AN
ADVENTURE TOWARDS THE
OUTER SPACE J. Rubén Morones Ibarra
AN
ADVENTURE TOWARDS THE
OUTER SPACE J. Rub茅n Morones Ibarra
Universidad Aut贸noma de Nuevo Le贸n
Jesus Ancer Rodríguez Rector Rogelio G. Garza Rivera Secretary General Rogelio Villarreal Elizondo Secretary of Extension and Culture Mario Cesar Salinas Carmona Secretary for Research, Innovation and Graduate Celso José Garza Acuña Director of Publications
Padre Mier No. 909 poniente, esquina con Vallarta Centro, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México, C. P. 64000 Tel: (5281) 8329 4111 / Fax (5281) 8329 4095 e-mail: publicaciones@uanl.mx web page: www.uanl.mx/publicaciones
AN ADVENTURE TOWARDS THE OUTER SPACE First edition, 2013 Autonomous University of New Lion J. Rubén Morones Ibarra ISBN: 978-607-433-995-6 Al rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing of the copyright owner and publisher. Printed in Monterrey, Mexico
Contents
Presentation
9
Introduction
13
Chapter I. The Universe
17
Chapter II. History of Astronomy
23
Chapter III. The structure of the universe
33
Chapter IV. Stars
41
Chapter V. The rockets
53
Chapter VI. Artificial satellites
67
Chapter VII. Space travel
81
Chapter VIII. Extraterrestrial life
101
Epilogue
109
About the Author
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AN ADVENTURE TOWARDS THE OUTER SPACE
PRESENTATION Dr. Jesús Áncer Rodríguez Rector of the Autonomous University of Nuevo León
I
n order to present the general public in a clear, attractive, accurate and responsible form, scientif ic and technological knowledge, not only from a theoretical view, but also its history, recent discoveries, the understanding of technological advances and their relevance in daily life, the Autonomous University of Nuevo León begins this collection: SCIENCE AT YOUR FINGERTIPS. To reach the goal of integrating it, we have invited researchers and popularizers of science from Nuevo León, as well as from other states, always with the idea of promoting interest in science and technology in all sectors of the population, favoring the rapprochement between scientif ic community and society, and promoting the participation of connoisseurs in outreach efforts. 9
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We want to present not only the formal content of scientif ic disciplines, their laws, theories, principles, facts and applications, but also to bring the spirit of science to the people of our state and our country. Another purpose we have in mind is to present the scientists as they are, with the idea that, reading about them, we can better understand their contributions to the welfare and development of society, because although their scientif ic and technological research meets our needs, they should not lose their human faces. It is worth remembering that in 1612, when Galileo Galilei wrote, in Italian, not in Latin, as scientif ic works were presented in those times, his book on sunspots, and later, in 1632, the Dialogue on the Two World Systems, he laid the foundation for the popularization of science, because, as he said in a letter to his friend, the Canon Paolo Gualdo: “I write in vulgar language because I want everybody to read it.” Since then on, works on common language followed. In 1637, René Descartes published in French his Discourse on Method, and, in 1661, Robert Boyle presented in English his masterpiece The Skeptical Chemist. Later on, the popularization of science has been nurturing herself with authors like Nicolas Camille Flammarion (1842-1925), who founded the French Astronomical Society, and who, with his works popularized astronomy; the Russian Isaac Asimov (1920-1992), who besides of being an author of works of science f iction, wrote numerous books and newspaper columns for the general public, with themes of historical, chemical and environmental disclosure, such as his latest book: The wrath of the earth. We have also Martin Gardner (1914-2010), great popularizer of mathematics; Desmond Morris (1928 ), author 10
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of the famous work The Naked Ape, and The human zoo”; Carl Sagan ( 1934-1996 ), with his famous books The dragons of Eden and Cosmos: Personal Journey, that became a popular TV series and the novel “Contact”, with which a f ilm was made, in 1997; and Stephen Hawking, who with his extensive research on the Einstein’s “Theory of Relativity and on the origin of the universe”, and with his most popular work “History of Time”, is perhaps the most prominent science writer today. In our country, since eighteenth century, there have been excellent communicators , as Antonio Alzate (1737-1799), who with a clear vocation for physics, chemistry, mathematics and astronomy, was interested in popularizing scientif ic knowledge, and who, inter alia, beginning in 1768, published weekly The Mexico’s Literary Journal, in which he offered the general public science news, and José Ignacio Bartolache (1739-1790), a famous mathematician, who between 1772 and 1773 published a newspaper with the name of Mercurio Volante, which offered the people of Mexico curious and important news on physics and medicine. During the last thirty years, the Mexican scientif ic community outreach has become extremely important , and has been complying with new generations, among which, for lack of space, we only mention Luis Martínez Estrada, communicators former, who achieved the academic category for science communication; Alejandra Jaidar Matalobos (1937-1988), prominent physical and disseminator, who, among other things, promoted the collection of popular science “Science from Mexico”, of the Fondo de Cultura Económica, and Rene Drucker Colin, specialized scientist in physiology and neurobiology, and great communicator, who with numerous awards and distinctions, has been president of the Mexican Academy of Sciences and director of Popularization of Science at UNAM.
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Also, we mention José Mario Molina, a prominent chemist, author of works on the ozone layer. In 1995 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and has been performing a remarkable outreach; Julieta Norma Fierro, a leading scientist in the f ield of astronomy, with numerous books and articles, and the making of a television series entitled “Beyond the Stars”; Antigona Segura Peralta, who, in addition to numerous publications and lectures around the country, has led for more than ten years, the radio program “Towards the New Millennium”, in Radio Red. This collection , “SCIENCE AT YOUR FINGERTIPS “ adds to these efforts, also with the idea of bringing together our popularizers of science and of being a bridge between the world of scientif ic and technological research and the general public, who wants and needs to have available scientif ic and technological knowledge.
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INTRODUCTION
T
he purpose of this book is to present the reader with a brief history of man’s efforts to explore outer space to our planet. In this not very long journey has been exciting times where we have made great strides and have notable achievements. Still a lot to do but we can assure that the man of tomorrow great adventures await you in the conquest of space. Man has always been interested for practical survival reasons, to know where you live. However, the natural restlessness of man to comprehend and understand what surrounds it, has led him to explore beyond their surroundings. The search for an explanation of the mysteries of the world prompted the man to explore the sky. All the great civilizations of antiquity sought the explanation of celestial phenomena, also creating myths about the origin of the universe and its form. All developed by ancient fantasies are perfectly understandable because they had no knowledge needed to model the universe that were feasible. 13
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Interest in the study of the sky caught the attention of many people because they thought the life of men was linked to the movement of the planets or stellar configurations. This issue, which of course must be very attractive to any culture, made to flourish Astrology. Astrology originated in ancient Babylon, five thousand years ago, and from there it spread to Egypt, Greece and throughout Europe. It is perfectly understandable why astrology caught the attention of many people. People are concerned about their future and if someone assures them that this future is associated with position astronomical bodies (so called astrology), which easily yield to the temptation to find out their fate. Of course, astrology is not a science, since it does not have a scientific basis and is only a divinatory activity that some people are dedicated to defraud innocent or ignorant people. To attempt relating the positions of the stars with the events of the life of people and their influence on the lives of these completely lacks sense. In the time domain of astrology, before making a decision, people had to consult diviners, prophets or astrologer, who were those who could read the sky and understand what the stars say. Business matters, travel and any major decision is only assumed when the guesser recommended that the positions of the stars indicated that it was a favorable time. With these beliefs, no man could ever explain what happens in heaven, nor predict eclipses and much less send a spacecraft to the moon. 14
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Early attempts to understand the universe The model of the universe which was accepted by more than 1400 years was the Greek astronomer and mathematician Ptolemy, who lived from 100 to 170 AD. In this model, named geocentric, Earth was the center of the universe and everything revolved around it. This model was discarded when Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory to our planetary system. In the model of Copernicus, the Earth and the other planets revolve around the sun. Soon after, with the invention of the telescope by Galileo, the ideas developed by the work of Kepler and Isaac Newton, Copernicus’s theory was confirmed. Although the belief that the Earth was the center of the universe lasted over a thousand years, with modern astronomy we know that our planet happened to be one of the billions that exist in our galaxy and in the universe. Astronomical observations with the Earth turns out to be a cosmic body where man has nothing special from the astronomical point of view , and it is only a tiny part of the universe dwells . Interest in space exploration Astronomy is the oldest of the sciences. Before writing was invented by humans and expressed their concerns about the phenomena of the sky. At first he thought the sky was inhabited by the gods that dictated the destiny of men. Today that era is behind us and now man pursues the cosmic bodies. This effort has been made spectacular goals. We reached the Moon and Mars, the sky is full of artificial satellites that have been placed there to facilitate communication, 15
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to explore space, and to have more information about what happens on Earth. Space stations orbiting the Earth, where man could live and work for periods of several months are built. This Trek adventure is just beginning and new generations will live exciting moments with the new discoveries of the cosmos. The dream of flying on the human being at the same time observing the flight of birds. In the early times of mankind this dream is just that, a dream, that is a possibility that has no material basis to perform. However, this chimera starts to become a real possibility when the laws of mechanics, i.e., the laws of motion are found. The evolution of ideas and the study of the movement led to a body of knowledge that laws were implemented in the intellectual contributions of Isaac Newton. The twentieth century brought the electronic age, the atomic age and space age brought. It was certainly a century of great advances in science and technology will also be remembered as the century of physics, as impressive advances were made in the field of this science. The book you hold in your hands consists of 8 chapters. These sections are independent of each other and can be read separately, to suit the reader. It begins with a brief historical overview on the most relevant for astronomy and knowledge of our universe events. Later modern ideas about the origin, evolution and structure of the universe are introduced. Astronomical objects like galaxies, stars and planets, as well as the dimensions of these cosmic bodies. This quick tour will also briefly introduce modern ideas about the origin of life and why man has been included in the program of space exploration, the search for extraterrestrial life.
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1
THE UNIVERSE
T
he Universe is the totality of everything that exists. All space, matter, energy, galaxies, stars, planets and everything that may exist, is the universe. Talking about the universe is a fascinating subject. Immediately questions arise such as the following: how the universe originated, what is the size of the universe, the universe is infinite or has a limit? Until about ninety years ago these questions were classified as philosophical. However, in the year 1929 took place one of the most remarkable astronomical discoveries of history. The American astronomer Edwin Hubble observed from the world’s largest telescope at that time, the Mount Wilson near Los Angeles California, the most distant galaxies could see was each other and us, away at high speeds. This observation is similar when looking at any direction in the sky. Since one of the assumptions of astronomy is that our galaxy does not occupy a pri17
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vileged position in the universe, we expect that if we stand in any other galaxy, also see that all other galaxies would be moving away from us. This observation formed the basis of modern cosmology, which is the branch of astronomy that deals with the study of the universe as a whole. This experimental observation has resulted in the questions that began the previous paragraph were no longer exclusive to the field of philosophy and now part of the scientific questions. The above is not that were not of interest of scientists, what happens is that you could not apply the methods used by torque scientists answer them because there were no observations that would be taken as a base or as a guide to issue a response. As is known, the natural sciences are based on the scientific method, i.e. experimental facts, to establish their hypotheses or theories. The scientific method requires for its application, first, that a phenomenon is observed and that can be played or observed repeatedly. After these remarks is to explain the phenomenon by emitting a hypothesis. This hypothesis implies that certain facts should appear accompanying the phenomenon. The predictive power of the hypothesis is tested that. If the events hypothesis then predicts reinforces the hypothesis is confirmed. If the fact is observed predicted then not passed to the next stage in the explanation of the phenomenon, which would subject him to tests. Before Hubble’s observations, there was no hint that would develop a hypothesis about how the universe began. From 1929 he began to speculate on the matter scientifically. Of course science does not guarantee the truth of all, the way that is appropriate to rely on the information we have to issue a hypothesis.
