Agency (GTZ). These agencies play a much more limited role in India than they do in Ghana and Ethiopia; total funding of international development agencies accounts for a miniscule share of India’s overall budget (although the share is substantial in some states, such as Bihar). These agencies fund a variety of development projects that are relevant for local governance, gender, and agricultural/rural service provision (table 3.A.2). Community- or group-based approaches play a central role in these projects, and the formation of women’s self-help groups is a prominent approach within these projects. The projects focus either on livelihoods generally or on watershed development, taking into account that the majority of the poor live in nonirrigated watershed areas. Ghana Research Findings on Decentralization, Gender, and Rural Service Provision Although there is a substantial body of literature on Ghana’s decentralization and governance system, very few studies examine the role of gender in this respect. According to Issaka (1994) and Ofei-Aboagye (2000, 2004), two main driving forces have spurred the concern with promoting women’s interests and gender equity in local governance in Ghana. First, the design of the assembly system has considerable potential for enhancing the effective involvement of women in local development, as it includes features such as appointed memberships, the use of English and local languages, the use of subcommittees, and the nonpartisan status of the assemblies. Second, Ghana has committed itself to such international requirements as the 1995 Beijing Platform for Action and the 1998 International Union of Local Authorities Declaration on Women. Allah-Mensah (2003) notes that diverse interventions by various agencies have addressed the invisibility of women in local governance in Ghana. Civil society organizations have invested in awareness creation and gender mainstreaming, and grassroots participation has yielded dividends. The district assemblies proved to be a good starting point for women, as reflected in the increasing number of elected female assembly members. Using district assemblies as channels for addressing development paradigms and acceptable policies makes gender considerations even more critical. According to Ofei-Aboagye (2004), efforts to increase women’s presence, visibility, and influence over the business of local authorities have met with some success, but much remains to be done. Obstacles that need to be overcome include low levels of literacy, time constraints, and problems related to socialization. A study by ActionAid Ghana (2002) finds that decision making at the district assembly level appears to be centralized in the executive committee. The lack of regular district assembly meetings implies that only those assembly members with clout are able to lobby the district chief executive and the district coordinating director for development projects. The study notes that the traditional
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