15-23 Years of Age

Complex Moderate Intensity Plyometrics Box Jumps and Obstacle Jumps

13-16 Years of Age

Moderate Intensity Plyometrics Bilateral Jumping and Hopping

11-14 Years of Age

Low Intensity Plyometrics Standing Jumps

8-11 Years of Age

Fundamental Movement Skills IAAF Kids’ Athletics Activities

5-9 Years of Age

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ABOVE Proposed progression of plyometrics for young athletes. Note that the years refer to the earliest age to introduce the selected activities and the range refers to the natural variation in developmental age of the individual athletes. e.g. a late developing athlete is not recommended to commence box jumps until 16 years of age.

ATHLETIC S COACH

SUMMARY YO U R TA K E AWAY M E SSAG E S

Major Finding 1 A combination of plyometrics training and traditional weight training is the most effectiveness method to increase leg strength and vertical jump height.

Major Finding 2 Plyometrics training once per week was enough to elicit a significant improvement in speed and there was no statistically greater improvement in participants training twice or four times per week.

Key Finding 1 An athlete may need to be adequately weight trained to enjoy positive adaptations to plyometric training.

Key Finding 2 Training intensity, volume, and exercise selection should follow the principle of progressive overload.

Key Finding 3 A combination of plyometric training and weight training on the same day, also known as ‘complex training’ did not result in any adverse effects Key Finding 4 More is not always better Significant improvements in speed can be achieved with lower plyometric training frequency.

Key Finding 5 The effects of a sprint-specific plyometrics program appear to be greatest over the initial acceleration period (0-10m).

Major Finding 3 Plyometrics training can improve the sprinting performance of an athlete, most likely as a result of decreased ground contact time.

Major finding 4 Plyometrics training is a relatively safe and effective form of training for junior athletes.

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Key Finding 6 For optimal performance and health outcomes, load should never be of an intensity, volume or frequency that exceeds the athlete’s ability to perform technically sound movements.

Key Finding 7 Coaches must not simply superimpose an adult-based program on children and should avoid treating children as minature adults.

ATHLETIC S COACH

V I B R AT I O N T R A I N I N G

EARLY 2000S FAD OR

VALUABLE TR AINING TOOL?

Whole body vibration training received considerable attention in the 2000s as a potential tool for increasing performance gains for competitive athletes. Even today, a Google search for suggested sprint training techniques will bring up opinion articles advocating for its use in performance athletes, making claims such as “the leaders in athletic development, as well as many elite, professional and recreational athletes, are using vibration training with tremendous success.” This article will examine what the peer-reviewed literature says about the effectiveness of whole body vibration training as a method to increase sprinting and jumping ability for performance athletes?

The Rationale Vibration exposure is believed to elicit rapid changes in muscle length, resulting in a muscle activation in an attempt to dampen the vibratory waves (Cardinale & Wakeling, 2005). It has been claimed that this results in the recruitment of almost 100% of a muscle’s fibres, whereas traditional resistance training results in considerably less, however it is not apparent where the evidence to support this claim is derived. Of particular interest to athletics coaches, it is also claimed that vibration between 30 and 50Hz is beneficial for the development of fasttwitch muscle fibres, resulting in improved maximal power and speed (Luo, McNamara & Moran; Giorgos & Elias, 2007).

“There does seem to be some evidence to suggest that vibration may provide a small benefit to maximal strength and power of trained athletes” Wilcock, Whatman, Harris & Justin (2009)

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LITER ATURE RE VIE W

Evidence Supporting its Use There have been a number of studies that support the use of vibration training to some degree for both untrained, trained and elite athletes.

Wilcock, Whatman, Harris & Justin (2009) conducted a meta-analysis and found that the use of vibration training in trained athletes was beneifical to develop maximal strength and power, but not sprinting speed.

Despina et al. (2014) demonstrated that in elite gymnasts, whole-body vibration resistance training was more effective than traditional resistance training in improving flexibility, strength and balance.

Dolny, Reyes & Cisco (2008) found that there was some improvement in jumping distance and sprinting speed in populations of untrained individuals.

Cochrane (2010) concluded that vibration exercise was a safe method to improve muscle function in untrained and trained athletes of all ages.

Jordan, Norris, Smith & Herzog (2005) stated that vibration training resulted in significant improvement in power output and induce signifcant changes in the resting hormonal profile of men.

Wyon, Guinan & Hawkey (2010) found that vertical jumping height was improved after 6-weeks of whole-body vibration training in moderately trained dancers.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

Evidence Against its Use Crow, Buttifant, Kearny & Hrysomallis (2012) found that whole-body vibration was significantly less effective than low load exercises targeting the gluteal muscle group at enhancing peak power output for professional athletes.

Despite the positive results of some studies, the current weight of research advocates for caution in the use of whole-body vibration due to weak or absent effect sizes.

Hortobagyi, Granacher & Fernandez-del-Olmo (2014) conducted a meta-analysis weighing the effectiveness of whole-body vibration training for competitive and elite athletes and found that there was little and inconsistent evidence that it improved performance.

Colson et al. (2010) concluded that vibration training had no effect on moderately trained basketball players jumping and sprinting performance (although it did improve knee extensor strength)

de Ruiter et al. (2003) found no signficant improvement in leg strength in healthy young participants.

Nordlund & Thorstensson (2006) conducted a systematic review of the effects of vibration training on well-trained sprinters and found no significant effect.

Coachrane, Legg & Hooker (2004) found that there was no signficant difference between a control group and a whole-body vibration training group in sprinting, jumping or agility tests after 9 days of training.

“The present scoping review found little and inconsistent evidence that acute and chronic WBV would improve athletic performance in competitive and/or elite athletes.�

Hortobagyi, Granacher & Fernandez-del-Olmo (2014)

Conclusion For those coaches who do choose to include wholebody vibration training - the following program was found by Giorgas & Elias (2007) to significantly improve running kinematics and explosive strength.

The weight of peer-reviewed studies support the conclusion that whole-body vibration training is not significantly more effective than traditional training methods for improving sprinting speed or jumping ability.

Generally when coaching well-trained athletes, there is little evidence to support the use of whole-body vibration training over other training methods.

However, vibration training may have some value to coaches as a source of variety and to achieve specific objectives. There is some evidence to support the use of vibration machines to build flexibility and certain strength parameters may be equally well achieved using vibration as it would with traditional resistance programs. Vibration machines can therefore be an interesting way to add variety to a program and may be an appropriate and safe option when coaching untrained athletes or recreational runners. Coaches should consider how closely their athletes match the circumstances of the participants in the successful studies to ensure the study findings are relevant to their practise.

Exercise

Sets x Reps

Rest

Unweighted Squat

3 x 40sec

60sec

60sec Standing with Flexed 3 x 40sec Knees (1200 angle) 3 x 40sec 60sec Standing on Left Leg (1200 angle) 60sec Standing on Right Leg 3 x 40sec (1200 angle) All exercises performed on vibration platform (30Hz)

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Celeste Mucci

ATHLETIC S COACH

TOP Kelsey-Lee Roberts produced a fantastic late throw to finish second at the Commonwealth Games behind Kathryn Mitchell.

MIDDLE Dani Stevens has been with coach Denis Knowles for 20 years and has established herself as one of the world’s best throwers.

BOTTOM Not just a great thrower, Matty Denny has also been involved in the IAAF Kids’ Athletics program in his local community.

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This article will examine three studies that have identified coaching strategies that result in improved performance in the throws events. The original full articles are available by clicking on the relevant box below.

1

IMPROVING THROWING PERFORMANCE TH R EE S T U D I E S TH AT S H O U LD I N FLU EN CE HOW YOU COACH THE THROWS AND ALL TRACK AND FIELD EVENTS

Current Research for Throws Coaches

EXTER AL FOCUS O F AT T E N T I O N ENHANCES DISCUS THROWING PERFORMANCE Zarghami et al. 2012, Kinesiology.

2 THROWING PEROFRMANCE A F T E R R E S I S TA N C E TRAINING AND DETRAINING Terzis et al. 2008, The Journal of S&C Research.

3 A S S O C I AT I O N S B E T WE E N JAV E LI N THROWING TECHNIQUE AND RELEASE SPEED Leigh, Liu & Yu, 2010, ISBS

In the January 2018 edition of Athletics Coach, Scott Martin spoke of the challenges of coaching the throws events.

Martin highlighted that not only does a throws coach have the requirement of possessing a strong understanding of strength and conditioning for power athletes, but that the throws are amongst the most technical events of Track and Field. To complicate matters further, throwers are particularly susceptible to overuse injuries (Morriss & Bartlett, 1999; Dai et al., 2015), meaning throws coaches must carefully manage load, while allowing for sufficient practice to develop the technical model and event-specific strength.

Unfortunately, when it comes to the peer-reviewed literature to support throws coaches, we are not blessed with an abundance of studies to determine best practice. Whereas sprinting and jumping are important components of a number of sports and attract considerable interest from a broad range of sports coaches and researchers, throwing for distance is of unique interest to Track and Field specialists.

Therefore, research that has been conducted in the throws tends to be published in Track and Field specific publications without the thorough peer-review process of some of the traditional exercise science journals. This can pose a challenge for throws coaches in determining the research that is reliable and trust-worthy to support their coaching practice.

This article looks at three studies from the last decade that have received a peer review and will assist throws coaches in improving the performance of their athletes. This article will hopefully offer you new strategies to improve the mental, physical and technical ability of your throwers.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

Promoting an external focus of attention has been shown to improve performance in a range of motor skills, such as basketball free throws, vertical jumps and standing long jumps (Wulf, 2007). This study looked at how discus thrower’s performance varied between an internal and external focus.

1 EXTER AL FOCUS OF AT T E N T I O N E N H A N C E S DISCUS THROWING PERFORMANCE

Internal Focus: When an athlete directs their attention to their body parts during the action. e.g.

“Concentrate on your wrist when you release the discus.”

Zarghami et al. 2012, Kinesiology: International Journal of Fundamental and Applied Kinesiology.

External Focus: When the athlete directs their attention to the outcome their action will have on their environment. e.g. “Concentrate on where the discus will land.”

The results...demonstrate that practioners and coaches can enhance their athlete’s performance by a simple change in the wording of instructions.

Key Finding 1

Key Finding 2

An external focus of attention significantly improves throwing distance

‘Constrained Action Hypothesis’ Conscious control of movement may restrict performance and learning

Discus throwing performance requires greater force production and effective inter and intramuscle coordination. Asking athletes to maintain an external focus of attention is believed to improve performance by facilitating more efficient muscular contraction and greater coordination.

