Overview
MAP 1
17
Earnings gaps between women and men (female earnings relative to $1 of male earnings) Germany 62¢
Iceland 69¢
Georgia 60¢
India 64¢ A.R. of Egypt 82¢
Bangladesh 12¢
Mexico 80¢ Benin 80¢ Nigeria 60¢
Ethiopia 34¢
Sri Lanka 50¢
Malawi 90¢
Salaried Workers
Farmers
Entrepreneurs
Sources: Data for Benin come from Kinkingninhoun-Mêdagbé and others 2010; for Malawi from Gilbert, Sakala, and Benson 2002; for Nigeria from Oladeebo and Fajuyigbe 2007; for Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Sri Lanka from Costa and Rijkers 2011; and for Egypt, Georgia, Germany, Iceland, India, and Mexico from LABORSTA, International Labour Organization.
Lanka, the differences in profitability are significant between female-owned and male-owned businesses.37 So, what explains this persistent gender segregation in economic activity and the resulting gaps in earnings? The Report argues that gender differences in time use, in access to assets and credit, and in treatment by markets and formal institutions (including the legal and regulatory framework) all play a role in constraining women’s opportunities. These constraints are shown in figure 9 as wedges blocking progress toward greater gender equality. Income growth has some influence in shifting these patterns but does not eliminate them. The mutually reinforcing interactions between these different factors make the problem particularly difficult to break. Consider each in turn. The differing amounts of time that men and women allocate to care and related household work are one factor driving segregation and the consequent earnings gaps. In most countries, irrespective of income, women bear a
disproportionate responsibility for housework and care, while men are responsible mostly for market work (figure 10). When all activities are added up, women typically work more hours than men, with consequences for their leisure and well-being. And everywhere they devote more time each day to care and housework than their male partners: differences range from one to three hours more for housework, two to ten times the time for care (of children, elderly, and the sick), and one to four hours less for market activities. Even as women take up a bigger share of market work, they remain largely responsible for care and housework. And these patterns are only accentuated after marriage and childbearing. A second factor driving segregation in employment and earnings gaps is differences in human and physical endowments (including access to assets and credit). Despite increases in women’s education, there are still differences in human capital between women and men. These include a gap in years of schooling among older