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THE BIG BANG
Origin of the Universe After observing the distance between the galaxies themselves, the idea naturally arose that if the present galaxies away from each other, then in the past these galaxies were closer together. Up leaving far back in time, then that happened sometime in the past all galaxies were being concentrated in a relatively small region of space. This simple reasoning led to the Russian - American physicist George Gamow (1904-1968) to develop a model of the origin of the universe. This model known as the Big Bang or Big Bang (Big Bang), assumes that ten or twenty billion years ago, all matter in the universe was concentrated in a small region of dimensions that can not be determined now. This primordial state of the universe to which some scientists call “the original fireball� was at an extremely high temperature. According to a law of physics, any object at a temperature above absolute zero emit electromagnetic radiation must exert pressure, which in this case was huge, given the enormous temperature of the fireball. This immense pressure was the cause of the Big Bang, which is where science locates the origin of the universe. The original fireball was the whole universe , that filled all space , it makes no sense to ask who had outside this region , as it makes no sense to ask now, when it is recognized that the volume of the universe is finite, what lies outside this volume. The small volume occupied by the original universe was all the space there. After the big bang, the space was being created (increasing in volume) as the fireball expands. Of course to go expending the fireball, the density of matter and energy in the universe was decreasing. In the early universe, this consisted of a mixture of 19
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fundamental particles and radiation, and its expansion was violent. This universe, even though it contained a very high density of radiation was totally dark since radiation was absorbed by the medium formed by other particles unable to travel long distances due to the high density of particles and energy. According to theoretical calculations, after the lapse of 700.000 years of the Big Bang, the universe neutral atoms were formed. You then having much less free charged particles, of that initially had then the universe becomes transparent to radiation and the radiation could go through long distances surviving up to the present days. As the universe continued expanding, this radiation was “cooling” and is today a remnant of the distant past of the universe. Today it is called as” background radiation of the universe”. This radiation was detected accidentally in 1965 by American engineers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson. The discovery of this radiation from all points of space, gave strong experimental support to the Big Bang model. There is now a theory about the origin of the universe, strongly supported by experimental observations, it is not just pure speculation. Questions about the origin, age and size of the universe ceased to be exclusive themes of theology and philosophy, now entering the domain of science. Even the question of the fate of the universe answers currently supported in scientific knowledge.
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Fate of the universe To better understand how science raises the issue of the fate of the universe is convenient to introduce a familiar concept. Consider what happens to a ball thrown by a hypothetical very powerful cannon. If the speed with which the bullet is fired does not exceed a certain value called the critical point, the bullet returns to ground. This corresponds to the familiar case of tossing a stone into the air. Moreover, if the bullet is fired vertically upward with a speed that exceeds a critical speed known as escape velocity, then the bullet will not return to the land and continue to move through space, in principle, indefinitely. In general, the numerical value of the escape velocity for any planet, depends on the mass and size of the planet. Similarly we could say that if the initial velocity of the Big Bang, exceeded a certain critical value , then the universe will expand forever , it will continuously decreasing the average temperature and end in a cold, dark universe , which will not take place any process , or biological or chemical , or physical. It will be a dead universe. This dark evolution of the universe is known as the “heat death of the universe�. On the other hand, if the initial velocity with which exploded the universe is less than the aforementioned critical value, then the expansion will stop at some point in the future and begin their contraction, ending in a Big Crunch. This destination , less tragic but more spectacular than the last, allow the universe to begin again , like the phoenix of mythology ,
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which is incinerated herself comeback rejuvenated from its ashes , thus initiating a new Big Bang, which repeat the previous cycle. There is a significant quantity to decide which one will be the fate of the universe. This quantity is known as critical mass density of the universe. If the mass density of the universe is less than the critical density, the scenario for their evolution will be the first mentioned, the continuous expansion. In this universe is known as open universe. Moreover, if the mass density is greater than the critical density, then we have the second case, the universe will stop expanding, contracting subsequently collapsing and starting a new explosion. This model of the universe is a closed model and its maximum size is finite. This model of the universe will repeat its cycle of expansion and contraction ever. For this reason the model is known as cyclic or oscillating universe.
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2
HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY
INTEREST OF MAN BY OBSERVING THE SKY
T
oday with the advances that have been made in astronomy and technology in general, which have allowed us to observe from space telescopes placed in space ships or satellites, it has been possible to observe the universe incredibly far distances. The Hubble Space Telescope orbiting Earth since 1990 is one of these powerful tools and is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble, already mentioned, who was the one who discovered the phenomenon of the expanding universe. All civilizations have observed the sky and there have been questions about the universe, about its shape and size. To explain the phenomena of the sky have been prepared models, i.e., simplified representations that allow us to extract information from the system being modeled. In modern science models are very useful for understanding nature. In the past, models were made with mythological or religious media. All ancient cultures developed different models of the universe according to their beliefs. To put into context the current view of the structure of the universe is appropriate to make a little history. 23
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Some about history All human beings, from the most remote antiquity, have been fascinated by the mysteries of heaven. Primitive man observed the night sky and watched him ten thousand years ago, we now have almost unchanged. Cosmology is the science that deals with the origin, structure and evolution of the universe. All ancient civilizations developed their own cosmological theory. In ancient Babylon, six thousand years ago, a very advanced culture that created many concepts and ideas that are still in force was developed. For observational methods found that the year has 360 days. Therefore they divided the circle into 360 degrees of the sky. Moreover, Babylonian mathematicians knew that the radius of a circle to the circumference divided into six arcs of equal size, these two events, the 360 days of the year and the division into six equal arcs of a circle of 360 degrees, the Babylonians did convert to number 60 in a mystical number. For the inhabitants of Babylon, the universe was a flat disk floating in the sea and the sky was a hemispherical carbide plate in which the stars were attached. The Babylonians believed that the life of human beings was ruled by the stars. It was there where astrology was born. This activity should not be confused with the science of astronomy. Astrology is a divination activity trying to explain what happens to human beings with what is observed in the heavens. It was not easy to let go of those ideas, because even with all the scientific and technological developments, strong influences from those ancient times still persist. 24
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In Classical Greece, systematic sky watchers, known as astronomers identified some bright objects moving relative to the fixed background of stars. They called these bodies in motion PLANETS, which means wanderer. The Romans gave them the names of their deities to these planets. So MERCURY, which in the Roman mythology is the messenger of the gods. VENUS, which is the goddess of love and beauty. MARS, which is the god of war. JUPITER, the father of the gods. And the last of the known planets at that time, Saturn, who is the father of Jupiter and god of agriculture. The man long believed that the Earth was the center of the universe. This concept is known as the geocentric model. This idea was first proposed by Aristotle and was later taken up by the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy. The noted astronomer and mathematician Claudius Ptolemy lived in Egypt, AD 100 to 170. Ptolemy developed a geocentric model of the universe was that it remained to be taught in schools for more than 1400 years.
Ptolemy
25
The universe model developed by Ptolemy, called geocentric, in which the Earth was at the center of the universe was accepted for more than fourteen centuries. From the time of Ptolemy, until the early sixteenth century, the idea that everything in the sky rotates
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around the Earth was accepted and enforced by all European rulers. The Ptolemaic model of the universe is based on common sense. If we see all about us, it is clear that the Earth is the center of everything. The universe is a huge balloon that is solid, with stars stuck in that firmament and the planets, which are wandering stars, moving in that vault. After Greece came under the domination of the Roman Greek culture was being forgotten. Even after the fall of the Roman Empire the situation was not favorable for the development of science. The world entered the obscurantist period, period of history of civilization where the population is prevented from obtaining an education. After a thousand years of darkness, the world began to come out of their slumber. In the period from 1100 to 1200, the first universities were founded in Europe and the world became interested in knowledge. At the height of the Renaissance, when the world woke from his sleep of a thousand years, the Polish astronomer and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus, published at the end of his life, a book expounding his theory that the Earth revolves around the Sun This theory, called heliocentric theory , also stated that the moon revolves around the Earth . One aspect of his ideas was that the Earth is rotating about its axis and not the stars around the earth as was believed for so long.
Nicolaus Copernicus
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Studying the movement of the stars, Copernicus reasoned as follows: All planets move differently and are at different positions. It is very strange that they all revolve around the Earth each
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day walking around. Seeking an explanation for this, came the idea that if the Earth is rotating all seems simplified and clarified. However, people laughed at this idea. How is possible that the Earth rotated, thought, that we are spinning. If so, we could take a leap and move the earth beneath our feet would touch the ground falling elsewhere, not in it, as we all know from experience that occurs. It would still be a century for Newton will explain what really happens. After Newton’s death in the year 1727, The poet Alexander Pope described summarize the life and work of Newton in the following words: “Nature and its laws remained hid in night: God said,” Let Newton be”. And all was light”. The hypothesis of Copernicus that the earth is spinning on its axis very simply explains the phenomenon of day and night. Copernicus also assumed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, as we now know. With this hypothesis the translational motion of the Earth around the sun, the appearance of the seasons are explained. It is for these ideas for what they say metaphorically that Copernicus stopped the sun and Earth put in motion. The new astronomy With the hypothesis of Copernicus astronomy entered a time of great progress and modernization. Based on the ideas of Copernicus made great advances in the knowledge of our solar system and the contri27
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butions of Kepler and Galileo, Newton completed his monumental work on mechanics and universal gravitation. The German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler, conducted intensive research on the movement of planets and formulated the laws that bear his name, contributing their ideas to the discovery of the law of universal gravitation by Newton. In 1596, Kepler wrote a book entitled “The Mystery of the Universe� where the secrets of planetary motion claimed Johannes Kepler to have discovered. The book begins with an elegant letter to his supporters German Nobles in their research. This letter said : As I promised six months ago to write a book that according to the experts is elegant, striking and well above the annual calendar, I now offer to your kind company a work which, though small in size, is the result of and my own modest efforts , and is a wonderful subject . If you wish to antiquity, Pythagoras had already treated over two thousand years ago. If you want novelty, is the first time this issue is brought to all mankind by myself. If you desire greatness, nothing bigger than the universe. If you wish venerableness, nothing is more beautiful than our home. If you wish to know the secrets, nothing is or has been in the innermost world. I am referring to the book that I present today and it is the book of nature. With these words, Kepler, which at the time was 25, showed passionately, with the strength that gave their youth, their conviction to have 28
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discovered the secret that holds the movement of the planets. Kepler, which had a lot of mystical thought, following the Pythagorean school, the mysterious power of numbers. He engaged in his studies on the movement of planets concluded that the planets follow circular paths around the Sun, but follow an elliptical path the sun placed at one focus of the ellipse being. GALILEO Italian astronomer and mathematician Galileo Galilei lived from 1564 to 1642. It was a generator of new ideas that break with dogmas that came from hundreds of years in the past. Was the inventor of the telescope and put this invention available to man look many cosmic objects. From Earth, the Earth’s moon whose surface is smooth believed, could be seen with its craters and mountains. Were also observed four of Jupiter’s moons. With his telescope Galileo discovered sunspots and could also see many stars that were not previously identified, we also observed the rotation of Jupiter’s moons orbiting this planet. The latter was something that greatly moved the world and thus the Copernican theory that the earth revolves around the sun is indirectly supported. With this discovery Galileo showed the beauty and wonders of Heaven. Galileo studied the motion of bodies and was the first to associate a mathematical equation to a movement problem. His research on the falling bodies led him to ensure that the
Galileo Galilei
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great book of nature is written in the language of mathematics. From the discoveries of Galileo and Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion, Isaac Newton began his great work that led him to discover the law of universal gravitation and the laws of mechanics. With the discoveries of Newton and his formulation of the general laws of motion, the world entered a new phase and the paradigm of the natural sciences changed completely. The laws that govern the motion in the sky, the celestial bodies are the same that govern the motion of bodies here on Earth. The new scientific paradigm is that in the universe the same laws are met. After the publication of Newton’s work where he presents his laws of motion and universal gravitation, “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy,” Newton’s fame and influence of his work spread throughout Europe in the study centers natural sciences and mathematics. The world was never the same. It now had the fundamental laws of nature, which provided information to decipher many of the enigmas of the world. With the revolutionary ideas of Copernicus was born the new astronomy. The model of the universe created by Ptolemy Copernicus ended. Then came Isaac Newton, whom resting on the shoulders of giants, as he would say, referring to Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo, would
Isaac Newton - Godfrey Kneller, 1689.