This is consistent with the findings of Marchant (2011), who reviewed a number of studies to support the use of external focus to improve muscle coordination and force production.

The authors attribute the improved performance of the thowers under the external focus condition to the constrained action hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that any effort of conscious control of movement restricts the automatic process of motor control and decreases performance (Kal, van der Kamp & Houdijk, 2013). In practice, this is believed to be the difference between an athlete who appears to move ‘smoothly’ or ‘effortlessly’ and an athlete who appears to be tense and lack coordination.

The practical implication for all coaches is that an external focus of attention should be reinforced in athletes to improve athletic performance. Coaches should ask athletes to visualise the outcome of their action and avoid an internal focus during competition.

An important implication for coaches is that the constrained action hypothesis implies that focus not only effects performance outcomes, but also impacts learning outcomes. It is believed that an external focus of attention can allow for more rapid skill acquisition than an internal focus on a given task. The challenge for the coach is to use cues that avoid an internal focus such as, “focus on your hips”, and instead use cues that achieve the desired changes while maintaining an external focus during practice.

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LITER ATURE RE VIE W

As Scott Martin highlighted, the importance of an effective strength and conditioning program for throwers, especially at the elite level, can not be overstated. This study examined the effect of a strength and conditioning program on shot put performance in moderately trained 17 year old athletes and the effect of a four week taper period with no training.

2 THROWING PEROFRMANCE A F T E R R E S I S TA N C E T R A I N I N G AND DETRAINING

Key Finding 3

Terzis et al. 2008, The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.

Fat-Free Mass was closely related to Shot Put performance Fat-free mass was increased throughout the training program and this correlated significantly with the improvement in Shot Put performance - consistent with previous research (De Rose & Biazus, 1978).

This relationship has been demonstrated to be reliable for moderately and highly trained throwers (Terzis et al., 2003)

Key Finding 4 A four week detraining period with no exercise did not result in a statistically significant change in Shot Put performance increased. This may be an effective intervention to avoid a decrease in fat-free mass, while allowing for the increase in Type IIx muscle fibres observed in the taper period of participants in this study.

The authors suggest that a taper period prior to competition might be most effective where training frequency is decreased but intensity is

Exercise

Sets x Reps (Weeks 1-2)

Sets x Reps (Weeks 3-14)

Leg press (45o Incline)

2 x 10RM

3 x 6RM

Semi-Squat

2 x 10RM

3 x 6RM

Bench Press

2 x 10RM

3 x 6RM

Arm Curl

2 x 10RM

3 x 6RM

Overhead Press

2 x 10RM

3 x 6RM

Elbow Extensions

2 x 10RM

3 x 6RM

Seated Row

2 x 10RM

3 x 6RM

Sit Ups

2 x 20

3 x 20

Back Extensions

2 x 20

3 x 20

Rest: 2-3 minutes between sets, 3-4 minutes between exercises.

ABOVE The resistance training program used in this study to significantly improve Shot Put performance.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

The release speed of the object is the most important variable for determining the length of the throw in Javelin and the other throws events (Hay & Yu, 1995; Hubbard et al., 2001).

This analysis of trained male and female Javelin athletes analysed the factors, which resulted in the greatest release speeds.

3 A S S O C I AT I O N S B E T W E E N JAV E LI N TH ROWI N G TECHNIQUE AND RELEASE SPEED

Key Finding 5 The technical components of increasing release speed were different between men and women

Leigh, Liu & Yu, 2010, ISBS Conference Proceedings

The participants examined in this study revealed that fast release speeds were correlated with different factors for men and women. Female throwers were more likely to have a faster release speed when runway speed was maximised up to the block at left foot down. Release speed was also increased when force was applied to the javelin for longer by increasing the range of motion.

javelin through an increase range of motion in the thrower’s shoulder. The authors highlighted the importance of the thrower externally rotating and horizontally abudcting their shoulder prior to commencing the throwing action to maximise this range of motion and allow for a greater application of force.

Males were more likely to have a higher release speed when greater force was applied to the

Key Finding 6

For male javelin throwers greater release speeds were associated with: shorter times spent in single support, greater trunk forward tilts at release, greater hip-shoulder separations at release, more right shoulder horizontal abduction at right foot down and left foot down

There may be a point of diminishing returns on improving runway speed The authors noted that the lack of significant correlation between release speed and run up speed for male athletes may be as a result of the higher average run up speeds observed in male athletes. The implication of this hypothesis is that runway speeds that are too high may result in an excessive forward trunk lean as the athlete is unable to handle the higher speed. This results in a forward pitching of the trunk instead of the additional speed being successfully translated into higher release speeds of the javelin. Coaches may wish to consider focussing on developing run up speed in female and developing male athletes and once optimal speed has been obtained, transition to a greater focus on developing range of motion and arm biomechanics.

For female javelin throwers greater release speeds were correlated with: shorter times in double support and greater runway speeds at left foot down, greater hip-shoulder separations at right foot down, and smaller left leg angles at left foot down

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LITER ATURE RE VIE W

39

Cong ratulations Athletics Australia wishes to congratulate the following Accredited Coaches who have been recognised in the 2018 Queen’s Birthday Honours

Alan Makin OAM Regularly seen coaching at the track at the Sydney Academy of Sport, Alan Makin has been recognised for his services to athletes and to people with a disability. He has coached athletes with a disability at club and international level for over 20 years.

Lyn Foreman OAM Former international hurdler, Lyn Foreman has been awarded an OAM for services to athletics, including contributions as national coach, 20 years with the Western Australian Institute of Sport and coach education facilitator. Lyn has also been a highly valued contributor to this publication.

Terri Cater OAM Olympic athlete Terri Cater has received an OAM for her service to athletics including her role as Athletics Australia team coach and Athletics International committee member.

Elsie Seriat OAM Elsie received an OAM for her service to the indigenous community of Thursday Island. Elsie started the Deadly Running Group with aim of promoting and fostering a healthy lifestyle to the community.

Matty Denny

ATHLETIC S COACH

COMPONENTS OF SUCCESS IN THE 100M Originally published in the December 2016 edition of Athletics Coach, The Academy of Sport Speed and Agility Australia Training Director, Ranell Hobson shares her expertise in achieving sprinting excellence.

Traditional Phases of the 100m

have an advantage in the maximum velocity phase due to a longer stride length. Elite sprinters have a high mesomorphy, with greater relative muscle mass in the thighs (Bird, 2002), usually having longer legs relative to body height and have on average 70 – 80% Type II muscle fibres (Bosch & Klomp, 2005). This is logical considering that sprinting is composed of 5-10% aerobic ability and 90-95% anaerobic ability (Maughan & Gleeson, 2004).

The 100m sprint has four distinct phases that should be addressed by the coach - the start, the acceleration phase, the transition phase and the maximum velocity phase (Winkleman, 2009). The acceleration out of the blocks is depicted by a piston action of the legs (triple extension of the hips, knees and ankles), whilst the transition and maximum velocity phase is a cyclical action where the athlete steps up and over the opposing knee. Throughout the event the athletes arms drive forward and backward (shoulder flexion and extension) and remain near ninety degrees at the elbow (although there is much deviation from this during acceleration), for the majority of the event (Winkleman,2013).

Factors Affecting Sprint Performance Optimal sprint performance depends on both controllable and non-controllable factors. Research has identified specific anthropometric and physiological characteristics which are seen as advantageous for success in each phase of the event. Although there is no optimum height for elite sprinting in either the male or female event, there is a range that would preclude very short or very tall athletes (Uth, 2005).

Usain Bolt is the tallest elite sprinter at 196cm (Mackata & Mero, 2013). Within this range, shorter athletes have an advantage at the start, as the shorter swing thigh has an increased velocity and stride rate whereas taller athletes

42

FLASHBACK

Maintaining Talent Although one may be born with all the anthropometrical, fibre type and somatotype requirements to become an elite sprinter, this may only maintain them through the junior ranks of athletics where early success, in most part, is driven by natural abilities and an advantageous physique (MacNamara, Button and Collins, 2010). Maintaining talent beyond this requires passion, motivation and dedication to training.

The high level of commitment required to sustain daily deliberate practice and physiological conditioning over many years, highlights Maintaining talent...requires the crucial role that psychoand a dedication to training. behavioural characteristics will have on achieving elite performance (Abbott, 2006).

Perseverance during challenging times, a desire to be the best, a willingness to work hard far beyond one’s comfort zone and a maturing athlete who takes responsibility for their own training and development and understands the sacrifices required to be the very best are characteristics of elite 100m sprinters (Dweck, 2007; MacNamara & Button, 2010).

Force Production is Critical Research conducted on world class 100m performances discuss the mutually dependant parameters of stride length and stride frequency in determining speed (Young, 2007; Smiriotou et al. 2007; Majumdar & Robergs, 2011; Mackata & Mero, 2013; Clark et al. 2013; Morin et al.

2015). The important training factors arise out of how athletes increase either stride length or stride frequency, or both.

Through much research, sport scientists agree the most important training factor contributing to an increase in stride length is force.

The physical capacity of an athlete to apply a summation of forces generated by the body into the ground, in the correct direction, to propel the athlete forward, seems most important. Weyard et al. (2000) “More force equals more speed”; Young (2007) “Magnitude and direction of force”; Smirniotou et al. (2007) “Force production is critical”; Morin et al.(2012) elite sprinters are “more effective at applying force”; Clark et al. (2013) “it is the magnitude and rate of ground force application”.

It is evident that the best sprinters apply more force in a shorter period of time, and that increased force applied in the right direction increases both stride length and stride frequency (Young, 2007).

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passion, motivation

ATHLETIC S COACH

Eradicate Useless Mass Performance Factor

Measurement Tests/Tools

Acceleration (Speed Strength)

Squat jump; Countermovement jump; Starting 10m sprint; Starting 30m sprint

Maximum Velocity

Flying 30-40m sprint with 20-30m acceleration zone

Mechanical Efficiency

Video analysis of technique including posture, foot strike, foot recovery and swing phase

Psychological Behaviours

Questionnaires and professional conversations to assess coachability, work ethic, competitiveness, self-control, mental strength and focus (TOPS;EASDQ; POMS)

TA B L E A Recommended tests for identifying the physical and psyhological capacities.

Research on the fastest sprinters in the world show they have the capacity to produce extremely high ground reaction forces per kg of body weight (Morin. et al. 2015) Hence having a lean body mass and eliminating ‘useless’ mass is important. This sends a clear message to coaches that time spent in the development of efficient sprint mechanics and the development of relative strength and power is critical in achieving elite 100m sprint performance.

