too often result in parental absenteeism. These realities must be acknowledged and programs must be adjusted to take these factors into account. Precisely because the family is under such stress in Central America, parenting programs merit added attention and resources. Programs to increase secondary school access and completion. Policies and programs to encourage secondary school enrollment and completion are critical. Evidence shows that secondary school completion is one of the most important preventive investments a country can make in at-risk youth, both in terms of improving their education and in reducing nearly all kinds of risky behavior, including crime and violence. School failure and dropout are risk factors for youth violence and delinquency. Young people who stay connected to school are less likely to exhibit disruptive and violent behavior, carry or use a weapon, or experiment with illegal substances. From the perspective of the youth crime and violence problem, it is important to address the considerable gap remaining in secondary education coverage for poor urban communities. It is also critical to ensure high-quality teaching and curricular relevance, including programs to develop generic life skills and strengthen the connection between school and work. Other measures include improving school quality and relevance, increasing parental involvement, and offering incentives to families of at-risk youth to send them to school, possibly through conditional cash transfer programs either to the family or the youths themselves. School-based violence prevention programs: Evidence shows that violence prevention programs are highly effective ways to reduce risky behavior. Schools are ideal places to socialize young people and develop their resistance to crime and violence. The school curriculum throughout the primary and secondary cycles should promote the development of responsible citizens, offer anti-violence and riskprevention programs as well as alternative mechanisms for the peaceful resolution of common conflicts. Children should be taught to respect themselves, to understand risks that flow from their own behavior or that of others, to identify and resist gangs and bullying, and to understand the rationale for social norms such as respect for others’ lives and property. School-based violence prevention programs are so successful because they can target young people according to their ages, experiences and culture. Development of specialized agencies for dealing with young offenders, with a focus on rehabilitation and providing second chances to young offenders. Higher recidivism rates are associated with harsh prison conditions as well as with incarcerating young people alongside adults. For this reason, most countries have special courts and probation agencies that provide second-chance opportunities to juvenile delinquents before incarcerating them. A key element of this approach is the introduction of graduated sentences for first-time and minor repeat offenders. These sentences typically include two components: (i) a community accountability board composed of juvenile court personnel, probation officers and/or citizen volunteers, who meet with offenders to assign penalties for their offenses and monitor and enforce a socalled diversion agreement that keeps a young offender out of court and out of jail; and (ii) graduated consequences if a youth fails to comply with the requirements of the community accountability board. These graduated sanctions must be designed to fit a variety of offenses and should include a range of alternatives, including incarceration. Reduction in the availability and use of firearms. Youth crime and violence are linked with rises in lethal crimes and violence committed with firearms. When more firearms are in circulation, it becomes easier to obtain them illegally, by-passing restrictive legal requirements. Limiting the supply of firearms reduces the number of deaths and injuries caused by them. This can be done through laws against gun trafficking coupled with targeted enforcement to reduce the quantity of firearms. Policies and programs that involve aggressive patrolling in high-crime neighborhoods to arrest youth who carry guns illegally have shown some success in the US. Safe neighborhood programs or place-specific prevention: Safe neighborhood programs can modify the physical environments in which young people act and interact in ways that are likely to prevent young
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