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give us a nearly complete picture of what the universe. However, after Albert Einstein come to change the laws of the universe that Newton left us. Today our universe paradigm is based on the laws of Einstein. At a dinner in honor of Einstein on October 27, 1930, the English writer Bernard Shaw paid tribute to the work of Einstein in a memorable speech. After mentioning in his speech that there is a type of large men who are recognized to be empire-builders, like Napoleon, he added the following: It is a type of men who go beyond building empires, like the man we come today to honor here, they are creators of universes. The universe created by Ptolemy takes 1.400 years, until Newton came along and created a new universe that lasted 300 years until Einstein came. The universe does not know yet how long. With this last sentence in the presence of Einstein, laughter erupted.
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3
THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE
What is the universe made of?, What is the size of the universe? These and other questions such as the origin of life, are treated in this chapter.
T
he technology to observe the sky has had a surprising development for the past twenty years. Today, astronomers with their observation equipment manufacturers have managed to see astronomical objects never before imagined distance. The audience was thrilled with the stunning images of phenomena of the cosmos and the universe of objects that have been detected by the Hubble Space Telescope. Size of the universe The size of the universe is amazing. We know that there are stars so distant that their light, traveling at 300,000 miles per second, it takes billions of years to reach us. Always believed that the Earth was the biggest star in the universe, as we think is immense and the moon and the sun does not seem so big 33
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from where we see them. However the sun is in the size of its diameter, a hundred times larger than Earth. Volume of the sun is a million times larger than Earth. Brief ly we can say that between astronomical objects found in the universe are galaxies, stars and planets. From each of these cosmic objects are a variety of types. Our sun is a star being of average size. GALAXIES Galaxies are the basic constituents of the universe. The whole universe is made up of galaxies, which in turn are grouped into clusters called galaxy clusters. A galaxy is a grouping of a large number of stars. A common galaxy has billions of stars. Looking at the sky on a clear, moonless night, we will see a strip or milky band extending from side to side of the sky. This is the galaxy to which our solar system belongs. His name is Milky Way. It is a cluster of billions of stars like the Sun Its size is enormous. The light, which travels at a speed of 300,000 miles per second, it would take one hundred thousand years to cross it from one end to another. The Milky Way has about 200 billion stars. The Milky Way name the Greeks gave it. The appearance of the galaxy if we look on a clear night when there is no moon, we see that has 34
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the form of a faintly glowing white way (milky). This inspired the Greeks in their mythology to include the explanation of the origin of our galaxy. According to their mythology, Alcmene, one of the lovers of Zeus, had a son named Hercules. A day when Alcmena tried to feed her baby Hercules, from her womb came an abundance of milk that was dispersed in space, giving rise to our galaxy. Hence its name Milky Way. Astronomers course sought a less poetic and more scientif ic explanation interpreting the luminous bright spot in the sky like a giant star. Galaxies are groups of billions of stars, gas and cosmic dust that appear as islands in the vast expanses of the universe. The human capacity for abstraction allows you to separate and distinguish an object or other object groups. This capability has allowed us to distinguish, in the vast expanse of the universe, a galaxy of others to see the different collections of matter in space. The distance between galaxies The closest galaxy to ours is the Large Magellanic Cloud and is 170 thousand light years. Considering that a light year is the distance light travels in one year and that the speed of light is the maximum speed possible, then we have the shortest time required to reach the nearest galaxy is 170 thousand years.
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Telescopes placed in space are increasingly revealing images that provide information about the phenomena of the universe. These observations allow us to look farther and farther, penetrating the depths of the universe and reaching the edges of the universe. STARS Galaxies are made of stars. Our sun is an example of a typical star. The stars we see as sparkling dots in the sky are actually enormous masses of matter, like our sun. Stars form from cosmic dust in space, a process that takes millions of years. In the next chapter we will see in more detail the process of formation, aging and death of a star. The nearest star to our sun is Proxima Centauri, which is four light years away. The stars are among the most spectacular astronomical objects in the universe, therefore they dedicated a special chapter in this book. THE SOLAR SYSTEM A solar system is a set of planets, moons, asteroids and other astronomical objects orbiting a star. Our sun forms a solar system in which Earth, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus are the planets. The Earth’s moon is also part of the solar system, as well as the asteroid belt found between Mars and Jupiter. The planets formed in the process of star formation around which rotate. When the cosmic dust from which the star for36
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med entered a stage of very dizzying rotation, an equatorial disc of this dust off and formed from this disk mass planets from the star. If the Earth seems to us an immense space, going to another level as the dimensions of the solar system, we f ind that the distances increase by several orders of magnitude. PLANETS The astronomical bodies are rocky planets like Earth or gaseous like Jupiter, which are less than that of a less hot star and also size. The planets are orbiting a star, as is the case on Earth.
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LIFE ON EARTH The material of which living things are formed is the same as that which exists in the universe. Moreover, our sun is an ordinary star and the planet Earth is also something ordinary that has nothing special. Likewise, we humans live and we are surrounded by a common room in the universe. If our home in the cosmos is nothing special, is there any reason to think that life on Earth is unique in the universe? Moreover, what could be the case for believing that we are the only intelligent beings in the universe alive? None found so far no life outside our planet, however, given the special circumstances in anything that gives life on Earth exists in the scientific community convinced that there must be many other places in our galaxy and in the universe where there i s life. Further still, it is certain that there is intelligent life and advanced civilizations in other solar systems in our galaxy and in other galaxies. Hypothesis on the origin of life on Earth Life on Earth originated by certain processes that took place about 3,500 million years ago. The first manifestations of life were, for granted, very primitive forms of life in the form of microorganisms. 38
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It is now an accepted hypothesis to explain the origin of life that this came as a result of certain chemical reactions that occurred millions of years ago. Life will arise if the following conditions exist: a) an abundance of chemical elements, b) there is water, c) that proper temperature conditions occur d) that these conditions are maintained for long periods of time. With this f irst form certain basic chemical structures that give rise to the phenomenon of life. The basic molecular building blocks of life that formed in very early times the planet continue without major changes since. The interactions between these basic forms resulted in the formation of the f irst living organism. Subsequently these organisms migrated and reproduced by extending many parts of the world. The main feature of a living being is its ability to selfreplicate or reproduce themselves. A body with this capability we say it is a living organism.
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After millions of years, conditions on the planet were more conducive to new forms of life appeared, especially the decrease in temperature and the onset of the ozone layer that protected new chemical structures, proliferation began living organisms. Over millions of years, primitive cells evolved and formed more complex organisms that in turn evolved and integrated with other life forms leading to diversity now found in nature around us. The key and fundamental point from which we set out to explain the origin of life on our planet is the fact that life appears when conditions are given for a planet that appropriate chemical reactions. These conditions, assume that inevitably lead to the onset of life. This is the fundamental assumption and the principle which we start to think that life exists elsewhere in the universe. The emergence of intelligent life on the planet is also explained by the evolutionary process.
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4
STARS
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t was long believed that the heavens were immutable, that there was nothing in them. That celestial objects changes not occurred, there was only movement, position changes. However, in the sky incredibly violent phenomena occur. Stars are born and die and others may be swallowed by more massive stars. The phenomena of the universe are amazing, producing effects that can now be observed with space telescopes. The stars are astronomical objects that evolve slowly over time. There is a period of star 41
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formation might be called birth. Then, followed a period of stability that is equivalent to his youth and then comes death corresponding to the loss of its luster. Our sun is currently in his youth. The life of a star depends on its size. The sun is estimated to last ten billion years. In this star has a life of about f ive billion years, ie, is half his life. The death of a star is usually very violent. It occurs after explosions and sudden contractions that ultimately lead to a star off. BIRTH OF A STAR Star formation The formation of a star begins with the collapse of a giant cloud of galactic dust consists primarily of hydrogen gas. Due to the gravitational pull this mass of gas begins to shrink. This implies a shrinkage phenomenon of the gas heating process as well as an increase in the rotational speed of the gaseous mass. This phenomenon is similar to the case of f igure skaters that cause an increase in speed to bring his arms to his body. This is exactly what happens with the galactic dust contracts. When the ball of hydrogen takes on a very high speed, it is clear from its outermost part, like a wheel 42
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that has mud on its surface, turning ejected material is attached to the outer surface. In the same way, gaseous masses arising outside the original mass. From these masses arising planets continue to rotate around the star form. The set of planets and star form a solar system. This process occurred in the billions of stars in our galaxy. After a long time, millions of years, this gaseous mass that was initially very cold, at temperatures of about two hundred degrees Celsius, it becomes a hot dense gas, known as plasma. When the plasma temperature reaches ten million degrees, which corresponds to very large velocities of the particles that form, a merger of hydrogen nuclei starts. These mergers or binding hydrogen nuclei large amounts of energy that the star ejected in the form of heat and light to the space are generated. The moment you begin to produce nuclear fusion reactions, is the time of the birth of the star. The process in which light atomic nuclei combine to form heavier ones, is known as nuclear fusion reaction or thermonuclear reaction. This is the energy source of stars. This same type of reactions are also those that give the destructive power of the hydrogen bomb, the most destructive weapon that man has created. Thermonuclear explosions are constantly occurring in the sun and all the stars, and are responsible for the star does not collapse 43
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due to the gravitational attraction. The Sun has been in a steady state, where the outer layers thereof are supported by the outward pressure exerted by thermonuclear reactions in its core, from about five billion years ago. When the balance between the radiation pressure and the gravitational force is lost, then it happens that the star explodes or collapses. Our Sun is a young star to remain so for about another five billion years. But there will come a time when it will consume hydrogen, in which the radiation pressure will not be enough to stop the gravitational collapse and violent contraction of the volume of the Sun begin other thermonuclear reactions. The violent contraction of the mass of the sun will cause a rebound that will cause the sun to swell so much that its surface can reach Earth orbit. This state of evolution of a star like the Sun is known as Red Giant, by having the red star. As the fuel gets weaker the star increases and decreases in volume will occur, until finally, not thermonuclear reactions occur inside the star. At this time the star is practically dead end and slowly cooling. By radioactive techniques calculated the age of our solar system. The estimate of this age is four and a half billion years. This calculation was made by estimating the age of terrestrial rocks, rocks that were brought from the moon and meteorites that have fallen to earth. The calculated age of these rocks values coincide in all cases. Moreover, there are methods to calculate the age of the 44
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stars. These are based on knowledge of stellar evolution. With these techniques the Sun’s age is measured and also coincides with the age of terrestrial and lunar rocks. TYPES OF STARS White Dwarfs Stars like our Sun, ending in a star known as White Dwarf, whose name comes from its size and color. The state of white dwarf will be one of the f inal stages of our Sun On the way to his death, in their periods of expansion, the sun will be devoured Mercury, Venus and Earth, f inally f inishing off a star the size of our Earth. Its mass will be reduced to about half its current value because the energy emitted to space and matter f lung in violent processes of expansion and contraction. Do not think that the red giants or white dwarfs are just a product of stellar evolution theory, however, there have been many. White dwarf stars are common in the sky, its size is approximately the size of Earth but because of its large mass possess enormous density, a spoonful of matter from these stars can weigh one hundred tons.