Sprinting at top speed is a highly coordinated activity and therefore the patterning over increasing distances in efficient sprint mechanics is crucial in training the neuromuscular system to maintain high excitations of muscular contractions for the duration of the race (Bird, 2002; Majumdar & Robergs, 2011).

Mechanics and Measurement Morin et al. (2012) studied the important mechanics associated with 100m sprint success and determined three resulting factors: 1) having a velocity oriented “force-velocity” profile, 2) the capacity to apply ground reaction forces that deliver horizontal propulsion during acceleration and 3) a greater cadence due to a shorter ground contact time. The physical capacity to deliver each of these determinants at an elite level requires a finely tuned neuromuscular system, a large power to weight ratio and close to perfect mechanics.

The measurement of these performance factors is typically a faster finishing time for the event. However coaches should assess individual physical and psychological capacities to determine the strengths and weaknesses within an athlete’s development. This can be done by utilising the tests and tools in Table A. These tests will assist in identifying key training factors for program planning.

LITER ATURE RE VIE W

Event Requirements The 100m sprint requires the athlete to have a quick reaction time to an auditory signal, explosive starting and acceleratory strength, high velocity stride frequency and the power to generate maximum force in the right direction to generate both vertical and horizontal propulsion (Bird, 2002; Young 2007).

The psychological strength of the athlete is tested through the rigors of training and competition. As the athlete moves forward through the rounds (heats, semi-final and final), it is my experience that this has a significant role in the success of the athlete.

List of Training Factors Physical

Lower and upper body strength Speed and power Speed endurance Flexibility and mobility Core strength Body composition

Technical

Block start and clearance Acceleration Transition to maximum velocity Foot strike to toe off and swing phase

Psychological strength is required in the training leading up to a major event, in the call room, behind the start line and in hte maintenance of composure by staying relaxed through the event.

Athletic posture Arm drive

Summary

Tactical

Research that has been conducted on elite performances in the 100m sprint highlights the important training factors for success as i) sprinting mechanics, ii) strength, iii) power, iv) neuromuscular conditioning (speed and speed endurance), and v) psycho-behavioural tools.

Psychological

Warm up and call room routine Process orientated race plan Commitment Goal setting Imagery Focus Confidence TA B L E B Training factors for achieving sprinting success

ATHLETIC S COACH

COOL DOWN 46

LITER ATURE RE VIE W

The active cool down has become an entrenched component of an athletics session and is widely believed to be an effective tool to assist post-exercise recovery. However, a growing base of peerreviewed literature is raising question marks on this claim.

In April, van Hooren and Peake (2018) published a literature review of the current evidence assessing the effectiveness of the cool down for performance athletes. The researchers found that most evidence indicates that active cool-downs do not significantly reduce muscle soreness or improve recovery. However, there may be some benefits of an active cool down that coaches should still take into account when designing their training sessions.

The review found that an active cool down did lead to an increase in the removal of lactate in blood, but it is not apparent whether this is of any benefit to athletes as it is not necessarily removed faster from muscle tissues and it is unclear whether this is responsible for postexercise lethargy or nausea.

There is some evidence that a cool down can increase the rate of recovery of the cardio and respiratory systems, but there is only weak evidence to suggest that this has any active benefit to athletes. Two studies out of 16 identified cool downs as important for reducing post-exercise muscle soreness, but both used smaller sample sizes and have been contradicted by the weight of research.

The Evidence

Support Faster removal of lactate in blood, but unknown practical relevance for athletes.

No Evidence to Support No significant improvement in sleep, mood, same-day or nextday performance, hormone concentration, sweat rates, stiffness, range of physical motion or muscle glycogen resynthesis.

Weak Support An active cool-down may enhance the long-term adaptive response Very Weak Support 14 out of 16 studies showed no significant attenuation of muscle soreness post-exercise

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Cool Down Recommendations 1.

2.

3.

4.

It is difficult to recommend one optimal cool-down protocol for all situations, as the mode, intensity and duration will all be dependant on the preceding activity and the individual preference of the athletes. There is evidence to suggest that you should engage the same muscles that have been targeted during the session at approximately 30% of the intensity of the main session (Mika et al., 2016; Murray, Turner, Sproule & Cardinale, 2017).

Coaching Implication Select a low intensity activity that engages the same muscles being targeted in the main session.

Coaching Implication Use dynamic activities to increase blood flow, but keep intensity low enough to avoid additional fatigue. Similarly, activities should involve low mechanical impact to prevent further muscular damage van Hooren and Peake (2018).

Avoid high impact activities such as repeated accelerations, jumping or fast changes of direction.

Research supports the use of foam rolling to reduce delay onset of muscle soreness, increase range of motion, improve athlete’s self-perception of recovery and improve athletic performance the following day (MacDonald et al., 2014; Rey et al., 2017). Further information is available in your Level 2 Intermediate Club Coach and Recreational Running materials.

Coaching Implication

Static stretching used as part of a cool down is unlikely to reduce muscle soreness and does not prevent degenerative injuries (Dawson et al., 2005). However, that is not to say activities such as yoga or pilates have no value in an athlete’s program.

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Incorporate a foam roller into the cool down or after a session to aid recovery and improve performance.

Coaching Implication Understand the appropriate time to incorporate static stretching and the rationale for its use.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

“Travelling to compete on the world athletics circuit sounds exciting but it is full of challenges for the High Performance athlete and their coach. It is important to get things right as errors can compound very quickly when living away from home in different countries. It is easy to go off the rails and difficult to get back on track in a strange environment.�

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OPINION

PERFORMING IN EU RO P E : AT T I T U D E AND APPROACH DETERMINES SUCCESS Legendary jumps coach Gary Bourne has guided Mitchell Watt and Bronwyn Thompson to Australian records and championship medals. He also recently steered Henry Frayne to Commonwealth Games silver, and these are just three of his success stories over a long coaching career.

Gary has been travelling on the international circuit with his athletes for 24 years and knows what is takes for athletes to deliver. With the European season underway, Gary explains that ‘there is nothing magic about performing in Europe.’

If the athlete is not in shape for whatever reason, stay home and train until they are - you will save yourself a lot of money, time and frustration.

Before Departure Arriving in Europe in very good shape is the number one rule for a successful campaign. This means being toward the end of your specific physical conditioning phase of training when specific loads are reasonably high – for us this means our running speed and jumping / bounding and strength in the gym are close to PB shape. We train hard right up to the day before we leave Australia.

In my days of coaching Bronwyn Thompson, I developed a routine for long haul travel that involved getting up every two hours and spending 30 minutes down the back of the plane, standing and doing some light stretching and a few light (generally isometric) exercises. When in Singapore / Dubai or at other stop-overs, we would go into the airport gym and cycle / exercise and then shower & eat before re-boarding. If facilities were not available, we would walk for an hour or so.

Travel Tips to Prepare you to Continue Training The travel is long (24 hours or more in total) and arduous. For athletes with a history of back and hamstring issues it is important that they invest in their upcoming campaign by upgrading (at their own expense) to business (at least on the way over) or at least seats with more leg room for younger HP athletes. It is better to fly via Asia with a night’s stopover and the business class tickets are cheaper.

There was only one sleep on the flights over, minimum consumption of airline meals, no coffee and definitely no alcohol. It worked well. You arrived tired but not stiff and sore. Sleep can be had at the end of the first day in Europe, but you arrive ready to get on with training.

Off the plane we continue with a program I call “time-zone adaptation”. It is just getting the body and mind into the new time zone (8-9 hours different to Australia). If we arrive in the morning (usual), we start that afternoon. We do three days of tempo running (10x100’s @ 80%), followed by a gym

This year Henry Frayne flew Australia - Shanghai – Moscow – Milan business class for a considerable saving. He will fly back to Australia in cattle class after Stockholm, but he achieved his aim of arriving in Europe in good shape without any body sync issues, ready to continue training.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

distracted by watching what everyone else is doing in training or at the warm-up track for competition.

day and then a faster running day. On day 6 we jump if everything is feeling OK. This is followed by a rest day. Then we are ready to compete a couple of days later or train until you do like at home.

They see other athletes doing different drills and they start to believe these things actually make a difference. I have observed this stuff for 24 years on the circuit now and never seen drills make any difference to performance unless they have been specifically developed to solve an individual technical issue an athlete may have.

Maintaining Physical and Mental Shape In Europe we continue with a training load like at home during a domestic season. There is a travel / rest day and then a warm-up only day before any competition day and competitions are followed by another travel/ rest day. I do an additional day’s taper only once during the European preparation for the championship – always for a single targeted meet where we are expecting good conditions and a good performance. I will do a light week and then a 3-day taper the next week for a major championship. It is the same program I follow at home during the domestic season.

I feel the most valuable trait for an athlete to have to compete successfully on the circuit is selfbelief. Much of this comes from knowing you have prepared well and are in great shape.

Henry has great belief in his own ability and when he is in shape I believe he is capable of beating anybody as he has a fierce competitive nature to go with it. The difference between 8.30m and 8.50m is some speed and technique, but it also attitude.

Successfully managing the hiccup of long haul travel and adjustment to a new time zone is the key to starting off on the right foot. Getting on the plane in very good physical shape, getting off and managing the transition back to training with minimal reduction in load, provides the foundations for a good international season.

I believe that an athlete in good physical and mental condition can compete well anywhere in the world on any track and in any stadium

Attitude and Self Belief Athletes who are in shape are most likely to come unstuck on the circuit when they start to second guess their training and program. They don’t really believe in what they are doing and become

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OPINION

Training Base and Cooking Managing diet is another important factor. I already mentioned not over-eating on the plane and getting the diet right is just as important when you land. We used to rent a house from a lady in Cologne for our small group. This enabled us to cook our own meals and for the coach to keep an eye on the athletes’ diets. They were great tours with Chris Noffke (8.33m-LJ Former Wold Youth Champ), Briggsy (Kane Briggs 16.97m-TJ, 2.24m-HJ), Mitch Watt (8.54m-NR LJ), Henry Frayne & Dan Greenwood (Biomechanist). These days Airbnb seems to be the option for everyone as there is no central training base. Key training base considerations for my athletes are weather, access to facilities, familiar medical and relative closeness of several airports with discount European airlines.

Houses or apartments, such as AirBNB, are better than hotels as athletes and coaches can prepare meals as they do at home. If in Italy it is worth bringing a can of protein (approved) as well, as the local food, with most of the cheaper options being pasta and pizza, does not contain much protein and meat / chicken can be expensive.

customs. Don’t expect things to be like they are at home. Be well mannered and courteous at all times wherever you are, and the locals will generally be welcoming. Make sure you dress in a manner that is respectful of local customs or beliefs. Boys should dress tidily and don’t walk around or train without your shirt on and girls should dress conservatively outside your training venues, so you don’t attract unwanted attention in some countries.

