AUR 57 01 by NTEU

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015 Published by NTEU

ISSN 0818–8068

AUR

Australian Universities’Review

AUR Editor Dr Ian R. Dobson, Federation University Australia

AUR Editorial Board Jeannie Rea, NTEU National President Professor Timo Aarrevaara, University of Helsinki Professor Walter Bloom, Murdoch University Dr Jamie Doughney, Victoria University Professor Leo Goedegebuure, University of Melbourne Professor Jeff Goldsworthy, Monash University Professor Ralph Hall, University of New South Wales Professor Dr Simon Marginson, University of London Mr Grahame McCulloch, NTEU General Secretary Dr Alex Millmow, Federation University Australia Dr Neil Mudford, UNSW@ADFA Professor Paul Rodan, Swinburne University of Technology Harry Rolfe, CAPA National President Dr Leesa Wheelahan, University of Toronto

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References References to be cited according to APA Publication Manual 6th edition (with minor exceptions). References in the text should be given in the author–date style: King (2004) argues ... or as various authors (King, 2004; Markwell, 2007) argue ... Two co-authors should be cited in the text as (Smith & Jones, 2013). More than two authors cite as (Jones et al., 2011). Page references should be thus: (King, 2004, p. 314). Page references should be used for direct quotations. The reference list should be placed in alphabetical order at the end of the paper, utilising the author–date system. For a reference to a book: Gall, M., Gall, J. & Borg, W. (2003). Education Research: An introduction (7th ed.). New York: Allyn & Bacon. For a journal reference: King, D.A. (2004). What different countries get for their research spending. Nature 430, 311–316. For a reference to a chapter in a collection: McCollow, J. & Knight, J. (2005). Higher Education in Australia: An Historical Overview, in M. Bella, J. McCollow & J. Knight (eds). Higher Education in Transition. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. For a web reference: Markwell, D. (2007). The challenge of student engagement. Retreived from http://www.catl.uwa.edu.au/__data/ page/95565/Student_engagement_-_Don_Markwell_-_30_Jan_2007.pdf Do not include retrieval dates for web references unless the source material may change over time (e.g. wikis).

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015 Published by NTEU

ISSN 0818–8068

Australian Universities’ Review 3

Letter from the editor Ian R Dobson

Vale Gough Whitlam, 1916–2014 Paul Rodan

ARTICLES 5

Does academic work make Australian academics happy? Roderick Duncan, Kerry Tilbrook & Branka Krivokapic-Skoko

45 Please don’t aim for a highly cited paper Michael C Calver

Citation-based metrics are important in determining careers, so it is unsurprising that recent publications advise prospective authors on how to write highly cited papers. But rather than pursuing citations, authors may fare better by following evidence indicating that persistence, a focused research program, good methodology and publishing in relevant journals are more important. 52 Students from Australian universities studying abroad: A demographic profile Steve Nerlich

Recent articles in this journal have raised concerns about the level of happiness and engagement of Australian academics with their work. This study asked teaching and research academics at a regional Australian university to keep time diaries of their days detailing the tasks they engaged in as well as how they felt overall about their day in terms of both emotional satisfaction and workplace effectiveness.

13 The parlous state of academia: When politics, prestige and proxies overtake higher education’s teaching mission

60 Time for a Western Australian ‘Group of Three’? A speculative essay

Viviane Callier, Richard H Singiser & Nathan L Vanderford

Some sociopathic personality traits in managers can derail business organisations. Three of those traits are narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellianism. Could a leader of a university unit with strong levels of the dark triad traits derail their unit? 26 Motivating change from lecture-tutorial modes to less traditional forms of teaching Helen J McLaren & Paul L Kenny

Teaching academics are under pressure to move away from traditional lecture-tutorial teaching modes to less traditional forms. The flow-on effects for teachers are increased staff-student ratios, changes in student diversity and less face-to-face time, while also being required to meet expectations for increased research output. 34 Evaluating how universities engage school students with science: A model based on the analysis of the literature B J Cridge & A G Cridge

Michael Turner & Alistair Brown

Analysing the theoretical cost-savings that might flow from a merger of three of Western Australia’s five universities. OPINION 66 Monument to lack: The new university Andee Jones

69 Discuss: If essays are dead, then where does that leave everything else? A response to: Shirley Alexander’s ‘Buying essays: how to make sure assessment is authentic’ Kelvin McQueen

REVIEWS 72 The real Forsyth Saga? A History of the Modern Australian University by Hannah Forsyth. Reviewed by Paul Rodan

74 ‘I’m counting on you…’ (J O’Keefe, 1961) Using Data to Improve Higher Education: Research, Policy and Practice by Maria E. Menon, Dawn G. Terkla & Paul Gibbs (Eds). Reviewed by Dennis Bryant

76 Can’t see the trees for the ideological wood? Education, Privatisation and Social Justice: case studies from Africa, South Asia and South East Asia by Ian Macpherson, Susan Robertson & Geoffrey Walford (Eds). Reviewed by Arthur O’Neill

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78 Assessing students: do it like this… Improving Assessment in Higher Education: A Wholeof-Institutional Approach by Richard Henry, Stephen Marshall & Prem Ramburuth (Eds). Reviewed by Dennis Bryant

79 Are all postgrads the same? Intercultural Postgraduate Supervision: Reimagining time, place and knowledge by Catherine Manathunga. Reviewed by Helen Song-Turner

81 Student engagement: A marriage made in heaven? Understanding and Developing Student Engagement by Colin Bryson (Ed.), The Staff and Educational Development Series, James Wisdom (series Ed.). Reviewed by Carroll Graham

83 Fight the good fight! Bridging the Divide between Faculty and Administration: A Guide to Understanding Conflict in the Academy by James L. Bess & Jay R. Dee. Reviewed by Dennis Bryant

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84 The politics of victimhood Knowing Victims: Feminism, agency, and victim politics in neoliberal times by Rebecca Stringer. Review essay by Andee Jones