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Neutron Stars All stars begin their lives in the same way , as huge masses of intergalactic dust is heated and comes to producing thermonuclear reactions . However, the future of each star depends on its initial mass. There is a type of stars end up as neutron stars. These stars have an incredibly small ten to twenty mile radius, greater than the Sun and a density of approximately one million tons per cm 3 mass, this means that a spoonful of this material weighs million of tones. The explosion of a supernova is one of the most violent phenomena in the universe, in this event the gravitational collapse of a star that explodes into pieces and thrown into space occurs colossal amounts of energy and matter. The energy released is so large that it exceeds the total energy radiated by the star in the whole course of his life. Its brightness reaches the equivalent of a hundred million stars and can last several days observing the sky with such intensity that can be seen with the naked eye even during the day. What remains after the supernova explosion is a neutron star. Pulsars In 1967, a doctoral student in astronomy in England, Jocelyn Bell, noted in his telescope a pulsed electromagnetic radiation. These pulses of radiation had a very precise period split second between each pulse, and also duration of a fraction of a second. Of course these mysterious signals the beginning I gave rise to much speculation. Given the regularity as precise 46
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signals, astronomers were the team where the student Jocelyn Bell who suggested that could be issued by an apparatus constructed by intelligent extraterrestrial beings signals worked. Give a story of this kind involved a great risk, so you had to act responsibly. Among the members of the group referred to as the radiation source LGM, corresponding to the stands for Little Green Men ( little green men ) . They waited several months to see if the source suffered some modif ication, as expected if they came from a planet revolving around a star. By not seen any change was thought that the emitted signal source and a natural phenomenon is associated with a pulsating star that was given the name Pulsar, in relation to the English name of pulsating star. The discovery was published in 1968 and soon the list of these stars detected increased to some more of them in the sky. Currently have detected several hundred of these stars and is now known to be neutron stars. The pulse of a star effect is equivalent to a rotating beacon light and increasingly focusing on our address, sends us the signal. When the true origin of the phenomenon of emission of pulsed radiation was discovered, the neutron stars were given the name PULSARS, according to the characteristics of these stars. A neutron star is actually a dull star, a dead star , since it no supply of nuclear energy. Due to the emission of radiation from the pulsar, the star loses energy, which is manifested in a decrease in its rate of rotation. This reduction in the rotational 47
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speed has been detected for several pulsars. After many millions of years, the star will stop and cannot do anything else. It will be there as the ashes of a f ire that was extinguished. For many of the stars we now observe in the sky, that will be his end after several billion years. Black Holes One type of stars that end up as its initial mass black holes. A black hole is so compact and so dense that nothing can get out of it , not even light . Hence comes the name of black hole or black hole. Once an object is approaching a black hole, there will be no known force can prevent the black hole devour. Black holes are among the most amazing and puzzling objects in the universe. In a black hole, for example, time does not exist. It is possible that our galaxy has one or more black holes, which are the bodies of stars that began their lives with masses greater than 30 times the mass of the sun How to detect a black hole is by indirect methods. Since light cannot escape a black hole, then it is required to use some other method to detect it. Because of its intense gravitational f ield, the black hole attracts a large force to everything around him and this fact can be used to detect it. Many stars in the universe are presented in binary systems , ie, systems of two stars that revolve around each other. If one of 48
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these stars end their lives in a black hole can then be detected by observing the other star rotates around an invisible center. The next matter to the black hole is accelerated violently toward him forming a spiral that falls into the hole reaching speeds approaching that of light and producing intense X-ray emission. For now there are several candidates for black holes in binary stars where strong X-ray emission is observed is required to verify that the invisible companion of a binary star is a neutron star or a compact star that lacks luster. For this we need to know the mass of the invisible star. There are methods to calculate the mass and if it exceeds three solar masses, then further strengthens the hypothesis that this is a black hole. The fantastic character of black holes has allowed many assumptions are made about what can happen to matter falling into one of them. The possibility that a black hole is a tunnel in time and can travel to the future or the past to fall into it is mentioned. Other assumptions relate to the possibility that these are doors leading to other universes, disconnected in time and space of our own. Actually this is only speculation comes from mathematical results and if necessary, could be applied to elementary particles and not to people or macroscopic bodies. 49
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It still lacks enough information to have a complete knowledge of what happens in a black hole. Is likely to be required to incorporate quantum phenomena, ie, features associated with the theory of particle at the atomic level, and also the possibility of the existence of the anti-gravity, that is, that a very large densities, as presented into a black hole, gravity becomes repulsive, so that the description of a black hole is more reliable. Finally, it should be mentioned that the essential feature of science is its anti-dogmatic character. The progress of science is achieved by the experimental conf irmation of his theories. If a theory is not consistent with experimental observations then this is modif ied or discarded. This process of building science is what gives it its strength. With the development of technology that has enabled space probes and the Hubble Space Telescope, new observations may lead to reform or rethink current theories about the universe. There is nothing alarming in this, many times it has happened in the past, from Copernicus introduced the heliocentric theory of the solar system and replaces the model of Ptolemy, to the revolutions caused in physics by the theory of relativity and the theory quantum. Each new knowledge will bring new questions,
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and f inding answers other questions will arise and so on. This is one of the fascinating features of science is inexhaustible. At the time of writing it was announced that one of the most important laboratories in the world, located in Europe, were detected particles traveling at speeds greater than the speed of light. If conf irmed, the theory of relativity Einstein would have to be redesigned or have to build a new theory. Since Einstein’s theory is one of the fundamental theories of physics, we may be facing a new revolution in this science.
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5
ROCKETS BACKGROUND OF SPACE FLIGHT
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fter Newton most progress in the knowledge of nature. Optics, electricity and magnetism and the theory of heat and thermodynamics were developed all these studies reach the category of science, that is organized and systematic knowledge that is supported by a set of laws. Subsequently to foreground a step of inventions and innovations start. All these technological developments were based on knowledge of the basic sciences that had reached maturity. Technology in general is nothing more than the application of scientific knowledge.
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In 1786 Alexander Grand Bell, supported by the available knowledge of electromagnetism mainly invents the telephone. The electric light bulb Thomas Edison invented it a hundred years later. Guillermo Marconi and Nicola Tesla independently invented the computer to transmit radio waves used initially through Morse code. Alexander Graham Bell
Guillermo Marconi
Nikola Tesla
Wernher von Braun
The cable under the Atlantic allowed immediate communications between Europe and North America. It’s exciting history of the first communication between London and New York between the queen and the president of the USA. Another huge technological leap will give the bulb to the invention by Lee De Forest in 1906. This invention led to the development of the electronics industry. In the years of the Second World War the German physicist Werner von Braun engineer invented the jet engine that drives that use the rockets. The basic principle of operation of the rocket is the same as is used in fireworks rocketry. In the jet engine, The combustion product gases are expelled from the rear of the rocket and the principle of action and reaction of Newton’s third law, the rocket is driven to move in the opposite direction. The technological revolution after the invention of the transistor gave the man 54
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prepared for large technological developments. Currently the high-tech equipment such as laptop computers, iPod, iPad and iPhone, are in common use among the population. Supercomputers laser equipment and superconducting materials and new materials have been prepared for the human conquest of space being. History of rocketry Firstly, it is important to mention that the problem of traveling to the moon or to place an earth satellite, is a completely different problem of aviation. An airplane, as the birds fly through the air supported. Moreover, to move out of the atmosphere is totally different concepts required to manage and develop a new technology which is the technology of rockets. The rocket technology is based on the law of action and reaction or Newton’s third law of motion that any high school student knows. A rocket engine is a jet or jets, as a commercial jet. The difference is that the jet fly in the atmosphere and oxygen taken from the air required for combustion of fuel. A jet cannot fly in a vacuum, primarily because it cannot take the oxygen it requires and further because it is not designed for it. The rocket, on the other hand, is designed to move out of the atmosphere and have to carry with himself, both the fuel and the oxidant, ie, the substance that produ55
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ces combined with fuel combustion. A chemical rocket consists essentially of two separate tanks, one containing oxidant and a fuel. A combustion chamber where the reaction between the fuel and oxidizing agent and an exhaust pipe is produced, with a narrow throat through which the hot gases , combustion products , which drive the rocket are ejected. All this structure well known within the cylindrical aerodynamic shape of a rocket. The history of space exploration mentioned Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), a math teacher in high school, as the first person who conceived space flight as a real possibility. This self-taught Russian scientist was interested in space flight inspired by the novels of Jules Verne. I had the idea that the Earth is the cradle of man, but we need not live in the cradle forever. His imagination led him to raise the colonization of space. Extremely bold ideas for its time.