Be well mannered and courteous at all times, wherever you are Do what the locals do. Be flexible – in Italy they eat meals much later than in Australia and most shops are closed between 1-4pm then opening until 9.00pm. Stay away from street food and cheap take-away food as a stomach virus can cost you dearly. Henry Frayne lost a week of training and about 7kg in the last 14 days before the Glasgow Commonwealth Games and it completely de-railed his campaign.

Cultural Appreciation but No Street Food The travelling HP athlete needs to be adaptive to new cultures and different environments and

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BELOW Bronwyn Thompson achieved her career best jump of 7.00m under the coaching of Gary Bourne.

ATHLETIC S COACH

Rest Over Physio Just because there is a free physio or massage available, don’t over-use it. Try to stick to the same routine you follow when at home in Australia.

Henry has had much less physio in Europe this tour than he does in Australia. There is more time for recovery and rest before and after training and this will help in the macro-tapering between high level competitions and it will help bring about the best performances.

You are privileged to be there and there is an entire history of parents, family, supporters, friends, institutes and academies back home who have contributed to getting you there

Athletes’ Form and Sticking to the Competition Plan It is essential that the coach controls the competition program. Good form does not mean an increased capacity for competitions.

Touring HP athletes are professionals, and this is their job. The European circuit is the only real test of their mettle and the only place to genuinely impress the world. Fiercely defend that opportunity as an athlete because if you don’t you may never get another one.

In a championship year I prefer a program of compete, compete, two weeks training, compete, compete and then into the team holding camp for 3 weeks training before the championship. However, this very much depends on how the athlete travels.

Professional Athlete Versus Tourist

You are privileged to be there and there is an entire history of parents, family, supporters, friends, Institutes and Academies back home who have contributed to getting you there over your life to date. Honour that support through giving your European campaign and the championship at the end your total focus and effort toward being the best you can be. That will be appreciated far more by all involved compared to a host of pictures of you in tourist spots, in restaurants or drinking coffee.

Travelling athletes can get off track by forgetting the reason they came to Europe in the first place. To stay on track the athlete has to live life as normal as possible.

When I see athletes eating out too often, putting on weight, doing the tourist spots at the expense of prioritising training, sitting around focussed on planning their holiday post the championship, rather than focussing on their upcoming performance at the championship, or going out regularly at night, I get concerned. I am concerned about where their focus is, and I have seen it often enough to know it will end badly for them when they get to the big stage. 3 weeks training before the championship.

Promise yourself a holiday after the championship as a reward for your good performance at the championship! Make it a motivating factor and not an end-in-itself.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

BUILDING SPEED THREE WAYS TO HELP MA XIMISE THE SPRINTING A B I LIT Y O F YO U R ATH LE TE S

Speed is an essential component for most sports and events of Track and Field.

However, evidnece suggests that speed is less ‘trainable’ than other skills (Moran, Sandercock, Rumpf & Parry, 2017), highlighting the importance of an efficient training regimen to assist athletes to reach their genetic ceiling (Haugen, Tonnessen & Seiler, 2015).

This article will examine three methods that coaches can employ to maximise their athlete’s top speed and acceleration.

1.

Build Strength in the Athlete’s Posterior Chain

intensity set of exercises could effectively activate the gluteal muscle group and result in increased peak power output in a subsequent activity. This study also supported the hypothesis that lower limb movements such as jumping and sprinting are affected by gluteal power and activation.

When it comes to maximising your athlete’s top-end running speed, the posterior chain (P-Chain) plays an essential role. The gluteus maximus, gluteus medius and hamstring complex has been found to be especially important for increasing stride frequency by allowing for a greater acceleration of the leg moving forward during swing (Dorn, Schache & Pandy, 2012).

The exercises used in this study are listed below and the authors recommend them to be performed in the athlete’s warm up:

One of the challenges for coaches, is being able to activate this muscle group to improve performance on competition days or to prepare the body for an intense training session. Crow, Buttifant, Kearny & Hrysomallis (2012) found that a simple, low

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Exercise

Sets x Reps

Double Leg Bridge

1 x 10

Side Lying Hip Abduction Stability Ball Wall Squats Hip Abduction “Dirty Dog” Lower Extremity Lift Side Gluteal Clam Single Leg Hip Extension

1 x 10 1 x 10 1 x 10 1 x 10 1 x 10 1 x 10

OPINION

For running greater than 7m s-1, the gluteus maximus and hamstrings are essential for increasing stride frequency by accelerating movement of the hip and knee joints.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

Other exercises that are likely to be appropriate for glute activation include planks, side planks, straight and bent-leg lateral band walks and glute marches, provided intensity remains low. The objective is to activate without evoking fatigue.

Can be done unweighted for untrained/young athletes

When it comes to building strength in the hamstrings and gluteus maximus, the American National Strength and Conditioning Association recommends the following exercises for untrained to moderately trained participants: Squats: A variation of back squats, front squats, barbell squats, rear-foot elvated squats or other variations.

Lunges: Forward lunges, reverse lunges, walking lunges and clock lunges are particularly effective for working the glutes and hamstrings

Deadlifts: Widely considered to be one of the most efective ways to build posterior chain strength (not too many other common gym exercises target the hamistrings like a deadlift) and can be done with a range of stances and grips for variation. The challenge for the coach is knowing when an athlete is ready to handle deadlifts as they can be one of the more dangerous exercises if technique is incorrect. Starting with a hip hinge is recommended for untrained or younger athletes.

Hip Thrusts: We had a detailed look at the advantages of hip thrusts for sprinters in the January edition of Athletics Coach so flick back to the previous edition for an analysis and instructions on how to best perform this drill for track and field athletes.

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OPINION

“The hip thrust has become an increasingly popular exercise that builds strength in the gluteus maximus, hamstrings and quadriceps”

ABOVE LEFT Deadlifts require a strong base of strength to perform correctly and coaches should work with exercise professionals to ensure their athlete can handle the high load.

ABOVE Early evidence from longitudinal studies suggest hip thrusts may be an effective tool for building speed.

RIGHT Squats are considered by many S&C coaches as the “master exercise” and one of the most widely used exercises for strength in the gluteus maximus. Technique is very important so having your athlete work with an S&C specialist to develop technique is beneficial for injury prevention and to optimise gains.

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2.

Focus on Acceleration

The athlete’s posture changes significantly between acceleration and top-speed running and coaches need to ensure that their athletes have the correct technique and required strength for both phases.

Block Clearance From the set position (Figure A), the athlete should be positioned to deliver the maximum amount of force possible into the pedals.

You should be able to draw a straight line from the ankle, up the shin and through the middle of the shoulder joint at an angle of approximately 45 degrees. Stronger and shorter athletes may be able to tolerate lower angle. Encourage the athlete to push back hard through their heels to minimise drop of the shin on initial launch.

The athlete should launch into a high position with the shoulders moving along the ~45 degree angle (Figure B). The ankle, knee and hip should be in a straight line with the force moving in the same direction to maximise velocity and distance of the takeoff.

athlete’s arms are not doing what they should.

Powerful arm action that results in big splits between the athlete’s arm and legs assist the athlete to balance and are a great indication that the high force and extension required to drive the athlete forwards are being achieved.

Initial Strides Ground contact of the foot should occur under or just behind the hip. One common issue coaches need to be aware of is the shin of the leading leg being cast out for in front of the body and landing in front of the hip (Figure C).

This causes the athlete to have to drag themselves forward with their hamstrings, resulting in increased ground contact time and energy loss through the system.

Shin Angle The best explanation of shin angles during acceleration that I have heard was by Jimson Lee, who compared acceleration to pushing a car stuck in the snow. The natural position someone will take when trying to push will be with their lower body, spine and shin all leaning forward at approximately 45 degrees. This allows for the generation of much greater force than if someone was trying to push in an upright posture. As generating force to propel the athlete forwards is the essential component of acceleration, this is the posture that we want to achieve in our sprinters.

Arm Action You are never going to be able to get the desired body posture for acceleration if the

49.60 ABOVE (FIGURE A) An amateur athlete in the ‘Set’ position.

FA R R I G HT (FI G U R E B) The initial stride with the ankle, knee, hip and shoulder on a ~45 degree angle.

RIGHT (FIGURE C) An amateur athlete overstrides with their foot in front of their hips. Observe the shin angle of the front leg.

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OPINION

38.90 58.70

Acceleration As the athlete accelerates, the coach should look for the following points: • • • •

Decreased ground contact time Increased stride length Increase height of heel recovery Increased upright posture with every stride

American Sprints coach Chidi Enyia describes the acceleration phase as one where “no step should look like the step that preceded it.” As the athlete increases their velocity, the kinematics should also change with every stride. The transition to maximum speed running should be smooth and come naturally to the athlete - coaches need to be aware not only of athletes rising too quickly, but also of athletes staying a low position for too long.

ABOVE Compare the body posture and shin posture of the athlete’s in this image - what improvements can be made?

RIGHT Stronger athletes will often have lower angles as they are able to generate more force BELOW RIGHT Casey Atkins at the 2011 Australian Junior Championships.

The athlete is to be instructed to rise the hips and shoulders with every single step Chidi Enyia

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40.10

40.20

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As acceleration is heavily determined by the angle of the body and the explosive strength of the athlete, developing power and technique is essential for performance.

Athletes are never too young to begin developing their acceleration and the challenge for the coach is to select ageappropriate activities that correspond with the athlete’s developmental age.

Games-based Approach For young athletes and beginners, there are a number of fun games that can introduce the low-to-high movement of acceleration and work on building their agility, balance, coordination and strength required to accelerate.

Sally and Steve - Alter the starting position to add variety and additional challenge, working towards the low to high motion we want to see in block starts.

Rob the Nest - By keeping distances short, this activity can be a great way to have young athletes perform multiple accelerations in a fun manner. Having the participants collect an item off the ground in the centre achieves the low to high motion as they sprint back to their starting position.

Short Sprint Training It may seem obvious, but you could not find a more specific exercise for acceleration than repeated sprint starts. Sprint programs with repetitions no longer than 20 metres have been found to significantly improve acceleration in previously trained athletes after eight weeks (Spinks et al., 2007). The program that they used is included below.

Week Exercise Reps x Sets Rest 1

8

5m 10m 15m 20m 5m 10m 15m 20m

4x2 4x1 5x1 3x1 5x2 4x2 3x2 3x2

Speed/Agility Training A combination of sprint and agility training has been demonstrated to be an effective method to develop acceleration in untrained adolescents (Venturelli, Bishop & Pettene, 2008) and highly trained sportsmen over a four week program (Buchheit et al., 2010).

