PROPELLING SOCIAL INCLUSION
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gangs and militias. The program was conceived as a first step in providing residents of favelas with the same rights and opportunities available to the rest of the city. The UPP police intervention was followed by the work of its social arm, UPP Social, which aims to promote social and economic integration in a divided city through the coordination of policies and services in these communities. Estimates by Cano (2012) point to large reductions in lethal violence (75 percent) and thefts (50 percent) after implementation of the UPP.1 Residents also report being able to move more freely within and across communities as a result of the “pacification.”2 Qualitative evidence also points to a reduction in stigma in “pacified” communities, reflected by use of residents’ real addresses in job applications (previously, they had concealed where they lived to avoid being identified as favelados) (Cano 2012). Also, 72 percent of residents said they felt more respected by people outside their communities after the UPP (Instituto Brasileiro de Pesquisa Social 2012). At the same time, residents regard stigma as positive, as it could prevent their land from being taken over by real estate developers (World Bank 2012a). Language is an important aspect of identity and claims to political and cultural space. Language policy can thus be an important driver of both exclusion and inclusion (box 7.4). The status of certain languages as official for government or education has symbolic, political, and practical consequences. Symbolically, official status suggests that certain ethno-linguistic groups and their cultures are more valuable than others. Practically, not speaking an official language can prevent excluded groups from participating in democratic processes or making use of public services. Furthermore, the disadvantage may be passed on over generations, with children of linguistically excluded groups facing barriers accessing learning and jobs. Language policy can therefore lead to an important grievance against which groups have mobilized politically and militarily. Respect for a language constitutes respect for a people. Although it is sometimes controversial, bilingual education can improve children’s language and cognitive development as well as strengthen their identity and self-confidence (Cooper et al. 2004; Hall and Patrinos 2006). Education programs in which teachers speak the same language as their students, teachers are prepared to teach in a bilingual classroom environment, and parents and the community participate in the design of curricular materials have had good results. In Guatemala, indigenous students enrolled in bilingual schools tend to have higher attendance and promotion rates