Tsialkovsky, who is known as the father of Russian rocketry, performed mathematical calculations on rocket trajectories and movement. From their calculations obtained the maximum speed achieved by a single stage rocket is three thousand meters per second, while the minimum required to place a satellite, as already mentioned, is eight thousand meters per second. This difficulty did conceive multistage rockets. Tsialkovsky was also the first to be an equation, which bears his name and is known as Tsialkovsky rocket equation, which describes the motion of an ideal multistage rocket. The design of a multistage rocket consists of a frame divided into several parts . Each of these sections is an independent rocket, in the sense that it has its own jet engine, its own fuel and oxidizer. Each section drives the other. When a section has exhausted its fuel, the entire structure shape: pipe shielding, injection pumps, fuel tanks, etc. , shows rocket to lighten your load. Once a section has been detached, the following operation is started, and the process repeated, and so on. In principle, the number of stages of a rocket, is unrestricted. 56
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As an example of multi-stage rockets, take the case of the Ariane 4, which is designed and built by the National Centre for Space Studies of the European Union. This rocket consists of three stages: the first stage burns fuel in 20 seconds, the second at 124 seconds and the third at 725 seconds. These data give us an idea of the huge initial power required to achieve the rocket escape the gravitational pull and reach to orbit the payload transport, ie , satellite, or space laboratory, with instruments and , if its crew. The fuel used is usually liquid hydrogen and the oxidant is oxygen also in liquid form. The advantage of building a rocket into several sections is that it can achieve higher speeds and also the charge that no longer follows the rocket serves not to become a burden. At the end there is only the capsule or satellite. Among the challenges for a rocket achieve “escape� from the gravitational attraction and place a satellite are the following: 1. Carry enough fuel, 2. Carrying enough oxygen (liquid) to produce combustion and 3. The combustion process is necessary to make the ship to communicate the right speed speed. The problem of transporting liquid oxygen, which represents 50% of the actual weight of the ship, could be reduced if the oxygen could be taken from the atmosphere. What happens is that in the upper layers of the atmosphere the 57
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oxygen concentration is so low that it is not possible to obtain it in sufficient quantity. Wernher von Braun In the years of the 1960s, who were of interest to us by science, admired Einstein, Oppenheimer Wernher von Braun and von Braun. Albert Einstein was the quintessential scientist, Robert Oppenheimer was the father of the atomic bomb, and Wernher von Braun was, in those days, the scientist who led the U.S. space program , which had as its main purpose to design and build rockets for space. The world, fascinated by space flight, von Braun became a scientific figure of the moment. While the theoretical Tsialkovski was rocketry, German engineer Wernher von Braun (1912-1977) was the one who developed and designed the first rocket. The first attempts in rocketry, as in aviation history and many stories of technological developments, were unsuccessful. However, fortune has allowed to exist idealistic men who cherish dreams may be far from the real possibilities of the time, but continue in their efforts to achieve their goals. From these seemingly unrealizable fantasies has come to build modern technology. Wernher von Braun began his studies on liquid fuels for rocket boost before Hitler brings Germany into war. The topic was proposed liquid fuels her doctoral thesis as a military, General Walter Dornberger who was interested in making rockets. The thesis defense von Braun was made secretly, because it is a military project, in July 1934, with whom he earned a doctorate in physics from the University of Berlin. During World War II he was inducted into Peenemuende, a small town in Germany, a military field with a research center to develop long-range 58
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guided missiles. The head of the research center was General Walter Dornberger, who had proposed to von Braun and his thesis topic technical project manager was von Braun. The most advanced of this research center, the product was achieved in 1942 , with the design and construction in series V -2 rockets. Such rockets were the first vertical launch, were supersonic and used liquid fuel. The V -2 (named by Hitler as “Weapon Avenger�, hence the name) was a long-range missile and since then it was thought that could be used to launch into space from Earth. With the V -2 Germans bombed several European cities, mainly London on which thousands of these rockets fell. The V -2 bombings on London were launched from Germany and had terrorized the population. Before the V - 2, London was bombed V -1 rocket, which were subsonic, ie traveling at a lower speed than sound. The big difference between the V -1 and V -2 is that in the first attack is reached to hear the roar of its travel before it hits the rocket with explosives. The inhabitants are a warning of the attack and run to reach the bomb shelters for protection. Instead, attacks the V -2, which is supersonic, were silent, gave no notice. This raised the level of terror she felt people. Its high speed also made him almost 59
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invisible. Once a V -2 crashed to the ground and opened a huge crater after impact, completely silent , the sound came , it was the shock wave ( sound wave ), which had generated the rocket in its movement , but he had left behind. This phenomenon terrorized the English. The capture of von Braun The V -2 was a very powerful weapon, involving a technology far beyond that possessed by the U.S. and the USSR. For this reason the armies of the Allies were keen to capture the scientists who developed this terrifying weapon, as well as seize the facilities where the weapon was manufactured. In the last days of the Second World War , when Germany was about to surrender to the Allies , both the Soviets and the Americans sought to capture great interest to scientists, engineers and German technicians who had participated in military technological developments Nazi Germany . This human military team had developed weapons of many types: biological and chemical of mass destruction and the famous V -2 rockets that were launched by thousands of England. A group of nearly a thousand technologists for war were brought to the U.S. to work in the defense industry. Wernher von Braun, was one of them. The story of the capture of von Braun’s something interesting. According to information received by von Braun in Peenemuende research center, was expected to surrender to Germany any moment. They had information that the Soviet army advanced north to south and the U.S. military from south to north. Fearing capture by the Russians, von Braun decided to travel south to surrender to the Americans. With a huge convoy of more than 500 people, including engineers and technical scientists and their families, and military equipment and project documents the production of the V -2 rocket , the group hid in a village in the mountains of Germany . When they learned of the surrender of Germany, von Braun Magnus sent his brother to fetch members of the U.S. military. Magnus found some U.S. military and with his hands up 60
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he said: “I’m Magnus von Braun, brother of Wernher von Braun, the inventor of the V -2 rockets. We are hidden near here and want to give up. “The military would immediately reported to General Eisenhower capture valuable booty. Operation Paperclip (also called Project Paperclip) was the secret name that the rescue operation and ownership of the U.S. by German scientists and engineers working for the Nazi army met. These scientists were brought to the U.S. even though a regulation of the U.S. State Department explicitly stated that people who belonged to the Nazi party were criminals or war, could not be allowed to enter U.S. . That was the reason why the U.S. military secretly brought scientists. Military intelligence made this work. In fact, the U.S. military command sought another prominent scientist, nuclear physicist Werner Heisenberg, which 61
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said it was “more valuable than ten divisions of the German army “. This was captured and held in a prison-house of England along with nine other scientists. None of these ten scientists agreed to work outside Germany. Regarding facilities Peenemunde research center, these were taken by the Soviet army, seizing all equipment was left and a lot of V -2 rockets. Rocket development in the U.S. after the war The situation that prevailed after the Second World War prompted the
Operation Paperclip members
development of rocketry . The great advances that had affected the physical chemistry, electronics, materials science and computing. Moreover, the Cold War accelerated the process towards the construction of military rockets and placing satellites and then to space exploration. The von Braun team, brought from Germany, consisted of more than a hundred scientists, engineers and technicians specializing in rocketry. All were secretly transferred to a military base in New Mexico, USA and worked there in a draft military rocketry. They were then sent to another military camp near Huntsville, a small town tucked in the State of Alabama. There a large group of specialists was formed between Germans and Americans, all under the command of Wernher von Braun, putting in place a vigorous program of rocket development. The rush 62
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was great, because the combination of the atomic bomb and the longrange rockets, who would have both resources, an undisputed military power. All subsequent technological development in rocketry originated in military projects. In 1950, von Braun’s team developed a modified version of the V -2, which was launched successfully from Cape Canaveral in Florida. This was actually a multistage rocket that later became ICBMs. This release was followed by a series of successful tests and the series expansion of U.S. missiles. Missiles A missile is generally a self-propelled rocket carrying a bomb, which may consist of a conventional explosive materials or weapons of mass destruction as weapons that release chemical or biological material or nuclear weapons. As mentioned the first missiles were developed by Germany during World War II. This technological advancement in war industry was achieved in the research center located in Peennemunde, a small town in northern Germany. The project manager of design and manufacture missile was Wernher von Braun, who achieved considerable technological progress with the development of the V -2 rockets. The V -2 missiles were developed by the team of Wernher von Braun technological product. These rockets could carry a load of one ton of explosives to a remote target 350 kilometers. These rockets were not very accurate but the psychological damage done to the enemy was huge. Since they are supersonic, hit the surface of the earth in total silence, without notice, opening a huge hole on impact. Then came a loud impact sound wave, the shock wave, which although did not result in further destruction, causing panic. Of these rockets, launched from Germany, thousands fell on London and other European cities.
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Modern long-range missiles, known as ICBM (Inter -Continental Ballistic Missile) have tremendous accuracy from the military point of view, since a relatively small error does not affect the effectiveness of the pitch. Because carrying nuclear weapons, hitting exactly on target or fail for one hundred meters makes virtually no difference and carrying nuclear weapons, including hydrogen bombs counted. The effect of hit or miss by one hundred meters has the same destructive power. Modern rockets have their origins in the V -2. The USSR and the U.S., supported by engineers and captured German scientists during the second world war, developed improved versions of the V -2. A modern version of these missiles were Scud missiles, which became famous during the Gulf War of 1991, being used by Iraq and the U.S. Patriot missile intercepting the Scuds. Powered by missiles, the U.S. put the first American satellite on January 31, 1958, Explorer I,
ICBM TITAN II
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already mentioned. Originally missile launched Explorer I carried a warhead which is then replaced with a Mercury space capsule project. Along with the Project Mercury NASA born with the goal of putting a human in orbit. In this they are also advanced the USSR to the U.S. by sending Yuri Gagarin into space in April 1961. In February 1962, he was sent into space astronaut John H. Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth.
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6
ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
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n Saturday, October 5, 1957, newspapers around the world published on the front page that the Soviet Union (USSR) was launched into orbit which was the first artificial Earth satellite. Sputnik was the name given to the Soviet satellite. Sputnik, with two radio transmitters on board, radio signals emitted an incessant Bip- Bip, that radio amateurs around the world captured excited. For 22 days, while lasting batteries, Bip- Bip was moved continuously humanity. Had not left the world of his amazement at the feat of Sputnik, when, on 3 November of the same year, the USSR announces the successful launch of a new satellite, Sputnik II, which carried the first animal in space: A bitch whose name was Laika. 67
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In a desperate effort to show the world its technological advances in the field, the United States launched its first satellite, Explorer I, on January 31, 1958. These historical events kicked off the space race between the two world powers, the U.S. and the USSR. Sputnik, which would later become Sputnik I fell to the Earth’s atmosphere and disintegrated by friction with the air, three months after its release, the January 4, 1958. While the Sputnik II into orbit lasted more than five months. The dog Laika, according to the first information provided by the Soviets in space died April 14, 1958, the satellite returning to earth and disintegrate in the atmosphere. Many years later, in 2002, the Russians revealed that Laika died in orbit, just hours after placing the satellite, this overheating. The political and psychological impact it had in the capitalist world, and especially in the U.S., the launching of Sputnik by the Soviet Union, was enormous. The U.S. almost immediately began its program of space exploration. The July 29, 1958, U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower, created the project of NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) for the purpose of exploring outer space. His first goal was to send a man into space, trying to get ahead of the USSR. However, it was the USSR, who first achieved this goal. On 12 April 1961, Yuri Gagarin beca68
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me the first cosmonaut. This was another blow to U.S. prestige. The days of the late 1950s and early 1960s were a great exaltation of scientific and technological achievements in flight outside the earth’s atmosphere. The conquest of space as a real possibility and not far looked. For thousands of years, and had observed the primitive man, the night sky had remained virtually unchanged, with only seasonal variations, which are cyclical. Since 1957, the sky began to fill with artificial satellites. At present these are thousands and technological impact has been substantial changes in our lifestyle.
Yuri Gagarin
The space program has evolved so that it is now in the phase of exploration of the solar system, in collaboration with several countries. They currently have international space station, where different countries are participating, as well as research laboratories for various observations and consider survival in space. Dreams of space exploration Originally spaceflight were conceived, like all great ideas, like a fantasy. The natural evolution of ideas and events led some people to imagine space travel. After traveling by land area and the conquest of the seas, the next step was to leave Earth, space travel beyond the atmosphere. At the beginning of civilizations explored her man motivated by his natural curiosity about the world surrounding environment. Exploring the 69
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world began many years ago with the travel of the Phoenicians, Marco Polo, Vikings, Columbus and Magellan and many others. After exploring the surrounding environment, the next step is to explore the distant environment. However, the space above the surface of the Earth was not easy to explore. It took thousands of years since the first civilizations to that man could perform the feat of flying. Progress in aviation were a very important technological development. But the adventure out beyond the Earth, beyond the atmosphere, requires more than courage and desire for adventure. Requires a lot of scientific knowledge and technological developments, ie, a large investment of financial resources and human effort. With Newton’s work on mechanics and universal gravitation, it was established that the laws of mechanics, ie, the laws that govern the motion of the bodies are the same both here on earth and in heaven. The laws governing the movement of the planets and astronomical objects in general are the same as those that govern the motion of bodies here on Earth. This knowledge is widespread and has been established as a fundamental principle for all laws of physics, not just the mechanics. It’s hard to know who was the first person who imagined a trip to outer space from Earth. We do know, however, that Jules Verne, the famous French writer of science fiction, published in 1865 his book “From the Earth to the Moon.” This book tells how that could send a man to the moon. The idea was to place the person in a capsule and shoot is a huge canyon. Jules Verne imagined a colossal canyon, into which a hollow bullet, it would be like a wagon is placed inside and the crew would travel with all provisions. The bullet, of course, is not a rocket, it is actually a missile that would be fired from the cannon with a powerful explosive that will print to the hollow bullet enough to leave Earth and reach the moon speed.