Week Exercise

Reps x Sets Rest

1

3x1 3x1 (40sec)3 x 1 4x2 4x2 (60sec)4 x 2

3

10m 5m Shuttle Agility Jump 10m 5m Shuttle Agility Jump

3min 3min 3min 3min 3min 3min

Plyometrics There is strong evidence to support the use of plyometrics to improve acceleration speed (Rimmer & Sleivert, 2000; de Villareal et al., 2008). See the article on plyometrics in this edition of Athletics Coach for more information.

Resistance Training Athletics coaches should always use a strength and conditioning expert to design an appropriate program to meet the needs of the individual athlete. The goal of any resistance training should be to gain functional strength and power while avoiding the addition of excessive mass.

Highly respected sprints coach, Stephen Francis recommends training mostly with free weights as he believes that this better resembles the sprinting action. A list of resistance exercises that he uses for senior athletes (18 years and over) can be found below:

Exercises

45sec Walk Back Walk Back Walk Back 45sec 60sec 90sec 120sec

Split Squats Deadlifts Single-leg Deadlifts Core exercises with medicine ball Front Squats Jump Squats

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Single leg Squats Cleans Lunges Straight-leg Hip Extension Bench Press Step ups

OPINION

3.

Develop the Running Posture

Coaches who have completed a Level 1 Community Athletics Coach or Level 1 Run Leader course recently would know that we prioritise getting the running posture of our athletes and runners right, from day one. One of the great sprinting coaches, Tom Tellez said that posture is the first and foremost aspect of speed and is a critical component for improving running efficiency, power production, elastic energy production, injury prevention and relaxation.

Tellez’s claims have been supported by peerreviewed evidence over the last two decades, all highlighting the importance of developing the correct running posture in your athletes (Novacheck, 1998; Watson, 2001; Hardin, Van Den Bogert & Hamill, 2004; Nakayama, Kudo & Ohtsuki, 2010; Farris & Sawicki, 2011;Teng & Powers, 2015)

Morin, Edouard & Samozino (2011) identified that posture played a critical role in sprinting success.

Correct running posture enhanced the generation of force in the desired orientation, resulting in improved speed output. A notable finding from this study was that the orientation of the force applied was more important for generating speed than the amount of total force generated - highlighting the important role correct running posture plays for sprinting success.

An athlete is never too young to focus on improving their posture. In fact, this is a skill that it is highly recommended to focus on with young athletes. Poor running posture can be a difficult habit to break, so it’s essential to develop positive habits early. If you do have an older athlete come to you with posture that needs correction, be patient and use the recommended training progressions on the page BELOW Asafa Powell is a good below to slowly develop the required example of a tall, relaxed and technique and body strength. upright posture

ATHLETIC S COACH

1

2

3

1

2

3

SKIPPING

A-SKIPS

STR AIGHT LEGS

4

5

6

HILL SPRINTS

WICKETS

MEDICINE BALL

Skipping on the spot or skipping moving forwards are great activities for building strength, coordination, agility and improving the athlete’s posture for sprints. It can be included as part of a dynamic warm up or as part of a circuit.

4

One of the most common sprinting drills - additional focus on posture can be achieved by asking the athlete to perform the drill with their hands on their hips or behind their head.

5

Not only a great drill for working on the desired fast leg action, this drill can also assist build the required strength in the core for holding the desired running posture.

6

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World class sprinting coach, Glen Mills recommends including a hill sprints session every week with his elite athletes to improve strength and running posture. Distances are kept short when focusing on posture- no longer than 40 metres for his sprinters.

Wickets are most commonly used to improve the athlete’s front-side mechanics and stride length/ frequency, but can also improve the running posture by asking the athlete to perform wickets with arms up above their heads.

For highly respected sprinting coach Stephen Francis, core work that assists with posture while simultaneously building power is key. He recommends using medicine ball exercises such as twists, overhead throws and jumping exercises holding the medicine ball.

OPINION

What do the Jamaicans do?

Stephen Francis’s training philosophy for athletes 18 years and over places a heavy emphasis on technique and speed endurance. A general training week is included below: *This is his training program for elite athletes and is provided for your general information, not to be copied for junior or developing athletes.

Monday (split between am and pm sessions) • • • • •

Hill sprints (30-40m) Dynamic Stretching Core Free Weights Plyometrics

Tuesday (split between am and pm sessions) • • • •

400, 350 or 300 (no more than 6 reps) Core Med ball exercises Drills / Form Runs

Wednesday (split between am and pm sessions) Other drills that may be effective for improving running posture include Marching, A-Runs and B-Skips.

For a greater emphasis on posture, ask the athlete to perform the drill with their hands behind their head.

This forces the athlete into a tall posture and engages the torso and hips.

Visual Cues One of the best ways to help athletes learn is to film them running and play it back to them to watch. Providing a visual reference so the athlete can see what they are doing is a great way to help them make the required changes.

There’s no need for expensive equipment, most smartphones and tablets have in-built slow motion playback and basic editing features that lets you highlight important features. When coaching young athletes, ensure that you have the permission of the child and parents prior to filming or taking still images.

• • •

Thursday (split between am and pm sessions) • • •

Circuit training (body weight exercises) Med ball exercises Drills / Form Runs

Friday (split between am and pm sessions) • • • • •

Sled work Dynamic Stretching Core Free weights Plyometrics

Saturday (am only) • •

Free weights Slow speed endurance

Sunday •

Verbal Cues Verbal cues can provide ongoing feedback throughout the session to remind the athletes of what you are after. “Run Tall”, “Keep your Hips High”, “90 degree angles”, “Nice and Relaxed” are effective cues.

250, 200 or 150 (no more than 8 reps) Hill running Free weights

Rest

Francis usually keeps maximum speed distance to 30m but does go up to 2 x 50m for his senior athletes later in the season. He avoids going up to 60m as he believes it risks injury and the athlete’s physical condition. Speed endurance work at a lower intensity is done over 80, 90 and 100m.

ATHLETIC S COACH

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OPINION

“Strength is one of the hallmarks in sprinting and therefore it must be developed. However, I believe that there are two types of strength: the static and the dynamic strength. I think athletes tend to depend too much on the static strength and that dynamic strength is one of the greatest areas of deficiency in most runners. They are all bulked up and big and powerful from the weight room, but they neglect the dynamic strength, that is the strength developed in resistance training, plyometrics and so on. We find with our sprinters that we get far better results when we have a fifty - fifty split between static and dynamic strength training.�

Glen Mills, 2009.

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IAAF WORLD U20 CHAMPIONSHIPS 10 -1 5 J U LY, 2 0 18 TA MPER E , FINL A ND

Travel Basics for Athletes and Coaches Guide prepared by Peta Forsyth, AIS

Recovery Basics for Athletes and Coaches Guide prepared by Peta Forsyth, AIS

BELOW Louise Mendes is coached by experienced throws coach Panayiotis Negropontis.

ABOVE Sarah Eckel showed her ability in the 800m at the Australian Junior Athletics Championships.

ABOVE Lateisha Willis competing in the 100m Hurdles at the 2018 Australian Junior Athletics Championships.

RIGHT Nana Owuse-Afriyie at the 2018 Australian Junior Athletics Championships

FA R R I G H T

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Athletics Australia would like to celebrate the great achievement of the following coaches and athletes who were provisionally selected to represent Australia at the upcoming IAAF World U20 Championships in Tampere between the 10th and 15th of July.

Coach

Athlete/s

Matthew Beckenham

Tom Agnew

Nic Bideau

Amelia Mazza-Downie

Gary Bourne

Benjamin Schmidtchen

Adam Didyk

Sarah Eckel

Peter Fortune

Jemima Russell

Suzan Fulop

Annamaria Leszczynska

Melinda Gainsford-Taylor

Kristie Edwards

Dylan Hicks

Harrison Hunt

Rob Marks

Joshua Azzopardi

Tony Marsh

Nana Owusu-Afriyie

Grahame Pitt

Conor McLoughlin

Philo Saunders

Jaryd Clifford

Gregory Smith

Bendere Oboya (injured)

Michael Zisti

Tyler Gunn

Brian Pozzi

Adam Kopp

Philip Alchin

Grace Brennan

Peter Benifer

Lateisha Willis

Eric Brown

Ashley Moloney

Paul Burgess

Lauren Hyde-Cooling

Gavin Burren

Abbey Caldwell

Brian Chapman

Callum Davies

Darren Clark

Celeste Mucci

Anula Costa

Christian Davis

Demetri Dionisopoulos

Louise Mendes

Jody Erbacher

Brielle Erbacher

Joe Gulli

Mia Gross, Harvey Murrant

Michael Hooper

Zane Branco, Samantha Johnson

Judith Jardine

Cara Jardine

Bruce Joycey

James Joycey

Steve Langley

Katie Hayward

Ben Liddy

Lachlan Raper

Angus McEntyre

Cameron McEntyre

Ralph Newton

Camryn Newton-Smith

Gary Patterson

Ella Connolly, Tamara Hotten

Jayden Russ

Montanna McAvoy, Lara Crouch

Diane Sheppard

Jarmillia Murphy-Knight

Donna Thomas

Riley Day

Steven Tingay

Declan Tingay

Ryan Vanhoy

Clio Ozanne-Jaques

Sean Whipp

Archie Wallis

David Bruce

Alexander Kolesnikoff, Aiden Harvey

Desmond Davis

Caitlyn Hester

Penny Gillies

Carley Thomas

Brett Green

Alexandera Roberts

Mick Moore

Talosaga Kia

Paul Torley

Joshua Torley

Grant Ward

Lara Ilievski

Alan Sadul

Alexander Kolesnikoff

Paul Di Bella

Jake Doran

Leslye Muller

Nash Lowis

ATHLETIC S COACH

HIGH JUMP IN HIGH SCHOOLS A COACH’S ADVICE FOR TEACHING HIGH JUMP IN SCHOOLS

Coaching High Jump in High Schools or at Clubs with a large number of participants, especially younger athletes with lower attention spans, can be a difficult challenge for coaches and teachers to overcome. The obvious difficulty is balancing the three main priorities of the coach – i) safety, ii) engagement of the entire group and iii) adequate practice for each individual to improve.

Traditionally, High Jump needs to be done one person at a time, which is obviously not a great way to engage a large group of participants and will result in long queues with lots of waiting time. Despite High Jump being one of the more enjoyable and exciting events for many students, you will notice that if kids are waiting several minutes for their next turn, they’re going to show a preference for activities that allow for greater engagement and participation.

Several of the World’s best High Jumpers did not participate in competitive High Jump until they reached their late-teens.

