153
Promoting women’s agency
F I G U R E 4.2
Limited progress in women’s agency is explained by mutually reinforcing constraints in markets, formal institutions, and informal institutions
MAL INFOR TIONS U IT INST s, on role Norms lations, e r power y, and it mobil nity/ li mascu rks netwo
ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES
HOUSEHOLDS Allocation of resources and care/housework
MARKETS Female autonomous earnings
FO INST RMAL ITUT Law ION s on S o wne and rshi mar p enfo riag e r serv cemen , t, ices , info rma and tion
AGENCY Control within household
Source: WDR 2012 team.
for girls and reduced early pregnancy.17 Greater household wealth can also reduce the need for girls to marry early to reduce the financial strain on the household. Throughout the world girls and women in richer households marry later on average (although there are exceptions for some regions or communities) (figure 4.3). Higher household incomes and wealth can also release financial constraints on physical mobility. The cost of transportation can be a barrier to accessing services and information or employment opportunities and markets (chapter 5 discusses the latter in greater depth). In Brazil and Burkina Faso about a fourth of the cost of receiving health services in a hospital relates to transport.18 And data from 36 countries show that greater wealth is associated with weaker mobility constraints related to infrastructure.19 Women in wealthier households report having greater control over decision making, as households enjoy greater discretionary income beyond levels required to cover basic
expenditure. In South Asia the percentage of women who have some role in deciding on visits to relatives increases from 57 percent for the poorest quintile to 71 percent for the richest quintile, and the share increases from 80 percent to 92 percent for decisions over their own earnings (figure 4.4). Similar patterns hold for other regions.
Women’s earnings opportunities and own assets promote their bargaining power Another channel for economic growth (and higher national incomes) to affect women’s agency is through the expansion of earning opportunities. Economic growth changes employment structures in ways that typically open new opportunities for women and create new incentives for them to join the labor force. When higher incomes come mainly through men’s greater earnings, the impact on women’s agency might be muted or even negative. But higher incomes that come through women’s own earn-
ENDOWMENTS