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The novel, while interesting and entertaining, has some conceptual flaws that make it impossible to get a person to be launched into space with a team of the barrel type and that it remains alive. Simply by the friction of the bullet with the gun tube, this would melt. Also, by the high speed required, the bullet would melt from the heat generated by friction with the air. No matter what the bullet metal was made , the heat generated would raise the temperature to the melting point of the metal. Other aspects of the impossibility of this trip, related to the enormous acceleration of the projectile in the barrel, are treated in the chapter entitled “Journey into a projectile Canyon” Book of Physical Recreation, Volume II Yakov Perelman. Because the minimum speed required to overcome the Earth’s gravitational pull and reach the moon or put a satellite in orbit is huge, it was necessary to design a different to what was already known special equipment. The Russian scientist, Konstantin Tsialkovski, was the first who gave how much the idea of a projectile fired from a cannon, given by Jules Verne would not escape the gravitational pull. The fastest projectile never exceed two thousand meters per second and the minimum speed required to place a satellite is eight thousand meters per second and to reach the moon 71
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is even greater. Based on this limitation Tsailkovski projectiles designed rocket design. The satellite era In the 1960s, on clear nights, people enjoyed looking skyward looking excited to see the starry sky in some artificial satellite. It was very exciting being able to see one that actually was not hard, it was all about spending some time looking for it. By the year 1965 there were more than a dozen satellites orbiting the Earth. Currently the amount of artificial satellites orbiting our earth hundreds. There are basically four types: communications, weather, military, and scientific. Communications satellites have the special feature that are synchronous, ie, they spin around the Earth revolving around the same speed as the Earth around its axis. This means that satellite will fixed in the sky, as if arrested. These satellites are particularly important for the transmission and reception of live television programs as well as for telephone communication around the world. World events as the Olympic Games and the news spreads to everyone at the time that are happening thanks to communication satellites. The services they provide to humanity satellites ranging from communications to weather forecasting. Weather satellites continuously take pictures of the Earth and its atmosphere. Receive and send information every thirty minutes to weather stations on Ear72
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th. Climate specialists studying these photographs and make predictions about the weather. Thus, hurricanes, storms and winds generally predict the weather. In this way the man could have better control over the weather and warn people about floods, heat waves or cold. Currently the technology to put satellites is fully developed. It is common practice that companies or other communications requesting services aerospace industries such as NASA, or Arianespace, a European trading company, to place satellites. Among military satellites have reconnaissance or intelligence and logistics. Civilian satellites provide many kinds of services, such as telephone communication, radio and television transmission, vehicle location and objects in general. An example of a scientific satellite is the Hubble telescope, studying space and sends the information to ground stations. The technological impact of the satellites Currently humanity finds itself in the middle stage of commercialization of space. Businesses related to the use of outer space to Earth, are nowadays a reality that 73
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manifests strongly in communications satellites and other services. The advantages offered by the communication satellite are huge compared with the terrestrial communication. Since a satellite can take pictures of a large part of the Earth’s surface and send this information to ground stations, as well as send and receive radio signals. With only three satellites can cover the entire surface of the Earth to communicate any two points on it or to transmit live television programs. Currently the industry satellite communications is the most prosperous. The cell phone calls, the withdrawal of money from ATMs networked and placed anywhere in the world, communication by e- mail, live television news and sending everyone almost instantaneously, etc. are possible due to the satellites. The communications business is one of the largest in the world. The world has undergone a stunning transformation with satellite communication. There are people in your house have 400 available TV channels. This is fantastic.
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Meteorological satellites take pictures of the clouds and allow us to predict hurricanes or rain anywhere in the globe, as well as help us to weather forecasting in general. The mass movement of hot or cold air is observed by satellite and can predict the temperature the next day. With the amount of people who currently have the cities and irregular settlements, a hurricane could cause hundreds of deaths if we had the ability to predict its trajectory and prepare for your arrival. The position of any vehicle or object on the surface of the earth is also
possible through the use of satellites. Emergency situations such as the loss of a ship, allowing the rapid action of rescue workers, once communication is by satellite. The famous I- phones that put you and guide anywhere, as well as help you to locate a store , an office, a subway stop , your own house, etc. and more convenient to take to get where you ‘re interested in, is another route satellite services.
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If you send a document or purchase something online and delivered by courier one can follow the path of the package offers. The radio transmitters of the vehicle carrying the satellite package send information on your location and the satellite forwards this information to the company office. The latter puts the information on the Web and we can track it. In general you can locate people and vehicles, knowing how fast they move and follow your path; you just place them in a small device. Is not this wonderful? Let us think well, and we realize that this fantasy than any found in the book of the Thousand and One Nights. A glance at past events indicates the progress that has been achieved. In 1866, after many attempts, he succeeded in laying the teGlobal positioning system legraph cable in the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, communicating to England and America. The Telegraph runs on Morse code, so the first post by the submarine cable was key. Officially sent Queen Victoria of England to the U.S. President, James Buchanan, August 16, 1858. It was a source of great fun in Europe and USA. Each transmitted letter required two minutes for the receiver received it. Many years later, in 1956, the submarine telephone cable between England and USA were held. In this case the communication by voice, by phone, between the two countries. Communication skills were only 36 simultaneous conversations. So soon as the service was saturated. Compare these historical events with the current situation, in which you can call on cell between any two places on Earth with almost no limitations.
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Military satellites The spy satellites report the movement of troops, military equipment and the location of military bases and missile. Intercontinental missiles carrying nuclear bombs and is therefore not necessary to mention the concern that powerful nations have about these weapons. The spy satellites have identified places where these missiles are located and a missile launch would be immediately detected by the satellite system of the country would be white. At the moment of release, a number of information is exchanged by the satellite system and the counterattack occurs automatically. The spy satellites detect any rocket moving anywhere in the Earth’s atmosphere. His watchful “eye” is his guided by the heat of the rocket expels gases (for infrared emission), takes “ pictures” of this path, encoding an image and sends controls to control land . Thousands of these processes are carried out daily by each satellite spying. In 1967 the president of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson, sent an unexpected message to a group of teachers in Nashville Tennessee. It was expected that President Johnson spoke about the importance of education in combating poverty. However, burdened by so much criticism that it was the U.S. space program, used the forum to be presented to answer critics of this program. Those were the days of the Cold War, when they reached the peak levels of stress. The words of his speech were: “We have spent forty billion dollars on the space program. If only we had obtained the information he has given us the pictures you have taken from space, it would be worth paying up to ten times more than what it cost this program. Without satellites we would be working for divination and with the help of God. But now we know how many missiles the enemy has and where they are located. We’re doing things we should not do. We are building things we should not build. But we also have a fear that we should not have”.
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The first time that satellite technology was used in a war was during the first Persian Gulf War in 1991. The superiority of the U.S. military turned the war into a simple game for them. Quickly pinned the Iraqi army as they had all the information of movement of troops and military equipment from Iraq. All the information needed for the attack was provided via satellite. The movement of soldiers, tanks, aircraft, etc. I was immediately met by the U.S. Army through the satellite information. He had never before won a war based on the vast amount of information obtained by intelligence services, in this case of spy satellites. The whole strategy of the war, in addition to weapons, was based on the knowledge of the movement of troops and military equipment from the enemy. Given this information, it is difficult to lose a war. Space Industrialization The outer space to Earth’s atmosphere, has several special conditions: vacuum, Cundo Leaving TV and the lack of gravity to be circled Earth. These conditions can be harnessed for scientific or for the manufacture of high-tech research. In a space lab can study many phenomena and manufacturing processes in the conditions presented space. Processing materials or manufacturing of integrated circuits that require delicate handling, can be carried out in space with great advantages over the way these processes are done here in terrestrial laboratories. There are already cases of manufacturing products that consist of tiny spheres and uniforms manufactured in space, which have proven to be 78
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of much higher quality than those produced in terrestrial laboratories. The commercial potential of this product is several billion dollars per year and the electronics industry, pharmaceutical, and high-tech materials, they will benefit greatly from these advances. We cannot envision at this time the potential and scope that may have provided the conditions for outer space scientific research and high-tech manufacturing. Future generations will make comparisons between what we have now and what they see.
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7
SPACE TRAVELS
ADVENTURE TO HUMAN SPACE ALIEN
A
s already mentioned , the space age began in October 1957, Sputnik I, the first artificial Earth satellite . Then came others. News of satellite launches caused great excitement in all of humanity and youth interested in astronautics, the new science that deals with the study of the technology of launching spacecraft, sailing to the stars and landing on them.
The following year, the U.S. created its space program, NASA (National Aeronautic and Space Administration), as the control center and research head of space research program. The immediate goal was to bring a man into space. It was truly exciting days, were not talking about 81
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weapons, but the conquest of space, although the November 7, 1957, during celebrations of the anniversary of the Russian revolution, the USSR showed the world its military power with a parade missiles in Red Square in Moscow. With this advancement the USSR could launch nuclear bombs on any country in the world. Carried in rockets that could leave the atmosphere and enter it again to reach any point on the Earth in a relatively short time. This other military component accelerated the research in the field of space flight, but always covert military short and long term objectives. Shortly after the successful orbiting of Sputnik, the world would live another amazing event. A second story, of enormous magnitude for its global political effect was the technological triumph that the USSR scored again to put the first man in space. The first astronaut, Yuri Gagarin orbited the Earth on April 12, 1961. A few days later John F. Kennedy, President of the U.S. launches national project to put a man on the moon, initiating a vigorous space program. It is important to understand that human space exploration program is not a project a few years and then leave. On the contrary, as science and technology, which are inexhaustible, space travel is a great adventure that will never end, given the vastness of the universe. The space flight began orbiting the Earth to the Moon and then to Mars now to continue the exploration of our entire solar system. Outside space limit we do not see, so the project will continue beyond our solar system.
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Space flight can be classified into four broad categories: 1. Travel in our near space. These would include travel in the region between the Earth and the Moon, which includes the launch of satellites. 2. Interplanetary travel. These include travel in the region of our solar system beyond the Moon as planets or travel from one planet to another. Once you get to a planet can use this as a platform to travel to another. The planets would like cosmic scales on a long trip. 3. Interstellar travel. They travel between stars in our galaxy, a planetary system to another. After knowing the distances between the stars we realize that we need more than fifty years to make a trip outside our planetary system. 4. Intergalactic travel. They are trips from one galaxy to another. This would truly be the final frontier of mankind. Cosmic distances First we introduce some ideas related to the speed of light. 1. The speed of light is 300,000 miles per second and is the maximum speed that can be achieved in the universe. 2. A light year is the distance light travels in a year. 3. We can speak a second light as the distance light travels in one second. Also light one minute is the distance light travels in one minute. 4. The nearest cosmic body is the Moon and is a second light. You have no idea the work it took to put a man on the moon. The distance from the Earth to the Moon is 384,000 kilometers. Of course, no distance on Earth is comparable to this distance. 83
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A bullet is launched from Earth to the Moon, with a speed of 1000 meters per second, which is higher than any commercial airplane speed, soon to arrive four and a half days. 5. The planet Mars is at a variable distance from Earth, depending on the relative positions of both to the sun. The closest distance between Mars and Earth is 59 million miles. The distance in terms of the speed of light is light of three and a half minutes. The duration of flight of a rocket to Mars is eight months, when this is in its closest position to Earth. One way. To return would have to wait for enough Mars approached Earth for the duration of the flight was more or less the same. The return trip would last about three years. 6. The sun is eight light minutes. 7. The radius of our solar system is six hours light. 8. The distance to the nearest star is called Proxima Centauri is four light years. 9. The radius of our galaxy is one hundred thousand light years. 10. The distance to the nearest galaxy is 170 thousand light years. 11. The edge of the universe is fifteen billion light years from us. 84
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With these data and considering that we still have great difficulties to get to Mars with current technology, we think that we can hope for in the next hundred years is just to explore our planetary system. However, thinking that our civilization will last over a thousand years, we must realize that the man of the future will be a cosmic man, able to make trips to neighboring stars of our sun. Humans have much to do and discover in the future. New technologies, including the development of artificial intelligence, cryogenics, artificial life are required to convert the current man in a cosmic man, the man who can travel to other stars and other planetary systems. Manned space travel One of the biggest current concerns about space research is whether we can live in space for extended periods. Another question is whether we will be able to play on astro conditions on Earth, such as the supply of oxygen, water and food that allow us to survive. The manned space pose major technological challenges. For example, the water must be recycled and must also be able to generate oxygen. On the other hand everything that goes inside the spacecraft must be sterilized to prevent disease and food spoilage. The general method of sterilization uses gamma radiation technique, which also leads to energy savings, because the food does not require refrigeration to be preserved, maintained in good condition at room temperature. On the other hand, already proved that man can work in space in 85
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weightlessness. It was possible to repair the Hubble Space Telescope and space stations have been built where cosmonauts have lived for several months. The next step is to build a settlement in a star, like the moon, Mars, the moons of Mars or an asteroid. Astronauts have survived, as his home, in the space inside the ship , with plants and animals. Everything indicates that we are moving towards building a true colony in space. Man has been able to move within the spacecraft and has come out in his spacesuit cabin and “walk” in space. As for the food consumed by astronauts, these were liquids or slurries in the first flights. Now are more varied and resemble much more to the daily diet we have here on Earth. Moreover, there is a danger that men traveling into space come contaminated clothes or in your body with live microorganisms. Should this happen will have found alien life. To protect the earth’s population, men who travel to space must undergo a careful observation on their return, they can bring the cosmos microbes that cause serious problems to the Earth’s population.