The other challenge when it comes to engagement is that in a large group of participants you need to be able to cater to the skill level of the entire group. The coach wants to avoid letting those with some High Jump experience dominate the session. Often when you put the bar up higher, those with the most talent get the most practice and those that are at an earlier stage of their development receive less practice and attention. This exacerbates the gulf in skill between participants and leads to cases where less talented participants are less likely to want to participate in future sessions to develop their skills. This is especially problematic in young athletes where natural variation in developmental ages can result in large variation in performance and by discouraging late-developers, you may be putting someone off the event who could have developed into a talented jumper. Remember, several of the world’s best High Jumpers did not participate in competitive High Jump until they reached their late-teens.

We don’t want to lose athletes to the sport while they are still in their teens and have not matured.

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OPINION

In a large group of participants, the coach will need to think of methods to engage everyone at once.

So that usually means starting away from the bag because it is the landing on the bag that restricts how many people can be engaged at once. A great option is to begin with sprint training.

the core and reinforce the desired tall posture. This may be caused by a lack of strength that will need to be developed for the athlete to benefit from the Fosbury Flop technique.

The coach should be looking to develop a consistent and accurate run up that takes the athlete to the same place at the same speed for take-off. For young athletes with an inconsistent stride pattern, this is a real challenge that needs to be practiced. Therefore, when we introduce high jump we encourage a shorter run-up, because it’s easier to have five consistent strides than eight consistent strides.

Sprint Training The run up and take off are the important phases of the high jump, and if the athlete has a good run up and take off they can often get away with a flawed flight phase (at least at junior levels). A great place to start is to develop the athlete’s bend running ability. The coach should be looking for continual acceleration, a tall posture and how the athlete leans into the bend, because these are the major points that are going to translate well to the athlete’s high jump performance.

Another coaching point to consider is to ensure that the athletes are accelerating throughout the run-up and not decelerating at any point. This can be developed on the bend by getting the athlete habituated to a gradual acceleration over their desired run-up distance.

One of the main coaching points you should be looking for is that the athlete should lean from their ankles with their whole body leaning into the bend.

Keep an eye out for athletes who collapse through

Finally, you need to ensure that athletes have the necessary strength in their legs and core to be able to

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ATHLETIC S COACH

Progressing to the Flop

run a J-Curve. If you notice athletes running a straight line at the bar or two straight lines (sarcastically referred to as an L-Curve), you may need to spend time developing their bend running ability first before moving on to the flop.

Once you are confident that the athletes have the strength and technique to be able to run through the curve and hold their take-off position in the drive phase, we would bring the group together to complete some back-overs. The purpose of this activity is to replicate the flight position and develop the athlete’s understanding of how it feels from a static position. When we teach these skills, we do want to start from a static position because once you add speed it becomes more complex. By keeping it static we can develop the movement pattern without any additional complexity.

Moving to the Bag Once there has been adequate time on the sprints training, we can move to the High Jump area and put the run up into practice. To keep things moving there is no need for the athletes to be jumping over a bar or even on to the mat, the coach should just be looking for the bend running skills that were developed on the track to be put into practice in front of the mat.

Once the coach feels that athletes have had enough repetitions to get this right, you can then introduce the jumping component.

Another method to replicate the flight position is to have all the athletes lie on the ground and have them push their feet underneath them. For the coach, this should be about developing the ‘soft knees’ the athlete’s ability to push their hips forward in the air.

A good cue that you can use is that there is a string attached to your navel and is being pulled towards the sky.

Starting off with scissors is recommended, possibly off a straight line and then onto the curve. Keep an eye out for the transferable skills from scissors to the flop. Encourage a tall running posture with an accelerating rhythm with a strong drive up. Like all jumps, we want to encourage athletes to hold the take-off position. In a large group of students, you could set up a simple figure-8 circuit where athletes scissor from both sides to keep people moving quickly.

Once we move onto the flop with a run up, we should start with a very short run up of five strides at maximum. There is a greaterchance of an accurate and consistent run up when the athlete can control their speed and effectively generate vertical velocity (take-off) from horizontal velocity (approach). As the coach, ask yourself if the athlete can accelerate the take-off rhythm and whether they are able to run through the curve while staying tall and leaning away from the bar. In the learning phase athletes tend to lean across the bar, so we should come back and think about we need to drive up.

A good strategy for groups of ~30 students is to break the group in half and have one group play a game such as ‘cross ball’, where they push pass the ball to each other up and down and see how many times they can complete the activity while the other half of the group complete their scissor figure-8 circuit.

The two groups can then switch over. If you wish to make the alternate activity more specific to high jump skills, you could have the students complete skipping, cross-hop, 3-step run ups over some minihurdles or a different age appropriate plyometric activity. The coaching focus should be on students remaining tall and holding their take-off position in the air. In a situation where you have one Accredited Coach and one Teacher managing the group, the coach can focus on the group performing scissors onto the mat, while the teacher takes control of the alternative activity.

•

Maintain the take off position

•

Toe pointed towards the far corner of the bag

•

Triple flexion of the driving leg and triple extension of the take off leg.

•

Holding the drive phase in the air and not rotating too quickly

If the athletes are struggling to maintain their take off position, it might be appropriate to go back to the scissors, which forces the athletes to drive up. The scissors are a good way to teach athletes to maintain a tall posture and drive up rather than sideways. The other advantage to the scissors is that it forces the athlete to drive their knee up well above the bar, as they also need to get their foot over the bar.

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Brandon Starc

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ATHLETIC S COACH

10 OF THE BIGGEST M I S TA K E S YO U N G AT H L E T E S M A K E W H E N THROWING A JAVELIN LOOK OUT FOR THESE COMMON JAVELIN ERRORS WHEN COACHING YO U N G ATH LE TE S

AUTHOR Darren Wensor is a Level 4 Coach and Founder of the blog coachingyoungathletes. com.

S U B S C R I B E F O R F R E E T O T H E C O A C H I N G Y O U N G AT H L E T E S NEWSLETTER BY CLICKING HERE .

1

A Poor Grip

Many young athletes grip the javelin incorrectly.

Common grip errors include: The javelin being held across the palm, making it difficult to align the implement in the direction of the throw (Figure 1).

FIGURE 1

The javelin being held in the finger tips, which means that it is very hard to control the implement (Figure 2).

The javelin being held too far down the grip. This means that fingers and thumb may slip during delivery.

FIGURE 2

Teach young athletes that the javelin should be held at the back of the grip, along the palm, with fingers firmly around the implement and at least one finger behind the binding. I prefer teaching the grip that sees one finger and the thumb behind the binding (Figure 3).

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FIGURE 3

OPINION

2

Misdirect the Point of the Javelin Prior to the throw, many young athletes lose control of the point of the javelin, either lifting the tip too high (Figure 4) or swinging it out to one side (Figure 5).

A tip pointed too high can result in the javelin: •

Carthweeling end over end

•

Landing flat or tail-first

•

Taking too steep a flight path, causing it nosedive.

A javelin pointed too far out to the right (for a right handed thrower) can result in a javelin flying out to the right. It can also lead to the javelin rotating anticlockwise in flight as the result of the thower trying to pull it back on course during delivery. If this occurs, you will see the javelin land with its tail pointing out to the right.

Ensure that the athletes understand that after delivering the javelins, they are to stand and wait for the signal to collect. When asked to collect the implements, they carry them back (do not throw them back) and hand them carefully to their partner.

Support young athletes to keep the javelin pointed in the direction that they want it to go or to "point the javelin at the target."

FIGURE 4

FIGURE 5

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ATHLETIC S COACH

Hold the Javelin Away From the Body

3

Rather than keeping the javelin close to their head prior to delivery, many young athletes hold the implement away from their body. This can often be caused by the youngster fearing the point of the javelin or fearing that they will hit themselves with the shaft of the javelin.

Instruct the athletes to keep the the tip of the javelin close to their temple or their eye (Figure 6). If they are wearing a cap you can tell them to hold the point of the javelin on the peak of their cap.

FIGURE 6

4

Round Arm Throwing Action

Rather than delivering the javelin over their shoulder like a tennis serve, it is very common for young athletes to throw with a low, roundarm action.

Bowl the Javelin

5

It is not uncommon for very young athletes to use an overarm cricket-like “bowling” action when they throw a javelin. In other words, they keep their delivery arm straight as they pull the javelin over their shoulder.

Besides being an illegal throwing action if the javelin is delivered below the line of the shoulders, youngsters risk either chronic or acute elbow injuries due to the forces placed on the elbow joint by this type of movement.

To encourage a more effective throwing action a coach can ensure that the athlete doesn’t lock the elbow of their throwing arm prior to delivery.

Other solutions include:

Another problem with a round-arm action is that it is very hard to keep the javelin aligned to the intended direction of the throw.

I have had great success fixing this problem using this drill, which was inspired by the original Karate Kid movie.

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•

Rehearsing the delivery action without the javelin or with alternative implements.

•

Rehearsing throws from the 'carry' position, where the javelin begins above the shoulder with the arm flexed at the elbow, rather than extended back behind the thrower.

OPINION

6

Push the Javelin Many young beginners who are not naturally strong with overarm throwing skills will push the javelin from their shoulder, rather than pull it over their shoulder.

Watch out for the young athlete who brings the javelin close to their shoulder in one action, and then pushes out the javelin in a second, separate action. This will appear as a jerky and interrupted movement.

Teach young athletes that the javelin should be pulled over the shoulder in one continuous, smooth action. This often needs to be learnt without a javelin or with other implements e.g. softballs, cricket balls, etc.

7

Lob the Javelin

Many young athletes use a really limited followthrough on release of the javelin, resulting in a “lobbing” of the implement. It is not uncommon to see their throwing arm stop well short of of where a good follow-through should finish, with some throwers not extending their arm action much past their shoulder. It will appear as a really hesitant, timid arm action.

I teach young athletes that after releasing the javelin, their hand should “follow” the implement and then continue down and across their body.

The javelin needs to be thrown with speed and force.

LEFT Kathryn Mitchell is the perfect reminder that there is no rush to achieve Javelin success. Her career best performance at 35 years of age supports Scott Martin’s belief (Athletics Coach, Jan 18) that javelin specialisation should come later in an athlete’s development.

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ATHLETIC S COACH

8

Run and Stop I have countless times seen young athletes take a long run-up in preparation to throw the javelin, before slowing, stopping, then delivering the implement, losing any advantages such a run-up may have given them.

It is better for beginners to throw off a much shorter run-up (e.g. 3-5 steps) and concentrate on building and keeping up their speed on the runway. The speed during the run-up needs to be transferred into the throw.

