422
INDEX
pensions, 154–55, 156f persistence of gender inequality, xxi, 13–22, 14f, 55, 72–73 agency and voice, 81–82, 181 agricultural productivity, 20f, 202t, 203–4, 208f ethnic minorities and. See ethnic minorities girls’ education, 13f, 73f household care and housework, 19f, 26–27, 80–81 household decision making, 82–83 labor and earnings gaps, 16–18f, 16–20, 100 lessons learned from, 21–22 policy improvements, 22–35, 85–87. See also policy improvements political office, 84–85, 85f reproducing across generations, 21, 32–33 scope of gender inequality, 4b severely disadvantaged populations, 73–76 social norms, 172–73, 174b “sticky” domains, 76–85. See also “sticky” domains Peru children taken to work by mothers in, 222 domestic violence in, 20, 84 health expenditures for women in, 64 land titling program in, 345, 346b maternal mortality in, 294 microcredit in, 28 parental aspirations for their children in, 21 parental bias toward girls and their education in, 116 police force, women on, 168, 313 transport to markets, improvements in, 223, 300 vocational training in, 33, 302, 316 water supply in, 292 women’s employment in, 28–29 Philippines data entry jobs in, 258 domestic violence in, 312 fertility decisions in, 157 girls’ education in, 74 household relations in, 318 land ownership in, 229 state action to enforce and protect women’s rights in, 331 water and sanitation improvements in, 24 PISA. See Program for International Student Assessment police force, women on, 167, 168, 313 policy improvements, 22–35, 85–87 cross-generational policies to prevent reproduction of gender inequality, 32–33. See also intergenerational gender inequality economic opportunities, 26–30, 87. See also economic development evidence on effectiveness of, 320–21, 369–70 gender diagnostics as precondition for, 37, 362 health and education, 23–26, 86–87. See also education; health labor force participation, 34b. See also labor and earnings mortality, 23–26. See also mortality rates of girls and women voice, 30–32. See also agency; voice political economy of gender reform, 23, 35–36, 330–59 formal institutions and policies, 345–48, 345f inclusive markets, 340–45 informal institutions and policies, 332–40
pathways to change, 9f, 94–97, 94f, 350–54. See also progress in gender equality windows of opportunities, 332, 348–50 political representation agency and, 176–81, 177f lack of agency, effect on ability of women to participate in, 20 loss of female representation, 348 persistence of gender inequality, 81, 84–85, 85f, 180–81 policies to increase female political representation, 30–31, 225b, 306–7, 354 political party membership of women, 179f, 180 the poor educational inequalities and, 108–9 gender inequalities intensified among, 74–75f popular culture’s effect on social attitudes, 339b postfeminism, 334b preventive health services, 64–65, 65f, 125, 126–27f priorities for moving toward gender equality, xxii, 22–23, 36–37, 38t, 360–71, 361t PROBECAT program (Mexico), 300 Proempleo program (Argentina), 300 Programa Joven (Argentina), 316 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA 2009), 62, 114f, 115 progress in gender equality, xx–xxi, 8–13, 56–71, 99 attitude changes, 69, 339b, 352b. See also social norms change generating more change, 5, 9f, 56, 66–69 domains showing improved outcomes, 59–66 education, 60–62. See also education global consensus for, 57–59, 58b health, 62–65, 64–65f. See also health incremental change, 351–53 intergenerational cycles, 68–69. See also intergenerational gender inequality labor force participation, 65–66, 66f. See also labor and earnings lack of progress in one domain affecting progress in other domains, 87–88 transformative change, 6, 36, 152, 353–54 voice, 68. See also agency; voice property laws, 3, 159, 230, 304, 309, 310, 337. See also inheritance systems; land headings Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005 (India), 335 Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol), 57 Proyecto Servir (Ecuador), 318 public action for gender equality, 271–72, 288–329. See also formal institutions health and education, policies to reduce gaps in, 289–96, 290f public institutions. See formal institutions public-private partnerships, 34b, 346–47 Puntos de Encuentro (Nicaragua), 348
Q Queen’s University Belfast, 342 quotas in employment. See affirmative action in political representation. See political representation