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Space Stations A space station is a rigid structure without engines designed for astronauts live in it, for shorter or longer periods (weeks, months or years). In the space stations that inhabits staff is being changed with some regularity. Astronauts remain for some time and return to Earth being replaced by others. The purpose of the space station is to study the human body’s response to prolonged stays in space as well as the psychological effects experienced by cosmonauts. The astronauts also conducted research in biology, chemistry, physics and other fields of science and technology, the conditions presented in the space. Space stations are today a reality. There were permanently orbiting cosmonauts on the MIR space station, which became a multinational project. Currently the International Space Station (ISS for short) is the only one that is running. It is a project of international collaboration where inhabited by six astronauts from different countries. It has been running since the year two thousand and being permanently inhabited
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it have come to some astronauts stay up a little over a year. The technology used in this artificial microenvironment where man can live for long periods, is of course, the most advanced. This space station is an intermediate stop in interplanetary space flight, which is reproduced a similar artificial atmosphere to land. Medicine and engineering will have to be done in these major projects of humanity. It is possible that international collaboration in the conquest of the cosmos twin and near to the inhabitants of our Earth. And if today the progress of Korea’s missile development is seen as a threat to the security of some countries, it is likely that in the future will become a support for the advancement of astronautics. Most likely in the not too distant future, we can have camps on the moon, where one or two dozen men live and conduct scientific and technological research. And 200 years from now we can have an entire city on the moon, on Mars, or in interplanetary space. The population of this city could reach several thousand inhabitants on the Moon or Mars. It will be built in space, assembling piece by piece, a huge space station that serves as a research laboratory space, as well as a scale platform for interplanetary travel. You could also go for artificial satellites propelled satellites, with the momentum of its own engines change their orbit. These same satellites convert research purposes in artificial pla88
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nets, that is, to orbit or rotate around the sun. We can follow in imagination the development of projects and programs for a slightly more distant future. The space station can be assembled rockets for interplanetary travel. Why not think about the possibility of these trips, these achievements of human civilization? Fantasy is the generation that has nurtured great ideas that have resulted in projects that have become reality. Although now only fantasies, they are confident that our civilization achieved conquer the planetary system. Some scientists agree that the universe ci vilizations survive if enough years, can reach states of development that allow them to fully control the resources of their planet and subsequently its planetary system. Our civilization is less than ten thousand years and is relatively young. On the other hand, what we might call technological development itself began only 300 years ago that is a very short time to achieve mastery of our planet. The history of civilization shows that the accumulation of knowledge is a rapid process. Both knowledge and progress is accelerating rapidly with the passage of time. The man lived in the past for thousands of years with virtually no noticeable changes in your lifestyle. Nobody thought that in the future could live better than this these days. Howe89
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ver, after the industrial revolution, with the development of science and technology, progress, ie, improvement in general living conditions appears. Thereafter, progress and changes in lifestyle became common and suffered an accelerated process. Advances in medicine and technology, based on the progress of scientific knowledge man gave the assurance that his life on earth, not in heaven, as established religion, could be improved. Think of the amazing changes in our way of living that have been caused by computers and communications. Never before had given such rapid changes in the lifestyle of the human being as at present. This is precisely why we must invade optimism and trust us in the future, possibly a thousand years, men will dominate not only our planet, but our entire planetary system. Interstellar travel Travel to another star or another planetary system, it seems, for now too ambitious dream. The nearest star is Alpha Centauri, which is four light years away from us. This means that to get to it , traveling on a ship to one hundredth of the speed of light , which for now is a speed unattainable with our technology , it would take four years to reach. According to Russian scientist Nicolai Kardashev civilizations in the universe, can be classified into three categories, depending on their level of technological advancement. Type 1 civilizations are those who have developed a technology that allows them to have full control of your planet using all its natural resources. For them there are no natural disasters that affect them significantly because they have learned to predict and control. For type 2 civilizations, have developed technology that allows them to interplanetary travel in your solar system and improving not only exploit the resources of their planet but also of the other planets in the solar system. Finally, a type 3 civilization could control and exploit the resources of its entire galaxy.
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Being relatively young, our civilization has not yet reached Category 1, but most likely we’ll make a couple of centuries or so. To achieve category 2 require several thousand years. At present, our civilization is very susceptible to extinction. A strong variation in solar activity can cause severe glaciations or a serious rise in temperature that causes floods or other catastrophic proportions dramatic effects. By becoming a civilization category 1 we could predict such phenomena and would have the technology developed to emigrate to another planet in our solar system. We reached Category 2 would still not safe from extinction , then we would need to travel to another planetary system to save us when our Sun end their lives as a bright star and” turn off ”. What we call intelligent beings are those who have developed technology. If someday extraterrestrial beings came to Earth, probably belong to a civilization of type 2. Their technology would then be much more advanced than ours is today. As for the current rocket technology to drive this is inadequate to travel to the stars. Starting with the fact that fuel accounts for over 90 percent of the total weight of the rocket and this uses all available energy mainly on boosting their own fuel. If we confine space travel by rocket propelled liquid fuel, the trip to the nearest star would last us about a hundred thousand years. 91
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The problem of traveling to a star with this technology remains a problem of physics in these circumstances, becoming a problem of biology. How do you get the cosmonauts survive the trip?. One way would be through hibernation, or storage at low temperatures or even freezing. Another method would be through scales, reaching other planets and reproducing astronauts. Old men and young people there would continue the journey. This is unlikely to be an attractive outlet for future generations. What will most likely happen is a change in technology to power rockets from antimatter. Is known at present a form of existence of matter which is called antimatter. An amazing phenomenon that occurs with antimatter is that when matter and antimatter are close enough, disintegrate each other producing a huge amount of energy. The idea is to develop a new technology that takes advantage of this phenomenon and use antimatter as a means of propulsion. The most efficient way to generate power is this process of matter-antimatter annihilation. With just one kilogram of antimatter could propel a spacecraft to reach a speed that would be much higher than those achieved so far. Certain natural phenomena related to the theory of relativity allow this speed could reach a star at times you might be within the lifetime of a human being (which in future ages far exceed the current average life). But the technology still require some years to produce one kilogram of antimatter and as many years to design antimatter engines. However, there is little reason to think that the technology developed by humans will continue to progress. It may be that social decisions to limit technological growth and were taken to stop this progress. It could also arise disinterest in moving beyond a state of total wellbeing and freedom from disease, in a society that has managed to extend human life for hundreds of years. Hopefully these events will not occur and that the progress of humanity is to continue for millennia.
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Colonization of Mars Current projects of the U.S. space program are very ambitious. The colonization of Mars is included. Projecting out of the living planet Earth that agencies and if this project is successful, the future colonization of Mars will become easier. Many research centers are participating in the project trip to Mars and convert the Martian atmosphere in a benign environment for sustaining human life. The growth of bacteria through processes like photosynthesis release oxygen and building a greenhouse that can later accommodate animals and then humans are part of this project. The formation of green areas is the next step for the colonization of the red planet or any other. Within the space program set where several countries are involved to construct one or more colonies on Mars. The Mars colonization program would last several hundred years. It would begin with the creation of an atmosphere and a more benign to humans inhabit weather. First, given that the average temperature on Mars is about 60 degrees Celsius, what is required is to produce a global warming of the atmosphere of Mars. This would be done by generating greenhouse gases beyond Mars. Subsequently oxygen generation would seek from bacteria, plants and trees. On all these aspects there is currently an intense investigation. Wanted Mars the next human settlement. It is known that Mars’s water resources and 93
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this is the first and greatest attraction to see Mars as the first human colony in space. Moreover, the Martian atmosphere is composed primarily of carbon dioxide that while it is not suitable for our breathing, contains the main ingredient to produce oxygen. If we could reforest Mars, planting gardens, forests, plants would be responsible for producing oxygen through the process of photosynthesis. But not only by this means it can obtain oxygen, having water, can be obtained by electrolysis of this compound, oxygen and hydrogen. At issue is the transformation of the Martian atmosphere, which is one of the programs of the human conquest of space. Surely, within fifty years we will have some small camps on Mars, astronauts will serve to stay in them for weeks or months, as they do now at the space stations. A little later, probably in 150 or 200 years, which is a small fraction of the life of the human species, we can have small colonies on Mars and the colonization of Mars a reality. If this is so, the younger generation these days, will pay tribute to the brave men of this age and the generations that came before initiating the conquest of space. As we pay tribute to Galileo, Newton, Pasteur and many others, future generations will do with the characters corresponding distinguished of our time. Wernher von Braun, who was the leader of the team of scientists and engineers who designed the first rockets certainly be among them.
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Why man in space travel adventure? Scientific and technological advances expand the horizons of men. These horizons can be spatial or psychological. With new discoveries, the human being, his creative power, his wit, his curiosity and his desire for adventure, looking for new applications, new emotions, or simply expand their power and influence on the surrounding environment. Moreover, when given certain conditions discoveries or scientific revolutions occur. In physics, the theory of relativity and the later development of quantum mechanics, which are the two great revolutions in modern physics, occurred because they had accumulated a number of events for which no explanation at that time had. Thus arose new paradigms to be in tune with the new observations. Given the conditions arises the need for new ideas and new ways of seeing things. The advance in scientific knowledge determines and drives the advancement of technology . When technology advances make the conquest and exploration of new spaces of the unknown world. Thus both fields, science and technology go hand in hand, advancing the one driven by the other. At this point you can travel into space with the technology we have today, but when we want to settle in this new world, we must develop new technologies. The ever-present question in discussions and talks on space programs is: why so much money is spent on these projects when so 95
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many shortcomings here on Earth? If we need to solve many problems of poverty, health, food, education, etc. Why spend money on space travel? My answer part of the answer to another question. Why society invests in schools of music, painting, art, philosophy, instead of investing only in schools to train doctors, nurses, health professionals, teachers, engineers, and all those professions that impact immediate social? The answer to this question is closely connected with the answer to the question of why the interest in space travel? The answer has a significant psychological component: the reason is that artists brighten our lives, the writer, poet, humanist, painter, musician, etc. give meaning to our lives in many ways and also enrich it. Life has meaning if you live happily. Man performs actions for him, individually, are of great importance. The psychological need for achievement or achievements propel the individual to make decisions for others it may not make sense.
The desire for adventure and conquest are the psychological engine that drives men to seek what is in outer space to Earth. Human curiosity, his psychological condition, has always been and will explore new paths. Let’s ask mountain climbers and explorers of new territories, such as the South Pole, why do you want to go there? The answer is always the same: because they want to conquer what has not been conquered, because moving an inner drive, to get the challenges to achieve gives them a strange satisfaction: the satisfaction of achieving what they set out. When asked George Leigh- Mallory, who died trying to climb Mount Everest, why he wanted to climb? Tersely replied: Because it is there. This is the psychological motivation. But if that is not enough to justify this human adventure, we also have the technology product, which are the fruits of these efforts. Space research has brought extraordinary technological benefits. Only ad96
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vances in communications we have today, would justify the investment that has been made on space projects. Weather satellites, communication, etc. besides the progress in electronics, optics, computing, metallurgy, etc., which have impacted all areas of human activity.