FIGURE 7

9

FIGURE 8

Back Crossover The final three strides prior to throwing a javelin (for a right-handed thrower) consists of a step onto the left foot, then a low “jump” onto the right foot (Figure 7) and a final quick step onto the left foot into a throwing stance before pulling the javelin through. The jump into the final stance is often referred to as the “crossover” stride. Part of performing the crossover correctly is that the back foot crosses over in front of the other leg.

It is very common to see young athletes incorrectly performing a crossover where their back foot is crossing behind the other leg (Figure 8). This can cause a turning of the body and javelin away from the direction of the throw.

More Throws Content from Darren How to Introduce Javelin to Young Athletes A Javelin Drill That was Inspired by the Karate Kid How to Control the Point of the Javelin

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OPINION

Back Foot to Side on Delivery Stride When the foot hits the ground after completing the crossover, it should be pointed at least 45 degrees towards the direction of the throw. This makes it possible to drive the hips and rotate the torso in the direction of the throw.

10

Many youngsters land with the foot at 90 degrees away from the direction of the throw. This makes it very difficult to drive the hips around which causes a less powerful throwing action and often a misdirected throw – usually towards where the foot is pointed.

Darren's Recommended Further Reading Silvester, J. (2003). Complete Book of Throws. $11.56 New, $7.55 Used From the basic biomechanics of throwing to in-depth information on the discus, javelin, hammer, and shot put, Complete Book of Throws brings it all together to improve your techniques—and your distance!

Complete Book of Throws takes the techniques and conditioning programs of the most accomplished coaches in each event and presents them in a way that athletes can understand and coaches can adapt to create a winning program. Whether you're just starting out in the event or preparing your team for competition at the highest level, you'll find the conditioning and training specifics you need to strength your body, improve your form, and push your performance to the edge.

Four-time Olympian and six-time discus world-record holder Jay Silvester covers specific strength training and conditioning techniques, including training for athletes in multiple throwing events. World-class coaches complete the picture with in-depth coverage of each throw technique.

Sport-specific strength conditioning, periodization, and effective energy transfer are all covered in this practical guide, along with detailed illustrations that walk you through every phase of each throw.

In addition to serving as the Olympic throws coach for Team USA 2000, Silvester has coached five NCAA discus champions. Now he leads a team of top-notch coaches in creating the ultimate resource for athletes and coaches alike. If you are seeking to enhance your coaching technique, refine your athletes' technique, or improve their throws, the Complete Book of Throws has the details and instructions you need.

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Kurtis Marschall

INTERVIEW

QUICK QUESTIONS B E G I N N I N G P O L E VA U LT W I T H FO R M ER CO M M O N W E A LT H G A M E S M EDA L I S T B R I D G I D J U N OT

Q: At what age do you think athletes should be getting in to Pole Vault?

Q: For the coaches, what qualities should they be looking for in identifying potential Pole Vault talent?

A: Every Pole Vaulter will have their own pathway to the event so I can really only talk about my own experience.

My background was in gymnastics, so I was always a very powerful and acrobatic athlete. I was never an elite gymnast, but from 7 up until the age of 13 I would train up to 12 hours a week and reached Level 7.

A: They need to have a good top speed and strength.

Being tall and having long limbs is really helpful. Pole Vaulters also need to be courageous and little bit crazy - the more you think about it the worst you perform so you definitely need to be brave.

When you think about it, the physical characteristics of a Pole Vaulter are quite similar to a Long Jumper, but it’s that additional danger element you need to consider.

You need speed on the runway and a strong and powerful take off with a technical element that requires good coordination. The difference is, I don’t think you could kill yourself long jumping, but you could seriously hurt yourself vaulting.

There were a couple of things that I would do in gymnastics that translated really well to Pole Vault.

Firstly, we did a lot of tumbling and all the power elements are very useful for vaulting, but particularly the acrobatic elements. When you swing on a high bar, that swing mimics the swing in the Pole Vault getting upside down by swinging upside down is great preparation for the flight phase in Pole Vault. So, a lot of vaulters do gymnastics training, particularly a lot of swinging on the bar because that is one of the main elements in the jump.

Q: How do you prepare an athlete in a safe way for them to move into rotation for the first time?

A: A lot of Pole Vault training is gymnastics training, so we spend a lot of time learning to land safely and developing body awareness when you are in the air.

So a lot of swinging, climbing ropes, rings, tumbling, handstands, cartwheels and trampolining - all of those things where you are moving your body in the air.

From a young age I had that acrobatic and power base and a good understanding of where I was in the air. Once I finished up with gymnastics, I started athletics at the age of 14. Initially I did everything from hurdles, sprints, long jump and and high jump. During those years I used to watch Emma George training and thought that with my gymnastic background and ability to run fast, I had the potential to do that event. So at about 15 or 16 I started really getting in to the event.

When you progress to the pole vault you begin with the one or two step run up so you are not moving very quickly and you are not bending the pole. Everything is done with a straight pole - as soon as you start bending the pole it adds a lot of room for error because once it straightens it can flick you in any direction.

Q: Is a gymnastics background essential for a Pole Vaulter? If an athlete is 15-16 and thinking about getting in to Pole Vault, is it already too late?

It is a slow progression, you don’t start bending the pole for at least six months. By very gradually adding complexity, it helps minimise the risk and improve the athlete’s ability to react if something goes wrong and still land safely. In that time you can continue to develop the athlete’s acrobatic skills so they are well equipped for further progression.

I don’t believe it’s ever too late to develop the athlete’s gymnastic ability. Steve Hooker is a good example of that, he came down to train with us and had never done gymnastics in his life. He was a tall athlete and was terrible at gymnastics when he first started training with us but he developed those skills as he progressed.

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HIGH PERFORMANCE COACH DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM REFLECTIONS BY NICOLE BOEGMAN-STEWART

D

This was a central theme of the GCH sessions held on the Gold Coast and part of a more broader strategy that ICCE has committed to in developing a ‘call to action’ to increase the number of women in coaching at all levels. 50% of the expert speakers at the GCH were female, leading the way in providing greater visibility of female coaches and building a greater understanding of how we can break down the barriers preventing women from joining the elite coaching ranks.

uring the 2018 Commonwealth Games on the Gold Coast, Australian athletics coach Nicole Boegman Stewart was selected by the Australian Institute of Sport to attend a High-Performance Coach Development program for female coaches.

The AIS HP Coach Development program for women coaches was run in conjunction with the International Council for Coaching Excellence (ICCE) Global Coaches House (GCH) - an initiative that aims to provide common sharing and learning spaces for high performance coaches at major multi-sport events.

The Australian contingent representing the AIS High Performance Coach Development Program for women, included eight coaches from different sports (netball, hockey, swimming, rowing, diving,

The following is a summary of Nicole’s reflections and exeperiences:

Globally, only 10 percent of women coaches were represented at a High-Performance level.

How can we make change and push for progress?

The AIS Coach Development Program for women coaches was an exciting opportunity to network with other high performance female coaches from around Australia.

It was an opportunity to share information about our coaching journeys, self-reflect, discuss challenges, workshop ideas and strategies as a likeminded group.

gymnastics, badminton, and athletics). Coaches were aligned in small self-reflection groups (or pods) and throughout the Commonwealth Games these small pod groups were led by experienced female mentor coaches that included Tracey Menzies (swimming), Penny Liddick (gymnastics) and Ellen Randell (rowing).

The most alarming statistic that was immediately raised as part of forum discussions was that globally only 10 percent of women coaches (in western culture) were represented at a High-Performance level. How can we make change and push for progress?

In each pod session coaches were encouraged to explore the idea of where we see yourself now as a high-performance coach and how you can position yourselves better to be where you want to be in our own individual sports.

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REFLECTION

LEFT Members of the Women’s High Performance Group

BELOW LEFT Female Cocahing Mentors delivering their keynote speeches

AUTHOR Nicole Boegman-Stewart is a Level 4 Coach and Head of Track and Field at Meriden.

provided the chance to also view some of the other Commonwealth sports and share experiences with the coaches involved in that sport

Most of the coaches had athletes competing at the Commonwealth Games - but were not part of the team staff, which is often the case at major championships given the staging restrictions on the number of team positions and accreditations that are available to personal coaches.

Each day we would come together to reflect and discuss our learnings and observations on high performance coaching. We would discuss what resonated with us during the presentations and discussion from the Global Coaches House sessions and how we may take the key learnings back home and implement strategies into our daily work/coaching environments.

While also being able to immerse ourselves in our own sport and undertake observations of coaching performance in a dynamic multi-sport environment like the Commonwealth Games, the program design

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ATHLETIC S COACH

“Doubt...is the foundation of all knowledge and the motor of all change”

LEFT Nicole Boegman-Stewart with Alex and Commonwealth Games representative Triple Jumper Emmanuel Fakiye.

RIGHT Nicole Boegman-Stewart with Diving Coach, Vyninka Arlow in the Athlete’s Village.

LEFT Nicole with her pod members Melody (Badminton) , Nicole, Ellen Randell (Rowing) and Sue Jenkins (AIS) at the Badminton

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REFLECTION

From Dr. Rick Charlesworth (Former Hockeyroos and Kookaburras Head Coach)

The key note speakers from the week were excellent and all highly successful in their coaching fields.

Although no one was specifically from the world of athletics, the journeys and challenges these world class coaches faced through their careers all a similar message.

• • •

Always insist on quality and excellence.

Aim high and learn from the lows.

Doubt is good - it is the foundation of all knowledge and the motor of all change.

The following were common themes across the week: • • • • • • •

Conscious Coaching

The Coach as an Ongoing Learner The New Age Coach Conscious Coaching Coaching Resilience Lessons from a Coaching Life Leadership in Coaching Women Leaders in Sport

•

• •

There were also presentations from a sports science/ medicine perspective, the health and well-being of athletes and coaches and managing high performance teams.

Sir Graham Henry (rugby), Rick Charlesworth and Alison Annan (hockey) and Anna Meares (cycling) were all standout speakers.

The relational side of sport coaching is key

Anna Meares spoke from an athlete’s perspective on the Importance and Value of the Coach. This was particularly moving and had coaches in tears listening to the highs and lows of her career. It reinforced how important the coach-athlete relationships were to her, that it not only helped her achieve her sporting goals but personally helped shape her to be the person she is today.

Overall the experiences working with coaches and mentors through this program strengthens a realisation of the immense value in connecting with likeminded people, particularly other female coaches.

Female coaches at all levels will continue to develop by investing in sharing their experiences and exploring the challenges of how you balance your lifestyle/family demands while trying to pursue your own personal goals within high performance coaching.

