448 Accountability through Public Opinion
competence implies that we expect citizens to know their rights and be both willing and able to take action so that governments can be held accountable. The first presenter discussed the importance of speech-based communication and different modes of engagement, as well as lessons learned that are critical to building citizen competence. The second presenter discussed the importance of conceptualizing how SA mechanisms are deployed. Under one dominant conception of democracy, the public itself should define problems and work toward addressing them using SA mechanisms, which enhance information processes and information flows, and promote cross-sectoral partnerships. Moreover, a special focus should be placed on building the competence of young people in ways that take into account developmental processes. The other speakers presented two real-world case studies that described ways in which an informed citizenry can be cultivated. In the case of the Democratic Republic of Congo, the importance of training journalists to be well informed and independent was stressed. Despite harsh environmental conditions in fragile states such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, radio plays a key role in reaching out to citizens. In Argentina, building capacity of student journalists as intermediaries was shown to be effective, specifically by training students to make access to information requests through school projects. In the plenary discussion, SA mechanisms were discussed as means to respond to identified problems and to address government failure. However, the challenge is reframing and communicating an issue to convince the public that it deserves serious attention. The different types of journalism—civic, public, citizen, participatory—play an important role in building an informed citizenry, but many obstacles exist in terms of what journalists can report. Also, in some environments, information overload and conflicting messages can stir up fear in people and sometimes create information or transformation deficits. Hence, building an informed citizenry is better stated as building an empowered transformed citizenry. Getting media attention on SA issues is also a challenge, especially where plurality and competition exist, because a tendency exists to sensationalize. Another concern is that many public officials act deliberately to influence the media agenda. However, the public sphere is about not only media, but also a concept of everyday talk on issues concerning the public that take place everywhere. Although consultative programming structures and mechanisms are useful in engaging citizens in participatory debate, other strategic communication channels should be considered when trying to influence decision makers. The main focus should shift from educating citizens to building an informed citizenry, because the fundamental task in any political society is to create an effective citizenship where citizens can engage in public argument and listen and participate in public deliberation.