Human settlements in space The migration of humans to other planets will certainly be a reality within the next 200 years. This period of time may seem large; it is not so to the time scale that has our civilization. Gold and precious metals moved the Spaniards to move to America. Probably some material of high technological value, which scarcely find here on Earth, encourage future generations to visit the moon or a planet or asteroid in our solar system. Now consider the survival of the human species. We know that the sun will end in a star off. That’s when anthropocentrism is manifest, 97
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arising reviews like that man must achieve to survive the death of the Sun cannot perish as a species. We cannot leave the world without us, recalcitrant say anthropocentric. Be prepared to leave the solar system and populate other solar systems. Let aside anthropocentrism to also recognize the possibility of life outside our planet. But not only life, but the highest form of this, which is intelligent life. Science, art and humanism must be twinned together for man to reach higher states of progress and improvement in their living conditions. The human being, robbed of the bonds that hold it on Earth and also freed from prejudices and taboos that have done so much damage in the past, looking overseas intelligent life space. Search also colonize planets and travel beyond our solar system bringing it to a grand adventure through space. New ideas and ambitious projects always meet opposition, but as a work of painful labor, newborn Benjamin Franklin I mentioned , it will pass always lead to the birth . So new ideas will open step to move to the routine. Economic reasons or motivations that justify spaceflight Some people look at any project economic justification. Some think, for example, to be exploited small gravitational pull of Mars. Due to this smaller gravitational pull of Mars compared to Earth, could be mounted some shows like ballet or acrobatics, dance, etc, which can be very spectacular for the low gravity and filmed and sold as entertainment. Volcanoes, mountains and other landscapes, plus minerals on earth are few, attractive can travel to Mars. There are also some services that can be exploited, for example, people with overweight and with arthritis and bone pain could live more comfortably on Mars.
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Of course there will be economic interests related to the exploitation of mineral resources and other chemicals. As soon as seriously mentions the sale of land on the moon and Mars. Although there is still very close to the age of oil as a fuel, it is expected that within less than twenty years mastering nuclear fusion a reality. If so the need for helium-3, which is an isotope of helium that is very scarce here on Earth. Given the great advantage is the use of helium-3 as fuel in nuclear fusion, will be very useful to find natural sources of this resource. It has been observed that this isotope of helium is abundant on the moon would be affordable and exploit it and bring it to Earth.
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ALIEN LIFE
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ooking at the night sky, a common man observes a supernova. This phenomenon is a condition that occurs in the evolution of certain stars. Is actually the explosion of a star that shines with unusual intensity, to the extent that can be visible to the naked eye. This intense brightness is due to the star space throws huge amounts of energy and particles. The common man draws the following conclusions. It is possible that this is the final judgment of an irreverent civilization. It may also be possible that an advanced civilization has caused an explosion of a nuclear device that went out of control and ended with the entire solar system that star. Let aside anthropocentrism to also recognize the possibility of life outside our planet. But not only life, but the highest form of this, which is intelligent life. There are scientists convinced of the existence of intelligent life in other solar systems. This conviction is based on objective and subjective arguments. A subjective argument with a strong emotional component is the following: It is possible that we are the only spectators of this great work that is the universe. Intelligence was given to us to learn, interpret and understand the wonder of this work and if the human spe101
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cies disappears not believe that the universe runs out of viewers. The objective arguments that leave out all romanticism, sentimentality or kitsch, are presented as follows: There is a scientific basis for believing in the possibility of advanced civilizations beyond Earth. Our civilization has ten thousand years, and the likelihood of more ancient civilizations and therefore more advanced somewhere in our galaxy is really high. Moreover, our galaxy has a hundred billion stars. If we take the probability of existence of civilizations developed the value of a millionth, we find that there are a hundred thousand planets with intelligent life and technological development with greater than ours in our galaxy alone. Most likely these intelligent beings are also trying to contact beings from other planets. LIFE ON EARTH The Copernican theory of the structure of our solar system gave a blow to anthropocentrism. Anthropocentrism is the idea that states that man is the center of the universe, not only from the physical and geometric point of view, which is that everything revolves around the Earth, but also that man, as an intelligent and life in general, are unique in the universe. The Copernican principle leads to the conclusion that the planet earth is a common of which there are billions just in our galaxy. Supported by the Copernican principle that the Earth is no special place in the universe and therefore should not be 102
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life, scientists look at the alien world, forms and manifestations of life. In an even more daring adventure, hoping to find intelligent life, believing that men do not have that be the only beings with intelligence in the vastness of the universe. Reviewing human history, dominated by anthropocentrism, we realize that Copernicus first threw us out of the center of the universe to put us in an ordinary place, wounding our pride. Then Newton came to tell us that the laws of the universe are the same here on earth and in heaven. Now the human adventure driven by the desire for knowledge, looking for the existence of life elsewhere in the universe. We can say that life is a consequence of the processes occurring in the field and that, given the right conditions, with abundant chemical elements, and a sufficiently long period of time, life inevitably appear. The abundance of water in the oceans, along with chemical ingredients contained in them, gave rise to the first microorganism able to reproduce itself and giving rise to many descendants which in turn they were playing. These organisms have spread to many places on Earth. Is not yet known exactly the path followed by inert matter into the formation of a living organism. If this known process, it would have created artificial life in the laboratory. It is not yet come to that but scientists assume that there will come a time when this is achieved. The scientific hypothesis is that life has a material origin, ie, produced by processes occurring in the field. Under this hypothesis it is thought that there is life in many other parts of our galaxy. Not yet discovered any living being beyond Earth, but were detected by spectrometric techniques, organic molecules. These organic molecules are those that enter into the composition of the basic structures of all living organisms. The many forms of life we see now are the result of an evolutionary process of living organisms. Any living being when subjected to changes in the environment seeks to adapt to survive. This ability to change and 103
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adapt is one of the characteristics of living things and is the cause of the enormous diversity of forms of life we know here on Earth. Numerous observations and fossil -based chemical analysis experiments support the theory of evolution of species. This is not a place to make a list of experimental results, only seeks to justify the reason why humans look for signs of life on other planets. The most perfect and complete form of the organization of matter is definitely the human brain. Intelligence is the product of brain functioning and the brain is the most complex structure known organization of matter. The ability of our brain to store information, process it in the form of knowledge to use and unravel the laws governing the operation of the universe and to create technology, is the great power of the human brain. The ability to observe ourselves, to wonder about our origin and our destiny, in addition to acquiring new knowledge, are the traits of our intelligence. The human brain is a wonderful organ that effect that is unmatched by any other form of organization of matter. ALIEN LIFE The results obtained by the scientists are laboratory confirmed and reinforced by space observations. No points are based on ideologies or philosophical positions view. The philosophical position is that scientists have confidence in the method 104
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used to acquire knowledge. This technique is called the scientific method is validated and has been tested in a practical way with the development of technology which we are all aware. Automobiles, airplanes, computers, cell phones, electronic equipment of all types, are now part of our common experience that demonstrate the power of scientific knowledge. Moreover, scientists, observing the characteristics of our planet and its environment and to find that are somewhat ordinary that can be repeated in many places in the universe, have established a hypothesis which have called Assumption of Mediocrity. The premises of this assumption are three: 1. Life on Earth depends on a few basic molecules. 2. The atoms that make up these molecules are common to all stars. 3. The laws of nature are the same everywhere in the universe. With these premises, concludes that if enough time passes, life can arise in many places in the universe.
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Search for intelligent life beyond Earth 35 years ago, in 1976, from the United States, was launched the Pioneer 10 spacecraft with the intent of being intercepted by intelligent beings somewhere in the universe. This ship left Earth with a message of the human race into the cosmos. Presented the image of a man standing with his hand raised in peace sign accompanied by a female image, looking to somewhere in our galaxy was found by intelligent beings and see the possibility of establishing communication with them. Life expects to find on some planet. This program is still being planned and not expected to be achieved quickly. The first thing we are doing is to find planets around other stars. It is easy to observe planets around a star. Planets are bodies that do not emit light. A planet reflects light that surrounds the star and is very difficult that we can observe from an external location to the planetary system of the star. This is because the intense starlight prevent us identify weak planets by reflected light.
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FEARS One of the biggest concerns for people considering the possibility of alien life is the fact that there may be intelligent beings. These intelligent beings can form civilized societies and invade Earth. This terrifies most people have been exploited by the writers of science fiction genre. Notable writers of these stories, is the British HG Wells, who wrote the book The War of the Worlds. British writer HG Wells wrote one of the most famous novels of invasion of Earth by aliens. The novel is titled The War of the Worlds. In them the event of a ship with Martians attacking Earth is told. The ship lands near London. The technological power of their weapons is much higher than the land, for they. His deadly weapon was n type laser rays that destroy the enemy. The story has a happy ending because the Martians die from terrestrial microbes.
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The most dramatic aspect of this novel is that in a radio program broadcast in 1938, actor Orson Wells narrated the novel and the people who heard him thought he was giving the news of a Martian invasion. In this novel a film in 1953 that was very blockbuster was made. Both the film and the novel caused a strong impact on society, great fears sowing the aliens. Do not worry too much that case that the aliens visit us. More should worry that refuse to support research projects of space arguing that there are more important issues to deal with here on Earth. Of course I should not neglect the great problems of humanity, but we must not fail to address the major projects of humanity.
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EPILOGUE
There is now, as never before in human history, the dilemma of making our world a great place to live or make it uninhabitable and possibly destroy civilization itself instead. These possibilities give us the progress in scientific and technological knowledge. On the one hand, biotechnology and the human genome, as well as many other more scientific-technological, developments may find cures for many diseases and surely human life may be extended beyond one hundred years in this decade. But on the other hand is the depredation of the planet and the threat of war in which nuclear weapons can be used to end the same humanity. All this knowledge can be used to improve the lives of all human beings. To achieve this we need more wisdom and use this knowledge to solve problems of mankind. Perhaps if we found intelligent life on other planets would compel us to improve human relations among all the inhabitants of this planet of ours. Space exploration interrelates all disciplines of human knowledge, both those of the natural sciences and the social, and psychology and behavioral sciences. The exploration of the universe requires us to and also 109
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leads us to know ourselves. It leads to self- reflection to ask who we are and what our place in the universe. The life sciences, matter and human behavior are intertwined to respond to questions about our origin and evolution. Today we have the technology to go to Mars. The project is to colonize and this requires that there is water on Mars. Water is not only vital for human consumption, the water can also obtain oxygen and hydrogen. This can be achieved using solar energy. Moreover, oxygen is essential for life. But, it seems like magic that happens with water. The decomposition of hydrogen obtained would be used as fuel for the spacecraft back to Earth. Oxygen is also used to produce hydrogen burning. The youth of today must feel a great fascination for this man adventure to explore and conquer space, I will touch them to be aware within 40 or 50 years of the great feats of space travel.
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About the Author
JOSÉ RUBÉN MORONES IBARRA He holds a degree in Physical and Mathematical Sciences at the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, in Monterrey, Mexico and a Master in Theoretical Physics from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. His PhD in Theoretical nuclear physics, won in the University of South Carolina in the USA. He has taught at the Faculty of Chemistry, UNAM, and currently in the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics at the UANL. He is a member of the American Physical Society and a member and representative Mexican Physical Society; member of the National System Researchers Level I, and a regular member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences. He received a Fulbright Scholarship, awarded by the government of the United States, and from 1994 to 1996 he was a Fellow of the National Science Foundation, for conducting research in Theoretical Nuclear Physics in the United States. He is the author of four books: A Look at Modern Physics, Science Themes Contemporary Part I, Part II Contemporary Science Topics and Essays of Physics and Mathematics , published in 2005, 2007 , 2010 and 2011 by UANL , and also authored a book chapter; 25 items scientific research, published in journals, and 95 scientific articles. 111
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AN ADVENTURE TO THE OUTER SPACE Jose Ruben Morones Ibarra, was completed and printing in 2013, in Print workshops Serna. Design and cover: Javier Estrada Ceja Care José Jesús León editing. The printing of this edition contains 2,000 copies.
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