89 Managerialism? Managerialism: a critique of an ideology by Thomas Klikauer. Reviewed by Christopher Sheil

91 Navigating your way through a professional staff career Managing Your Career in Higher Education Administration by Michelle Gander, Heather Moyes & Emma Sabzalieva. The Universities into the 21st Century Series, Noel Entwistle & Roger King (series Eds). Reviewed by Carroll Graham

93 Education: A ghost story Capitalism: A Ghost Story by Arundhati Roy. Reviewed by Thomas Klikauer

96 Veni, vidi, vici The Wit of Whitlam by James Carleton (Ed.). Reviewed by Paul Rodan

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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Letter from the editor Ian R Dobson Welcome to a new year. Sad news reached us, in October

the fact that government bureaucrats think that they can

2014, of the passing of Gough Whitlam, admittedly after

assess research quality more readily than they can identify

a pretty good innings, falling just short of notching up

teaching quality. Never mind that research metrics include

a maiden century. Making higher education accessible

subjective assessments of the quality of journal articles

to those previously excluded was but one of his many

based solely on the journal in which they were published,

achievements whilst in office. What short memories those

and that research grants, clearly an ‘input’ to research, are

currently holding the federal reins have, as they connive

dealt with as though they are an output! Within this milieu,

to re-emphasise socioeconomic privilege. Gough is

Michael Calver looks at another research metric: citations,

remembered first and last in this issue, courtesy of Editorial

and suggests that on-going research effort is better than

Board member Paul Rodan (see pp.4 and 96).

trying to write one ‘star’ (i.e. highly-cited) paper.

This issue features papers on a wide range of topics,

Contemporary universities need overseas fee-paying

and reviews of about a dozen recently-published books.

students to balance their under-funded budgets. However,

Among the papers, Duncan, Tilbrook and Krivokapic-

less attention is paid to domestic students going abroad

Skoko examine happiness among academics. What does it

to broaden their experience, even though universities

take to make academics happy?

promote the idea. Steve Nerlich examines this outward

The next couple of papers look at things that might

flow of students, based on several data sources.

not lead to academic workplace happiness. From the

The final paper from among the peer-reviewed articles

US, Callier, Singiser and Vanderford examine the impact

presents a‘hypothetical’,based on the creation of a Western

of ‘politics, prestige and proxies’ on university teaching,

Australian ‘Group of Three’ that could provide a foil to the

whereby research seems to be valued ahead of teaching,

University of Western Australia. On paper, aggregating the

despite the fact that it often costs money to accept an

assets of Curtin, Edith Cowan and Murdoch Universities

external research grant. Chad Perry asks us to consider

would create a potentially powerful entity.

the impact of ‘sociopathic’ leaders. Will this ‘leadership’

This issue’s opinion pieces include one by Andee

attribute that is so common in the commercial world be

Jones that presents further erudition of the way of the

transported to our new era managerialist universities?

university in Australia. Earlier issues of AUR provided

Perhaps it has already happened.

Jones other astute observations about the Australian

Managing teaching (and research) requires a set of skills

sector. Meanwhile, Kelvin McQueen looks at ‘the essay’ (in

that is not always built into staff career development.

terms of student assessment), in light of suggestions that

Helen McLaren and Paul Kenny consider this issue in

the essay is ‘dead’.

the context of the change that is going on in teaching. Traditional or less-traditional?

Finally, the Reviews section should help you decide whether or not to buy or read some recently-published

Belinda and Andrew Cridge look at the important

works. Please let me know if you’d like to review any

matter of attracting and retaining students in the so-called

given book; AUR accepts book reviewing as an important

STEM disciplines of science, technology, engineering and

part of a scholarly career, and has a large reviews section

mathematics. Based on the literature, they consider how

as a consequence.

school students can be attracted to science. Australian

Our thanks go to the authors, blind peer reviewers,

science has a high profile through the efforts of Ian Chubb,

copy editors and the production team that together

Australia’s Chief Scientist, in a country that currently

make Australian Universities’ Review a possibility and a

seems to be governed by a political party that believes we

‘different’ journal to many that are out there.

live in a science-free zone. Even if teaching is undervalued vis-à-vis research, we

Ian Dobson is an Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the

can’t avoid the reality of our university sector. Some would

Federation University Australia, an Adjunct Professional Staff

say that research’s ascendency has been caused in part by

Member at Monash University and editor of AUR.

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

Letter from the editor Ian R Dobson

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Vale Gough Whitlam, 1916-2014 Paul Rodan

While controversy will always attend any assessment of

Whitlam’s implementation of enhanced school funding

Gough Whitlam’s period as prime minister, he was almost

and free tertiary education reflected his abiding faith in

certainly the greatest opposition leader in Australian

the liberating power of education and its contribution, not

political history. It needs to be remembered that when he

only to individual personal growth, but also to effective

took over as federal Labor leader in 1967, the party was

citizenship. His vision that every child should have a desk

in a parlous state, obituaries had been written and some

and a lamp at home for study rings as true today as when

serious observers suggested that only a rapprochement

he enunciated it. Many of those reading this tribute will

with the right wing (Labor breakaway) Democratic Labor

need no reminder of Whitlam’s contribution to their own

Party could save the Australian Labor Party and the two-

educational achievements.

party system. Six years later, Whitlam was in government

Whitlam’s commitment to education and his record in

and the DLP was effectively dead. His reform of the

this policy area established a pattern which persists to this

Party (structure) and its Policies allowed him to make an

day. Whatever the ALP’s ups and downs, polls consistently

effective pitch to the third P: the People.

identify Labor as the party better equipped to deal with

Pre-Whitlam Labor contained a strong anti-intellectual streak which meant that while university-educated

education policy, an achievement whose origins can be traced to the Whitlam era.

people could be found in pockets of the party, they were

Whitlam’s faith in the power of reason and argument

not always made to feel welcome. Whitlam’s predecessor

echoed the best intellectual traditions and one suspects

Arthur Calwell saw the party in blue-collar terms and

how contemptuously he would have viewed modern

seemed to hold members from other backgrounds in

focus-group-driven public policy. Education in Australia

barely disguised contempt – ironical given that he had

has had no greater friend and advocate than Gough

held a white collar public service job himself. Moreover,

Whitlam. We will not see his like again.

