Index Boxes, figures, maps, notes, and tables are indicated by b, f, m, n, and t following the page numbers.
A Aadhaar (Indian identification program for social insurance programs), 276b access to finance, 11, 23, 294, 295f access to information, rights, and voice, 140–41 access to jobs, inequality in, 13, 137, 138b, 139f, 140, 173f accountability, 176. See also transparency active labor market programs (ALMPs), 267–72 delivering better outcomes, 270–72 types of programs, 267–70 public works programs, 269–70 training programs for job seekers, 269 wage subsidy programs, 268–69 affirmative action programs, 141–42 Afghanistan female employment in, 194 foreign assistance, effect of, 294 illegal poppy cultivation in, 194 skills level as constraint in, 181n81 Africa. See also specific countries and regions micro- and small enterprises in, 110b age discrimination, 215 age of workforce, 6, 51. See also aging population; youth agglomeration effects, 27, 161, 167–68, 167f, 193, 200, 202, 239 aging population need for new jobs and, 51 retention in work force, 90b aging societies defined, 281n1 incentives for job seekers in, 270 jobs agenda in, 18, 20f, 190, 213–16, 214–16f, 216b long-term credibility of social insurance system in, 275 mix of labor policies and institutions in, 259f policy making in, 31, 302b tax wedge effect in, 274, 275f agrarian economies defined, 281n1 jobs agenda in, 18, 20f, 190–93, 192–93f, 194b mix of labor policies and institutions in, 259f policy making in, 3, 29–30, 301–2 tax wedge effect in, 275f agricultural sector environmental spillovers and, 170 fertilizer use and, 192
health insurance, subsidizing farmers’ participation in programs, 276 irrigation and, 192 life satisfaction of farmers, 85, 86f manufacturing earnings vs., 165f prevalence of jobs in, 3, 5, 49 productivity, 79, 81, 88 extension services and, 246 farm size related to, 106–7, 119n29, 191 innovation and, 107, 191–92, 197 poverty reduction, effect on, 191 sharecropping, 197 small farms, 88, 104–6 subsistence agriculture and unemployment, 272 targeting investment in, 217–19 technological progress, 106–7, 119n32 Aid for Trade initiative, 33, 308 ALMPs. See active labor market programs alternative dispute resolution, 141, 142b antidiscrimination policies, 141–42 apprenticeship programs, 176 Arab Spring, 13, 127, 137, 207 ARB (Asociación de Recicladores de Bogotá), 267b Argentina as aging society, 213 child care and female labor participation in, 30b, 300b educational attainment in, 7, 55 informal sector in, 211 benefits for workers, 62b job loss, social effects of, 131–32, 133b job security rules in, 261 microenterprises in, 105 “one-stop shops” for administration of both social benefits and ALMPs in, 270 Trabajar programs, 270 wage subsidy programs in, 269 Armenia high youth unemployment in, 19 inequality in access to jobs in, 137 underemployment in, 49 Arrow, Kenneth, 145n11 Asia. See also specific countries and regions agrarian economies in, 191–92, 192f jobs creation in, 7 381