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against the reactivation of ĹŒi reactors. The village vociferously argued in favour of nuclear energy as a stable and cost effective alternative critical for economic development and combating climate change. Policy favours by LDP were traded for massive individual donations from the utilities, amakudari and amaagari involving METI-NISA-ANRE and the utilities, networks of power between the heavy machinery manufactures, banks, media, academia and the utilities; this diluted the credibility of the energy administration. Between 1970 and 2007, nuclear energy subsidies amounted to US$ 120 billion as compared to renewable energy subsidies totalling to US$ 20 billion. Japanese nuclear R&D in 2005 was double that of other 25 IEA nations and 61.4 percent of total Japanese energy R&D (Moe 2012, 270). Figure 8: Government spending on energy research and development between 1996 and 2006
*estimated Source: International Energy Agency 2008
In 2009, the fundraising division of LDP, People's Political Association (PPA), received individual political donations worth US$ 0.81 million, of which 72.5 percent or US$ 0.59 million were sourced from executives of the nine utilities. TEPCO executives’ individual donations amounted to US$ 0.18 million. Additionally, in 2007 and 2008, PPA received US$ 0.71 million and US$ 0.734 million as donations from utility executives respectively (Kyodo News July 2011). The symbiotic relation reflects in political favours given by way of easing the regulatory pressures and issuing party tickets; for instance, the election of ex-TEPCO executive Tokio Kano to the Upper House in 1998. Takeo Ishihara, an ex-vice industry minister, held the office of vice president of TEPCO after his retirement. More recently, Toru Ishida epitomised
ASIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS VOL. 5. NO. 2