Labor’s

residual

racism

(personified

Calwell’s

passionate defence of the White Australia policy) was

Paul Rodan is an adjunct professor in the Swinburne Institute

hardly likely to appeal to young voters (nor to some older

for Social Research, Swinburne University of Technology, and

ones) looking for a progressive and principled alternative

a member of the editorial board of Australian Universities’

to nearly two decades of conservative party dominance.

Review.

By contrast, Whitlam not only welcomed the universityeducated into the ALP; he sought their contribution in detailed policy formulation.

Vale Gough Whitlam, 1916-2014 Paul Rodan

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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Does academic work make Australian academics happy? Roderick Duncan, Kerry Tilbrook & Branka Krivokapic-Skoko Charles Sturt University

Happiness research is a rapidly-growing area in social psychology and has emphasised the link between happiness and workplace productivity and creativity for knowledge workers. Recent articles in this journal have raised concerns about the level of happiness and engagement of Australian academics with their work, however there is little research on the activities Australian academics conduct during a typical day and how these activities affect happiness or productivity. We asked teaching and research academics at a regional Australian university to keep time diaries of their days detailing the tasks they engaged in as well as how they felt overall about their day in terms of both emotional satisfaction and workplace effectiveness. Supporting the notion of intrinsic motivation for academic work, we found a strong relationship between happiness and self-reported effectiveness. We found that research activities made academics happier with their days and that time fragmentation was a major driver of unhappiness. However we also uncovered a tension between the activities which make academics happy and those activities which made academics feel productive. Keywords: happiness, academic happiness, academic productivity

Are Australian academics happy?

‘enthusiasm’ as an academic’s engagement with activities involved in academic work and cast doubt on

Australian academics appear to be an unhappy lot. In

whether many of the recent changes in the Australian

recent surveys of academics such as the NTEU’s survey at

university sector have been conducive to feelings of

University of Western Sydney (Lazarsfeld Jensen & Morgan,

enthusiasm in academics.

2009), academics have expressed high levels of intention

While we may have solid data about the unhappiness

to leave the sector in the near future (Bexley, James &

of Australian academics, we do not possess the

Arkoudis, 2011), and academics have expressed low levels

empirical studies necessary to reveal the reasons for

of satisfaction with current university leadership (Coates,

this unhappiness. While Australian universities might be

Dobson, Goedegebuure & Meek, 2010).

becoming increasingly managerial, governance-driven

A recent Australian Universities’ Review article

and more bureaucratic, what particular aspects of the

(Martin, 2011) has placed the academic workplace

recent changes in universities are causing higher levels of

within our new understanding of the link between

unhappiness in Australian academics? Is it the managerial

work and happiness. In a related article Freudenberg

direction in which universities appear to be headed, or is

and Samarkovski (2014) introduced a concept of

it something else entirely?

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

Does academic work make Australian academics happy? Roderick Duncan et al.

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What is important for happiness in the academic workplace?

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Beyond experiences of flow, autonomy, mastery and purpose, for Amabile (1983; 1998), intrinsic motivation is a major driver for knowledge workers’ happiness and

Studies in happiness research – summarised in Martin

productivity. Intrinsic motivation enables academics to

(2011) – have stressed the importance of attitudes and

derive pleasure from the task or work itself, much as flow

activities to personal happiness rather than monetary

does, and so the successful execution of the task becomes

rewards.A large increase in income or wealth can generate

the personal goal. This concept of intrinsic motivation is

a temporary increase in happiness. However, over longer

similar to Maslow’s (1970) view of self-actualisation. We

periods of time, happiness generated in this way falls back

might expect then that academics are happiest when they

to a natural state or set point for each person. The only

feel most productive.

means of permanently changing personal happiness is to change a person’s attitudes or daily activities.

Yet Robinson (1999) argues that modern education systems, at secondary and tertiary levels, are actively

If daily activities determine happiness, what do

stifling productivity through bureaucracy and through

Australian academics do on a day-to-day basis and how do

constant evaluation and audits. These organisational

these activities affect their happiness? Csikszentmihalyi

structures stifle the autonomy, spontaneity and flexibility

(1990; 1996) developed the concept of flow – the

necessary to be creative (Mumford, Scott & Strange, 2002)

feeling of transcendence which accompanies intense

and thus they work in a spirit contrary to the intrinsic

concentration on a task – and found the concept to be

motivation of these workers.

applicable across a wide range of activities. It is these experiences of flow which could lead to happiness in the workplace. As an academic, Martin (2011) explained that

Happiness, creativity and work fragmentation

the greatest opportunities to enter a flow experience would occur during research activities, while doubting

To experience flow and to achieve feelings of mastery,

that flow experiences would be found within teaching

academics would need focused periods of time to

or administrative tasks. Thus Martin’s opinion was that

concentrate on individual tasks whether in research or

research activities would increase the happiness of

teaching. The descriptions of the academic workplace

academics through flow, while teaching-related or

in Currie (1996), Anderson, Johnson and Saha (2002)

service activities would not. However there are other

and Lazarsfeld Jensen and Morgan (2009) suggest that

positive values in academic work such as collegiality,

the opportunities for flow through long periods of

social networking and assisting others from which

uninterrupted time spent on a single task would be

academics may draw happiness, so the relationship

minimal during a typical academic’s day in a modern

between

happiness

and

academic work may be a complex one. Pink related of

(2009) the

professionals,

monetary to

feelings

likewise happiness not

rewards, of

to but

autonomy,

mastery and purpose. For

university due to emails,

Whilst in a creative state whether writing a paper, devising an experiment or preparing their teaching materials, academics need time away from distraction and interruptions to reach that flow state. Yet do modern universities allow much opportunity for this sort of free time?

