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WO R L D D E V E LO P M E N T R E P O RT 2 0 1 2
TA B L E 5.1
Female farmers have lower average productivity than male farmers
Crop(s)
Productivity measure
Average gender difference in productivity (%)
Country
Year/season
Type of gender comparison
Nigeria (Osun State)
2002/03
Gender of the farmer
Rice
Yields
40
Benin (Central)
2003–04
Gender of the farmer
Rice
Yields
21
Ghana
2002 and 2004
Gender of the farmer
Cocoa
Yields
17
Malawi (National)
1998–99
Gender of the farmer
Maize
Yields
11–16
Kenya (Western)
1971
Gender of the farmer
Maize
Yields
4
Kenya (Western)
2004/05
Gender of head of household
Maize
Yields
19
Kenya (Subnational)
1989/90
Gender of the farmer
Maize, beans, and cowpeas
Gross value of output per hectare
7.7
Ethiopia (Central Highlands)
1997
Gender of head of household
All farm output
Yields
26
Sources: Alene and others 2008; Gilbert, Sakala, and Benson 2002; Kinkingninhoun-Mêdagbé and others 2010; Moock 1976; Oladeebo and Fajuyigbe 2007; Saito, Mekonnen, and Spurling 1994; Tiruneh and others 2001; Vargas Hill and Vigneri 2009.
documented in both developed and developing countries10 (see figure 2.8 in chapter 2). Gaps have declined over time but remain significant in the formal and informal sectors, where women often do casual and piece work.11 Gaps tend to be smaller in the public sector (figure 5.1). What lies behind these systematic gender differences in productivity and earnings? Three possible explanations: differences in the charac-
F I G U R E 5 .1
teristics of female and male workers, differences in the types of activities and jobs that women and men do, and differences in the returns to both worker and job characteristics. We argue here that while differences in worker characteristics (especially in human capital) and returns matter, it is primarily differences in jobs that account for the gender gaps in productivity and earnings.
There are systematic gender differences in earnings
a. Gender wage di erences are smaller in the public sector than in the private sector
b. The gender pay gap, p although diminishing, is persistent 40
Iceland Bulgaria
20
Finland
gender pay gap is diminishing Czech Repu ublic Austria
United K Kingdo om Lithuaniaa Netherlaands Den enmark Slovak en v ia Sweden SSwitzerland Germaany Sw Latviaa Norway R Romania Luxembour ourg urg Spain Cyprus Slov ovenia ov France Portugal Italy
10
Poland
0 Malta Belgium
–10 –10
0
10
gender pay gap is smaller in the public sector
20
30
gender pay gap in the private sector, % Source: WDR 2012 team estimates based on the Structure of Earnings Survey, Eurostat.
gender pay gap, 1995–98, %
gender pay gap in the public sector, %
30
Bulgaria
30
20
Paraguay Costa Rica
Indonesia Singa nga gapore United Kingdom Lithuania Netherlands Ukraine Mexiico c Kazakhstan Latvia Belarus Hungary Sweden
Egypt, Arab Rep. West Bank and Gaza
10 Philippines
Sri Lanka
Panama
0
–10 –10
0
10
20
30
40
gender pay gap, 2007–08, % Source: WDR 2012 team estimates based on LABORSTA, International Labour Organization.
Note: The 45° line in each figure above shows parity in the values on the vertical and horizontal axis.