Some of the key take-home coaching messages: From Sir Graham Henry (former All Blacks Coach) • • • •

The relational side of sport coaching is key. You need to create your own pathway and know what that looks like as there is only limited spaces at the top.

“Keep learning when you are winning” What do I need to keep doing?

What do I need to stop doing?

What do I need to start doing?

From Alyson Annan (Dutch National Hockey Coach) • •

• •

Adopting certain styles/approaches in response to an awareness of what will enable the athlete to shift towards higher performance.

Building performance behaviours to obtain the preferred response and not the typical response.

Resilience is to bounce back and to return to where we were before, but we need to make a change to move beyond that. Learning skill under pressure versus learning skill under no pressure who are the thrivers?

Are we just doing what we always did?

Understand your strengths and weaknesses who is going to help you be the best coach you can be?

Connect with people who can help you.

Make time to be the coach you want to be and program time for your own learning and education.

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TRENDS IN PA R T I C I PAT I O N A N A N A LY S I S O F AT H L E T E PA R T I C I PAT I O N F R O M T H E AT H L E T I C S V I C TO R I A S H I EL D 2 017-18 .

Understanding which are the most popular events is important information for coaches. By knowing where participation is strongest, coaches can best meet the needs of their participants or identify areas where growth is possible. This data, collected from the Athletics Victoria 2017-18 season and expertly analysed by Bree Mclennan will assist coaches better understand participation trends at Senior Athletics.

A N A LY S I S

ATH LE TE PA RTI CI PATI O N BY ROUND

The following is a brief extract from the full analysis conducted by Bree Mclennan. Visit www.breemclennan. com/portfolio to view the full report.

We can see from this summary table that there is a steady volume of athletes participating in round 1,3 and 4, matched with steady volumes in events participated.

There is a clear deviation at round 10, with a drop off in athlete volumes.

PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE

Curious questions arise, what could be some potential causal factors for this pattern? Could it be time of year, event schedule/program, or something else?

The purpose of this project is to uncover and document valued actionable insights which are contained within the available source data for the benefit of the target audience.

The objective is to explore Victorian inter-club track & field athletic competition results data for the complete 2017-18 summer season and identify: • •

Natural groupings and patterns Basic descriptive statistics

We know that: • • •

Rounds 1 to 5 are generally early October to mid November, held in mid-late afternoon.

Rounds 6 to 8 are immediately before the end of year holiday season.

Rounds 9 to 12 are generally in January, held as twilight meets.

Round

Number of Athletes

Total Event Entries

Mean Events per Athlete

1

1414

2898

2

2

1295

2644

2

3

1423

2886

2

4

1443

2736

1.9

5

1363

2791

2

6

1184

2434

2.1

8

1170

2367

2

9

1152

2444

2.1

10

968

2078

2.1

11

1228

2581

2.1

12

294

2512

1.9

This data also reveals that the average athlete in the population is likely to participate in at least 2 events per round of competition. Mclennan notes three potential subgroups: Specialists - one event only, potentially niche events.

Average - two events per round.

‘Decathletes’ - participating in every event they can.

REFLECTION

Event

Total Season Entries

100m

3771

200m

3331

800m

2575

400m

2213

Shot Put

2071

Long Jump

1868

1500m

1717

Discus

1673

Javelin

1555

Triple Jump

1466

3000m

1063

High Jump

1037

Hammer

936

Sprint Hurdles*

759

Pole Vault

522

5000m

379

3k Walk

342

Steeple Chase

329

Intermediate Hurdles*

288

OPPORTUNITIES BY EVENT GROUP What is the most popular event? This table displays the details of event participation. Sorted by the highest number of athletes participating, the track sprint events 100m and 200m come out on top.

The track run events, in particular the 100m, is held very frequently and often by invitation when not officially scheduled for a round of competition.

This data also shows us quite clearly the sprint, middle distance, throws and horizontal jumps events dominate in participation rates. It’s interesting to note: • • •

ABOVE The total number of entries in the given events across the 2017-18 Athletics Victoria Shield Competition. * Sprint Hurdles includes 80m, 90m, 100m and 110m Hurdles * Intermediate Hurdles 200m, 300m & 400m Hurdles.

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The 800m has higher participation than the 400m.

Highly technical events such as hurdles, steeple, walks and pole vault are not in the top-10.

Is this an athlete driven outcome (lack of interest, too expensive etc.) an event driven outcome (lack of opportunities) or a coach driven outcome (lack of qualifed coaches to develop athlete’s ability)?

ATHLETIC S COACH

DEVELOPMENT MODEL OF SPORTS PA R T I C I PAT I O N

5-13 Years

13-16 Years

16-21 Years

20 Years +

COACH REFLECTION Probable Outcome

Probable Outcome

Probable Outcome

Positive psychosocial development Enhanced physical health Long-term participation

Elite performance Enhanced physical health Enhanced enjoyment of the sport

Performance Reduced physical health Reduced enjoyment

Investment Years Recreational Years High amount of deliberate play Low amount of deliberate practice Focus on a broad range of activities for fitness and enjoyment

High amount of deliberate practice Low amount of deliberate play Focus on one sport

Early Specialisation Specializing Years Deliberate play and practice balanced equally Begin to select preferred sports

High amount of deliberate practice Low amount of deliberate play Focus on one sport Higher dropout Lower self-reported enjoyment

Sampling Years High amount of deliberate play Low amount of deliberate practice Participation across large number of sports and events

This is the rationale of the IAAF Kids’ Athletics Program and why it is supported by the IAAF, Athletics Australia and the endorsed program of the Sporting Schools iniative in all Australian Primary Schools.

What would this look like in practice? Event-specific training, structured drills, frequent competition and early track and field specific focus. Is this what your school or club is currently doing? Is this the pathway and outcomes that you want for your young athletes?

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How does the way you coach determine the pathway of your athletes?

The Development Model of Sports Participation presented on the left (Cote, Murphy-Mills & Abernethy, 2007) suggests that when coaching athletes 13 years or younger, you should be prioritising time for deliberate play to develop the physical literacy of your participants.

This has a greater likelihood of resulting in improved health, fitness, participation and performance outcomes of your athletes.

How much time are you dedicating to deliberate play activities in your training sessions? Are you dedicating too much time to deliberate practice activities?

Is your club, squad or school prioritising deliberate play activities for young athletes? If not, what actions will you take to change the philosophy of your club or school?

Further Coaching Resources

ATHLETIC S COACH

Coaching Better Every Season: A Year Round System for Athlete Development and Program Success Digital: $22.63 Paperback: $30.56 Author: Dr. Wade Gilbert Published: 2016 Pages: 424 The Coach Doc, Dr. Wade Gilbert, shares his researchsupported doses of advice that have helped coaches around the globe troubleshoot their ailing programs into title contenders. His field-tested yet innovative prescriptions and protocols for a more professional approach to coaching are sure to produce positive results both in competitive outcomes and in the enjoyment of the experience for athletes and coaches.

Coaching Better Every Season applies to all sports and guides coaches through the critical components of continual improvement while progressing from one season to the next in the annual coaching cycle. It also presents many practical exercises and evaluation tools that coaches can apply to athletes and teams at all levels of competition. This text is sure to make every year of coaching a more rewarding, if not a trophy-winning, experience.

Editors Note: I have owned a copy of this book for over 12 months and continue to regularly refer back to this fantastic resource.

The book was initially reviewed in Athletics Coach (April 2017) and now at just $22.63 for the digital version, it is fantastic value for Track and Field coaches. Unless you have a particular fondness for a hard copy book, this is one resource you will probably want to puchase digitally. Having it on your phone or iPad wherever you are is ideal for a resource like this, where you will want to come back to it regularly over a long period of time.

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Coaching Better Every Season should be a mandatory read for all coaches. It presents the art and science of coaching, no matter the sport.

Troy Steiner

Dr. Wade Gilbert provides a perfect blend of research-based information, front-line coaching applications, and compelling examples throughout his book. Coaching Better Every Season is a major contribution to the education and practice of coaches.

Pat Riddlesprigger

AVAIL ABLE READING

The Trail Runner’s Companion: A Step-by-Step Guide to Trail Running and Racing - From 5Ks to Ultras

While both road running and trail running enhance fitness and relieve stress, I believe the trail run offers mental and physical advantages. I credit trail running with making me stronger, less prone to injury, able to go farther, and most important, happier.

Digital: $15.36 Paperback: $28.42 Author: Sarah Lavender Smith Published: 2017 Pages: 297 The sport of trail running is booming as more runners seek more adventurous routes and a deeper connection with nature. Not only are runners taking to the trail, but a growing number are challenging themselves to go past the conventional 26.2-mile marathon point. The time is right for a book that covers everything a runner needs to safely and successfully run and race trails, from 5Ks to ultra distances.

Coaches’ Guide to Cross Country and Track and Field: Training Cycles

Like a trusted coach, The Trail Runner’s Companion offers an inspiring, practical, and goal-oriented approach to trail running and racing. Whether readers are looking to up their distance or tackle new terrain, they’ll find sophisticated, yet clear advice that boosts performance and enhances well-being. Along the way, they’ll learn: •

Trail-specific techniques and must-have gear

•

What to eat, drink, and think—before, during, and after any trail run

•

How to develop mental tenacity and troubleshoot challenges on longer trail adventures

•

Colorful commentary on the characters and culture that make the sport special

Digital: $34.56 Author: Monty Steadman Published: 2015 Pages: 318 This user-friendly resource outlines a comprehensive system for developing a united cross country and track and field program. The emphasis is on a program that is organized around the efficient utilization of coaching staff, athletes, and facilities. The book offers a detailed description of a typical yearly coaching cycle, starting with pre-cross country in the summer, moving through the school year, and culminating with the state track and field meet in June.

With an engaging, encouraging voice, including tips and anecdotes from well-known names in the sport, The Trail Runner’s Companion is the ultimate guide to achieving peak performance—and happiness— out on the trails.

“The Trail Runner’s Companion is a must-have for all trail runners, both new and experienced. It brings a wealth of knowledge and entertaining stories to keep you engaged in the valuable content of the book. If only I had The Trail Runner’s Companion to read before my first trail race, I could have avoided so many mistakes! I highly recommend it.” Kaci Lickteig, 2016 UltraRunning Magazine UltraRunner of the Year and Western States 100-Mile Endurance Run champion.

Athletics Australia is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program. There are links on this page from which Athletics Australia can earn a small commission. This adds no cost to you but helps to keep this magazine sustainable.

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Athletics Coach M a g a z i n e

Thank you to all Accredited Athletics Coaches who continue to contribute positively to the health, happiness and sportsmanship of their athletes and runners.

Š Athletics Australia 2018