Pink a relatively autonomous

phone

calls

and

other

interruptions. Creative

workers

need

time to drift, reflect, ponder and dream. They need time for their ideas to take shape and materialise (Mintzberg, 1998). Whilst in a creative state whether writing a paper,

academic may not set the

devising

experiment

goals for their work, for example quality research and

or preparing their teaching materials, academics need

quality teaching, but the academic would be able to

time away from distraction and interruptions to reach

determine in a large part how those goals are achieved.

that flow state. Yet do modern universities allow much

Mastery is the opportunity to apply an academic’s

opportunity for this sort of free time? Amabile’s (1998)

specific skills to particular problems, which would create

article in Harvard Business Review entitled ‘How to Kill

experiences of flow for the academic. Finally, purpose is

Creativity’ points out that modern organisations do not

the alignment of the academic’s personal goals with the

set out to kill creativity but do so unintentionally as a

goals of the institution at which the academic works.

by-product of maximising business imperatives through

Does academic work make Australian academics happy? Roderick Duncan et al.

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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‘coordination, productivity, and control’ (Amabile, 1998, p. 77). These measures can destroy the autonomy and free

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O’Conaill and Frohlich (1995) found that, 41 per cent of

Weekday

Weekend

the time, employees do not resume their original task after an interruption. Interruptions harm productivity of ongoing tasks due to cognitive issues associated with context switching, recollection time and an increased potential for errors, and, for highly intellectual tasks, the costs of interruptions are higher (Sykes, 2011; McFarlane & Latorella 2002). Czerwinski, Horvitz and Wilhite (2004) found that disrupted activities took over twice as long to complete as uninterrupted ones and that interrupted tasks comprised 4.5 hours out of a 40 hour work week, or 11.2 per cent of the work week, while MarulandaCarter and Jackson (2012, p. 89) reported that ‘five minute email interruptions cause a task to take one-third longer than completing a task without email interruptions’. The productivity cost of an interruption comes in the form of the extra time required to return to the same point in the

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Average working hours per day (hr)

There is increasing empirical evidence from studies of workers’ performance. In the context of high-tech firms,

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Table 1: Summary of daily activities for six teachingresearch academics at a regional university over a typical session

time necessary for creative work. knowledge workers that fragmented work patterns hurt

% of Average Weekday (%)

% of Average Weekend (%)

Communicating with students

1.8

0.7

19.0

13.2

Subject administration

2.1

1.6

22.1

30.2

Subject preparation

0.8

0.4

8.4

7.6

Subject delivery

0.4

0.1

4.2

1.9

Research

2.8

2.0

29.5

37.7

Service and general administration

1.6

0.5

16.8

9.4

Total hours

9.5

5.3

100.0

Number of recorded days

562

110

562

110

interrupted task. The concepts of monochronic and polychronic

survey was undertaken in which teaching and research

time – being actively involved in two or more activities

academics were asked to produce time diaries of their

simultaneously (Bluedorn, Kaufman & Lane, 1992)

activities for the whole of one session out of a year.

–

behaviour

This survey took place at a large regional university

literature have likewise identified a productivity cost for

with an emphasis on distance education. The academics

interruptions. Frei, Raciot and Travagline (1998) found out

provided an hour-by-hour breakdown of their activities

that monochronic behaviour (doing one thing at a time)

and self-reported their emotional well-being and work

of faculty members at a private college in the US was

effectiveness. Each academic provided on average 100

positively and significantly correlated with an academic’s

days’ worth of time diaries.

developed

within

the

organisational

research output, measured by the number of publications

The time diaries were collected from six teaching and

and number of research projects in progress for the

research academics at lecturer and senior lecturer levels.

academic.

The workload models at this university assume these

We might expect then that there are two adverse

academics devote 60 per cent of their time to teaching,

effects of time fragmentation on the personal happiness of

30 per cent of their time to research and the remaining

academics. A direct effect would be through prevention

10 per cent to administration and service. Two other

of flow as an academic under constant interruption jumps

academics were included in the original sample however

from one task to another during the day. There may also

these academics were performing in an administrative role

be a secondary effect through the consequent reduced

as course managers in addition to their academic roles.

productivity coupled with intrinsic motivation in their

The time diaries for these two administrator-academics

work, leading to lower levels of happiness for the academic.

were sufficiently different from the other six traditional research-teaching academics that it was decided to

What do academics do at regional universities?

exclude them from the research. The time diary sheet to be filled out was a 24 hour time diary and included the following main categories of daily

In order to investigate how the typical daily activities of

activities (see Appendix 1 for a complete listing):

Australian academics affect happiness or productivity, a

• Communicating with students including face-to-face

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meetings, email, telephone, subject forums or another form.

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Table 2: Self-reported happiness and effectiveness of academics Weekday

• Subject administration including grading of assignments

Weekend

and exams, processing student forms, completing

Average happiness

1.34

1.51

subject reviews or other subject-related compliance.

Average effectiveness

1.40

1.47

Number of recorded days

504

105

• Subject preparation including developing lectures, tutorials or online materials. • Subject delivery for lectures, tutorials or online

Note: An academic’s happiness and effectiveness for each day are reported on a scale of 0 (‘Poor’), 1 (‘OK’) and 2 (‘Good’).

presentations related to a subject. • Research including reading, writing, preparing grant

days were concentrated around subject administration

applications, supervising doctoral students, meetings

(usually marking) and research, with a smaller proportion

related to research, reviewing or other research-related

of the working day devoted to other types of activities.

administration.

At the end of each day the academics assessed the

• Service and general administration including meetings,

overall day by answering two questions ‘How was your

course- or discipline-related research, general admin-

day emotionally?’ and ‘How effective were you today?’

istration or emails.

The possible responses were ‘Good’, ‘OK’ and ‘Poor’,

These activities and sub-categories were set out on the

which were coded as ‘2’, ‘1’ and ‘0’. In our measure of

time sheets, and academics were asked to indicate for

happiness, we look at the activities which lead to the

each hour the activity or activities which largely occupied

academics reporting a ‘Good’ day. The average levels

that hour. Where multiple activities were reported in an

of reported happiness and effectiveness are set out in

hour, the academic’s time was assumed to have been

Table 2. We use the academic’s emotional satisfaction

split equally between the reported activities. These sub-

for the day as an indicator of ‘happiness’ for that day. In

categories of activities – for example, ‘grant writing’ or

particular we are interested in the factors which lead

‘lecture delivery’ – were then summed up to arrive at the

to the academic indicating that this was a ‘Good’ day

total hours spent on more general categories of activities

emotionally. Admittedly our happiness measure relates

– for example, ‘research’ or ‘subject delivery’. A summary

to retrospective happiness as opposed to an immediate

of the time diary data is contained in Table 1 showing the

report of happiness as measured in the experience

allocation for the general categories of activities.

sampling method of Larson and Csikszentmihalyi (1983).

