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in less-remunerative jobs and sectors, exist in all countries in the region, although the gravity of inequalities and hence policy priorities vary by country. The focus of policies in all countries, however, has a common theme— to provide an enabling environment in which women can balance their multiple roles and flourish in their income-generating activities. As discussed in chapter 3, the constraints that infringe on women’s ability to flourish as economic actors occur in households, markets, and informal and formal institutions. This section highlights what policy makers can do in these three domains to improve gender equality in economic opportunity. The following sections focus on three primary areas: (a) reducing the time constraints associated with women’s household roles, (b) increasing women’s access to resources, and (c) establishing a level playing field by reforming institutions. Because the most serious constraints faced by women vary across economies according to economic structure (see chapter 3), this section ends with a brief discussion of countries’ appropriate policy priorities.
Reducing trade-offs between women’s household and market roles This report finds that, in all countries, women’s household roles affect their decisions as economic actors—for example, they affect the amount of time women are able to devote to market-orientated activities, the types of occupations that they enter into, and the types of enterprises they run. A key policy priority across countries is to reduce the impact of household roles on women’s economic lives, a priority that will become increasingly important as aging continues and the demands of caring for elderly family members rise. Addressing women’s dual roles is likely to be the most important in contexts where female labor force participation is severely affected by the competing demands for women’s time (for example, in Malaysia, the Philippines, and Fiji, where female labor force participation rates drop particularly sharply when they have children).
Although governments cannot directly change the norms that influence gender divisions of domestic responsibilities, policies can work around existing customs and thereby reduce the impact that customs have on women’s economic activities. Policies may also indirectly influence divisions of labor within households, for example, by instituting interventions that raise the value of women’s market time.5 Although household responsibilities infringe upon women’s economic activities across all countries, the policy recommendations in this area vary with a country’s economic structure. In countries with predominantly rural populations and infrastructural constraints that limit women’s access to markets and energy and water sources, policies targeted at improving existing infrastructure will likely have the greatest impact on women’s time balance. In countries with a larger urban population, governments should consider policies that increase access to affordable child care, particularly where informal mechanisms for child care are more limited. In countries where the formal sector is increasingly important, addressing parental leave policies will help to level the playing field for men and women and may ameliorate gender divisions of labor within households. Investing in basic infrastructure and transportation In rural or urban areas with limited infrastructure, governments can reduce the time spent on domestic activities by investing in improved water, sanitation, and energy services. These services may release time that can be spent on market work or leisure and increase the income potential or well-being of women. Evidence from around the world suggests that water and electrification projects can reduce the time that women spend collecting water and fuel, and can increase productivity by increasing the length of the working day.6 In Lao PDR, evidence suggests that electricity extends the hours available for both productive and leisure activities, particularly for women and girls (World Bank