44
The Cost of Environmental Degradation
Table 3.3 Dose-Response Coefficients for Morbidity from PM10 Exposure per 1 Âľg/m3 annual average ambient concentration Annual health effect Chronic bronchitisa Respiratory hospital admissionsb Emergency room visitsb Restricted activity daysa Lower respiratory illness in childrenc Respiratory symptomsa
Dose-response coefficients 0.9 1.2 23.5 5,750 169 18,300
Sources: Ostro 1994; Abbey and others 1995. Note: Âľg/m3 = micrograms per cubic meter. a. Per 100,000 adults. b. Per 100,000 population. c. Per 100,000 children.
other environmental factors and comparisons between mortality and morbidity using a common indicator. Table 3.4 presents the number of DALYs per 10,000 cases of various health end points and the estimated total number of DALYs. Overall, the total cost of mortality and morbidity caused by PM2.5 and PM10 exposure in the GAM, Zarqa, Aqaba, Fuheis, and Rashadeia, and by SO2 exposure in Zarqa totals 15,670 DALYs. The cost of adult mortality is estimated based on the HCA as a lower bound and the VSL as an upper bound, thus obtaining a wide range. Applying the HCA, 1 DALY corresponds to the annual GDP per capita, or US$2,510, in 2006 (Central Bank of Jordan 2007). Using the VSL method, the value of 1 DALY in Jordan is equivalent to US$18,310 after adjusting for the GDP per capita differences between the United States and Jordan.12 Accordingly, the cost of adult mortality is estimated in the range of US$13 million to US$252 million, averaging to US$133 million.13 The cost of child mortality and all morbidity is estimated based only on the HCA because data are scarce in Jordan concerning the WTP of individuals to avoid pain and discomfort. Accordingly, this cost is estimated at US$15 million. In addition, the COI is estimated at US$9 million. Adding up the estimated costs of mortality, morbidity and the COI, the total cost of health impacts in Jordan associated with PM10, PM2.5, and SO2 exposure is estimated in the range of US$37 million to US$276 million, averaging to US$156.5 million.