As this university has a high proportion of distance

Our intention was to allow academics to provide an

education subjects, these academics are probably unusual

overall assessment of their day rather than an assessment

compared with many other Australian academics. Hours

of a momentary emotional state. We also gave academics

devoted to subject administration and communications

an opportunity to provide a qualitative reflection on their

with students would most likely be higher and subject

day within their time diary. We were concerned that this

delivery hours lower for these academics than for

time for reflection would not have been possible within

academics at institutions with more traditional lectures

the working day using an experience sampling method.

and tutorials to internal classes.

It is interesting to note the higher levels of happiness

Working days typically included on average one

(and effectiveness) for academics while working on the

weekend day each week (110 weekend days out of the

weekends. We will explore this finding, and provide some

total of 670 reported days). An average work week is

possible explanations, later in the paper.

imputed then to be five weekdays at 9.5 hours plus

The literature has emphasised the deleterious nature

weekend day at 5.3 hours or a 52.8 hour work week.This

of time fragmentation on workplace productivity. The

estimated work week comes within the range of the 51

question arises about how we go from hourly time

hours per week for senior lecturers from Coates et al.

diary data to an explicit measure of the fragmentation

(2009).A high proportion of these hours were undertaken

of an academic’s work day when there is no commonly

outside the traditional 9am-5pm working day. For these

accepted measure of time fragmentation in the literature.

academics, the break-down of their activities roughly

As a measure of time fragmentation we use the concept

reflected the 60-30-10 distribution of hours between

of ‘fractionalisation’ developed in economic theory

teaching, research and administration in their workloads,

(Mauro 1995; Collier & Hoeffler 2004). This measure

although it seems unclear where administration might

was developed to provide an indicator of the degree of

factor into the calculations in its various forms. Weekend

cultural division within a country.

Does academic work make Australian academics happy? Roderick Duncan et al.

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Table 3: Results of a logit analysis of an academic reporting a ‘Good’ day emotionally and for effectiveness. Dependent variable:

Stating a ‘Good’ day emotionally as an academic

Stating a ‘Good’ day for effectiveness as an academic

Odds Ratio

2.13

3.89

3.20

1.09

Subject delivery

0.41

31.75**

6.85*

0.80

3.50

0.92

Indicated a ‘Good’ day for effectiveness

Pseudo-R2

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day. There is some evidence for this, as the average level of fractionalisation differs between weekdays (0.37) and weekends (0.14), and only 10 per cent of weekdays were days devoted to a single activity, while almost 60 per cent of weekends were devoted to a single activity. Possible contributing factors for the higher levels of happiness reported on the weekends may be the lower fractionalisation of tasks for those days and the ability to

Work happiness and effectiveness for academics If academics are seeking flow in their activities in the workplace, and flow is more likely to be achievable in research activities than in teaching or administration, we should expect then that academics would be happier on

82.9**

days when they undertook research activities than on

Indicated a ‘Good’ day emotionally Fragmentation of the day

the days.

Communication with students Subject administration

Service and general administration

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concentrate on a single activity for a high proportion of

Proportion of day spent on activities:

Research

E R

81.49** 0.13*

2.04

0.53

0.51

Statistically significant at levels **p<.01, *p<.05; Number of observations: 609 Note: Observations on subject preparation were dropped as that activity had no statistically significant relationship with reported happiness for the academic’s day and to avoid having a combination of independent variables (the proportion variables) sum to one.

days when they undertook teaching and administrative activities. Likewise if academics prefer days which are not fragmented in terms of the types of activities undertaken, we would expect lower levels of happiness to be associated with higher levels of fractionalisation for the day. Following Amabile (1983; 1998), accepting that academics are intrinsically-motivated workers, we would expect to see a strong relationship between an academic’s happiness rating for a day and the academic’s effectiveness rating for that day. In Table 3 we present the results of logistic regressions

Fractionalisation is a number between 0 (low) and 1

relating the probability of an academic reporting a ‘Good’

(high), which is intended to measure how disjointed a

day in terms of emotional satisfaction and in terms of

day is in terms of the tasks carried out during the day.

effectiveness to the types of activities engaged in during

If we consider the fractions of the day devoted to the

the day, the fractionalisation of the day and on whether

broad category of tasks, then a fractionalisation level of

the academic also indicated a ‘Good’ day in terms of the

0 indicates a day devoted entirely to one type of activity,

other rating of that day. In this table the odds ratios for

such as a ‘research day’ devoted entirely to research

the different explanatory variables are presented, as well

activities. A day devoted 90 per cent to one task and 10

as the statistical significance. A maximum-likelihood logit

per cent to a second is calculated to be less fractionalised

regression (Pampel 2000) was conducted using the STATA

than a day devoted 50 per cent to one activity and 50 per

11 software package (StataCorp 2009) to ascertain the

cent to the second. Our measure of time fragmentation is

factors which made the participating academics more

this calculated fractionalisation for the day. This indicator

likely to indicate a ‘Good’ emotional or effectiveness

will take on the value 0 if one activity engages the entire

rating for that day.

day and a number close to 1 if the day includes a large

The odds ratios might need some explaining, but the

number of separate activities, none of which individually

concept is relatively straightforward. The odds ratio

occupy a large portion of the day.

indicates whether a higher value or a lower value for

If academics are intrinsically motivated and work

one of the explanatory variables for that day would be

fragmentation reduces effectiveness, then we might

associated with a higher probability of the academic

expect that an academic’s happiness value for a day is

indicating a ‘Good’ day for that day. If the odds ratio is

negatively related to the fractionalisation value for that

larger than one, then this indicates that higher levels for

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Does academic work make Australian academics happy? Roderick Duncan et al.

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the explanatory variable are associated with a higher

of their work days and to record their assessment of

probability of indicating a ‘Good’ day. If the odds ratio is

each day in terms of their emotional satisfaction and

less than one, then this indicates that higher values for

effectiveness during the day. A logit regression found a

the explanatory variable are associated with a lower

strong, positive relationship between the proportion of

probability of indicating a ‘Good’ day.

their days spent on research and the happiness of these

The first column of Table 3 presents the results of a logistic regression of indicating a ‘Good’ day in terms of

academics and a strong, negative relationship between the fragmentation of an academic’s day and their happiness.

emotional satisfaction. There are positive and statistically

Intrinsic motivation of the academics in our data

significant relationships between the probability of an

was apparent in that participants were happiest on

academic indicating a ‘Good’ day and the proportion of

the weekends when they had more unregulated, less

the day spent on research-related activities and also on the

fragmented time and could devote large amounts of

academic’s effectiveness rating for the day. None of the

time to research tasks. This willingness to work on

other activities had a statistically significant relationship

weekends suggests work overload and also a loyalty to

with the emotional rating for the day given by the

their professional ethos. In fact, when our participants

academic, although the proportion of the day devoted

had longer hours on the task they may have been more

to communicating to students, subject administration

efficient due to lack of other competing demands and at

and to service and general administration had a positive

the same time more creative due to greater focus.

but statistically insignificant impact on the probability

What policies at the university level or behaviours at

of declaring a ‘Good’ rating for the day. There was a

the individual level could boost the happiness of Australian

negative and statistically significant relationship between

academics as a workforce? The findings here suggest

the fractionalisation of the day (representing the work

that, for a teaching and research academic, the ideal day

fragmentation for that day) and the probability of the

is a long day spent entirely on research activities without

academic reporting a ‘Good’ day.

the interruptions of administrative or teaching tasks.

It should be kept in mind that we have measured the

Academics can individually act to create these types of days

proportion of the day spent on particular activities, such

for themselves, or can carve out smaller portions of a week

as research, service or subject administration, and that

to be devoted regularly to research, and the literature from

these proportions have to sum to one for each day.A larger

the work fragmentation in technology workers suggests

proportion of the day spent on one task will necessarily

that there are large personal gains to be made from this.

mean that the proportion spent on other tasks must

However these attempts by individual academics to reduce

decline. Our measure of time fragmentation looks only at

work fragmentation are at the mercy of demands from

the proportion of the day involved in each activity.As such

the university, administrative staff and the calendaring of

this measure might miss the sequencing of the day and

teaching activities and administrative functions.

the precise timing of interruptions such as a phone call. A

A more comprehensive attempt would be to design

different measure of time fragmentation may be a valuable

university systems to facilitate the creation of research-

topic for future research in this area.

only periods for academics. Altering employee time-

The second column of Table 3 presents the results of

use and facilitating the introduction of uninterrupted

a logistic regression of indicating a ‘Good’ day in terms

‘quiet time’ has been noted in the sociology of work

of effectiveness. A positive and statistically significant

time literature (Perlow, 1999) as very effective in making

relationship was found between the proportion of the day

employees more effective. One possible implementation

spent on subject delivery and the academic’s emotional

would be for the class scheduling systems to block out

satisfaction rating for that day. Research activities were

teaching-free periods such as for particular afternoons

found to be positively related to happiness but not to

within a week or even entire days. Another solution

self-reported effectiveness. As was found in the happiness

might be that administrators are requested not to send

regression, the academics’ reported levels of happiness

administrative requests to academics on certain days of

and effectiveness for the day were highly correlated.

the week. A trade-off might be to expect academics to respond promptly to administrative requests outside

Conclusion

those excluded times.

We asked teaching and research academics at a regional

and subject delivery activities on happiness and

Australian university to fill out time diaries of the activities

effectiveness for these academics might seem puzzling.

The contrast found between the impact of research

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Ideally intrinsically-motivated academics should have an alignment between workplace effectiveness and happiness. However while doing research activities made these academics happier, research activities did not make the academics feel effective for those same days. Likewise while doing subject delivery made academics feel they were effective, subject delivery activities did not make the academics feel happy about their days. This finding suggests a tension between the aims of the university and the aims of these academics – a violation of the sense of purpose which Pink (2009) stressed as important for professionals. The completion of a teaching task provides a feeling of effectiveness (and thus achievement) for the intrinsically-motivated academic, however the same academic is aware that long-term job tenure and promotion relies on research outcomes rather than teaching ones, so this achievement does not lead to happiness. This finding may also be due to the underlying problem of establishing a sense of achievement within a longterm task of research as opposed to a short-term task of delivering a lecture. There is often a long delay between the performance of a research task, such as the completion of a literature review, and the successful external signal of that task, such as receiving an acceptance from a journal or winning a research grant. In contrast, the sense of achievement when completing a teaching task is immediate. A challenge lies then in creating a sense of immediate achievement within research activities, which may themselves generate external signals of achievement only a few times a year. A first step may be for academics themselves to celebrate micro-successes such as finishing a literature review or submitting a paper to a conference or a journal. A limitation of this paper is that the time diary data was gathered for a limited number of academics at a single Australian institution and thus there is a concern over the generalisability of the results. The authors intend to conduct a wider survey in the future and teaching-research academics are requested to contact the authors if interested

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References Amabile, T. M. (1983). The Social Psychology of Creativity. New York: SpringlerVerlag. Amabile, T. M. (1998). How to kill creativity. Harvard Business Review, 76, 76-87. Anderson, D., Johnson R. & Saha L. (2002). Changes in Academic Work: Implications for universities of the changing age distribution and work roles of academic staff. Canberra: Department of Education Science and Training. Bexley, E., James, R. & Arkoudis, S. (2011). The Australian Academic Profession in Transition. Canberra: Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. Bluedorn, A.C., Kaufman, C.F. & Lane, P.M. (1992). How many things do you like to do at once? An introduction to monochronic and polychronic time. The Executive, 6(4), 17-26. Coates, H., Dobson, I., Edwards, D., Friedman, T., Goedegebuure, L. & Meek, L. (2009). The attractiveness of the Australian academic profession: A comparative analysis. ACER Research Briefing. Retrieved from http://research.acer.edu.au/ cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=higher_education. Coates, H., Dobson, I., Goedegebuure, L. & Meek, L. (2010). Across the great divide: what do Australian academics think of university leadership? Advice from the CAP survey. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 32(4), 379-387. Collier, P. & Hoeffler, A. (2004). Greed and grievance in civil war. Oxford Economic Papers, 56(4), 563-595. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper Collins. Currie, J. (1996). The effects of globalisation on 1990s academics in greedy institutions: Overworked, stressed out and demoralised. Critical Studies in Education, 37(2), 101-128. Czerwinski, M., Horvitz, E. & Wilhite, S. (2004). A diary study of task switching and interruptions. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 175-182. ACM. Frei, R. L., Raciot, B. & Travagline, A. (1999). The impact of monochronic and Type A behavior patterns on research productivity and stress. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 14(5), 374–387. Freudenberg, B. & Samarkovski, L. (2014). Enthusiasm and the effective modern academic. Australian Universities’ Review, 56(1), 22-31. Larson, R., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1983). The experience sampling method. New Directions for Methodology of Social & Behavioral Science, 15, 41-56. Lazarsfeld-Jensen, A. & Morgan, K. (2009). Overload: The role of work-volume escalation and micro-management of academic work patterns in loss of morale and collegiality at UWS: The way forward. Melbourne: National Tertiary Education Union.

in participating in or assisting with a future trial.

Martin, B. (2011). On being a happy academic. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(1), 50-56.

Roderick Duncan is a senior lecturer in the School of Accounting and Finance at Charles Sturt University, NSW.

Marulanda-Carter, L. & Jackson, T. W. (2012). Effects of e-mail addiction and interruptions on employees. Journal of Systems and Information Technology, 14(1), 82-94.

Kerry Tilbrook is a lecturer in the School of Management and

Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and Personality. 2nd ed. New York: Harper & Row.

Marketing at Charles Sturt University.

Mauro, P. (1995). Corruption and growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110(3), 681-712.

Branka Krivokapic-Skoko is an associate professor in the School of Management and Marketing at Charles Sturt University. vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

McFarlane, D.C. & Latorella, K.A. (2002). The scope and importance of human interruption in human-computer interaction design. Human-Computer Interaction, 17(1), 1-61.

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Mintzberg, H. (1998). Covert leadership: notes on managing professionals. Harvard Business Review, 76, 140-148. Mumford, M.D., Scott, G.M. & Strange, J.M. (2002). Leading creative people: Orchestrating expertise and relationships. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(6), 705-750. O’Conaill, B. & Frohlich, D. (1995). Timespace in the workplace: Dealing with interruptions. ACM Conference Companion on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 262-263.. doi: 10.1145/223355.223665.

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Communicating with students • By phone/Skype • By forums/announcements

Perlow, L.A. (1999). The time famine: Toward a sociology of work time, Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(1), 57–81.

• Marking assignments

Pink, D.H. (2009). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. New York: Riverhead Books.

• Entering grade-sheet

Sykes, E. (2011). Interruptions in the workplace: A case study to reduce their effects. International Journal of Information Management, 31(4), 385-394.

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• By email

• By face-to-face

StataCorp (2009). STATA: Release 11. College Station: StataCorp.

Appendix 1: Categories of academic activities recorded in the time diaries

Pampel, F.C. (2000). Logistic Regression: A Primer. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Robinson, K. (1999). All Our Futures: Creativity, culture and education (The Robinson Report). Canberra: Department for Education and Employment.

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Subject administration • Marking exams • Setting up subject websites • Setting up subject outlines • Moderation • Subject coordination Subject preparation • Developing lectures • Developing tutorials • Developing exams • Developing online content • Developing materials Subject delivery • Delivering lectures/seminars • Delivering tutorials/labs Research • Research administration • Reviewing/refereeing • Reading literature • Writing • Grant preparation • Meetings for research • Thinking/planning/general research • Supervision of PhD/DBA students Service • Committee attendance • Course/discipline administration • Community/professional engagement • Professional development/training • General admin/internet/email Travel for ____________ Conversations with colleagues Other (include category)

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The parlous state of academia When politics, prestige and proxies overtake higher education’s teaching mission Viviane Callier The Ronin Institute, New Jersey

Richard H Singiser Clayton State University, Georgia

Nathan L Vanderford University of Kentucky

Original and significant research benefits the careers of those running universities and brings prestige to their institution. World class teaching, by and large, does not, and this has important consequences for higher education’s tripartite mission. Most notably, emphasis on the research mission of major higher education institutions dwarfs that of the teaching mission and this is to the detriment of teachers and students. Policy interventions are needed to address this discrepancy. Keywords: higher education, administration, research mission, teaching mission, policy intervention

It is no secret that in the last several decades, the numbers

or service per 100 students only grew by 18 per cent

of those running universities (referred to here as ‘academic

(Goldwater Institute, 2010). To take an extreme example,

administrators’) have increased dramatically whereas the

during this period, at Arizona State University, the number

growth in the number of tenure track academics (‘faculty’

of academic administrators per 100 students increased by

in US parlance) has been only modest, and the trend is

94 per cent whereas the number of employees engaged

projected to continue (Occupational Outlook Handbook,

in teaching, research and service per student actually

Postsecondary Administrators, 2014-2015). For

the

decreased by two per cent (Goldwater Institute, 2010).

purposes of this paper, ‘academic administrators’ include

This trend transforms how universities operate in a way

occupants of positions with titles such as president,

that has a negative impact on the teaching mission of

vice-chancellor, provost, deputy vice-chancellor and

higher education.

pro-vice-chancellor, dean and perhaps a few other titles. Indeed, between 1993 and 2007, the number of full-time

Detriment to tenure track academic staff

academic administrators per 100 students at American research universities grew by 39 per cent, whereas the

Although universities were, historically, self-governing

number of employees engaged in teaching, research

bodies where tenured academics played a principal role

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

The parlous state of academia Viviane Callier et al.

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in the university governance, academics’ governance has

similarly precarious contracts). Despite the fact that such

been eroded (Ginsberg, 2011; Rojstaczer, 1999; Executive

personnel are frequently overworked, underpaid, and

Committee of the UM Chapter of AAUP, 2014). University

do not have access to institutional resources (including

governance has become a specialised niche of academic

office space) (Allen, 2013; Hall, 2014; Schuman, 2014b),

administrators. To counter this trend, protests have

a recent study found that students’ learning is actually

occurred recently on several campuses, most prominently

enhanced when the course instructor is an adjunct versus

at the University of Illinois at Chicago (Inside Higher Ed.,

a tenure track teaching staff member (Figlio, Schapiro, &

2014), to fight for better pay and reclaim authority on

Soter, 2013). Why not, then, grant exemplary contingent

issues such as curriculum development.

academics the benefit of being able to obtain tenure too?

The excessive power of high-level administration

As argued previously, universities could create specific

was apparent when, recently on several campuses,

career tracks for research and teaching (Grant, 2014), and

deans and tenured academics were fired for speaking

recognise the contributions of good teachers as much as

out and criticising budget cuts that would jeopardise

those of innovative researchers.The current system short-

academic

programmes. A

recent example is that of Robert Buckingham, tenured professor director

and of

the

executive School

of Public Health at the University of Saskatchewan

changes both the contingent

Higher education is now run as a business, and while many of the universities are notfor-profit, they are increasingly run in such a way to maximise profits to benefit the leadership.

labour force and the students they teach. Additionally, and strikingly, student debt and the use of low-wage

adjunct

labour

have both increased faster

in Canada, sacked because

he ‘demonstrated egregious

schools than the national

the

high-executive-pay

conduct and insubordination’ (Huffington Post, 2014).

average (Erwin & Wood, 2014; Lewin, 2014; Wilkins,

Another example is that of the Director of Undergraduate

2014). Furthermore, student debt increased the most

Research at Virginia Tech, Tomalei Vess, who was fired for

at the universities where executive compensation also

pushing to increase resources for undergraduate research

increased the most: ‘average student debt of graduates

(Corder, 2013). In both of these cases, dismissal occurred

in the top 25 public universities with the highest

in spite of – or because – they fought for programmes and

executive pay increased five percentage points more

policies to benefit students. When university leadership

or 13 per cent faster than the national average from

cuts programmes in response to budget constraints, entire

summer 2006 to summer 2012’ (Erwin & Wood, 2014).

academic departments may disappear, but administrators

Clearly, a university education is becoming less and less

do not go away (Schuman, 2013).

accessible – especially to less-privileged students – while academic institutions benefit from tuition fee rates that

Detriment to adjunct/contingent/casual staff and students

have increased much faster than inflation. If providing quality, affordable education is the mission of colleges and universities, why is it that the leadership is compensated

Although central to a university’s mission, teaching

the most at institutions rife with student debt and the use

does not contribute to research universities’ prestige, so

of contingent instructors? Administrators are obviously

academic administrators have little incentive to invest a

benefiting to the detriment of students. To point out the

large share of resources to fulfil this mission. The thought

absurdity of this situation, Canadian professors recently

is that tenure track academics can ‘best’ be used to

organised themselves to apply for the open position of

their maximum potential by focusing on their research.

vice-chancellor at the University of Alberta – in groups of

Although programmes such as the Howard Hughes

four (Schuman, 2014a).

Medical Institute’s Bold Experiments seeks to redress this imbalance, many research universities increasingly rely on adjunct or contingent staff (in US parlance, non-tenure

Universities are shifting to one mission: research

track teaching academics, often hired on a semester-bysemester basis) to do the brunt of the teaching,especially of

Research is the main priority pushed by academic

large undergraduate courses. (The Australasian equivalent

administrators. Universities push their academics to

of these staff would be ‘casual’ teachers or those on

excel at research and win grants because of the prestige

The parlous state of academia Viviane Callier et al.

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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and revenue they bring into the university to pay for

administrators accountable to all students and staff

the research mission. However, most researchers and

whom they are supposed to serve. Flaws in institutional

administrators overlook the true cost of research. It

structures currently allow academic administrators

often comes as a surprise that research actually costs

to transform universities into businesses for their

universities more money than it brings in; analysis reveals

own benefit while exploiting the workers (especially

that for every grant dollar brought in by researchers,

graduate students, postdoctoral fellows and precariously-

universities lose between 15 to 40 cents (Dorsey, Van

employed teachers) who create value and neglecting the

Wuyckhuyse, & Guzick, 2009). In other words, grant

major teaching mission of higher education. Although a

revenue is not sufficient to cover the total costs of the

university must remain financially solvent, its purpose

research mission. Certainly grants help cover the cost of

never was – and should not be – to maximise profits for

research, and indeed, organisations simply couldn’t be in

the benefit of the leadership.

the research game without grant funding, but the point is

Policy intervention is necessary to redress the power

that playing the research game does not bring in money

balance, make administrators accountable to all students

– on the contrary.

and staff, and ultimately allocate resources (money and

Why the drive to do research, then? World-class research brings the university prestige, attracting top academics and gifted students, as well as more grant

information) in alignment with the interests of students and academic staff. To begin discussion on this topic, we suggest the

money. Increasing research funding also allows academic

following policy interventions:

administrators to build ‘empires’ on campuses and climb

1. De-centralise administrative power: tenure-track

the administration ladder for their own personal gain.

and adjunct / contingent / casual academics should

Department chairs grow their department then leave

have a voice in university governance. Decision-

to become deans. Deans implement and operationalise

making should not be the specialised niche of

strategy and policy for their gain to become provosts.

academic administrators, but rather, a distributed

Provosts oversee goals, missions, and visions to become

and democratic process. Academics should be

presidents. Presidents lead to build legacies and/or to be

expected to participate in university governance,

promoted to even larger roles. The research enterprise

and given the time and resources to do so.This might

becomes not an end in itself, but merely the context in

require reducing the teaching and research loads

which these political games are played.

of faculty members while they serve on universitywide committees. Students should also be given the

Recommendations and conclusion

opportunity to play a more active role in university governance.

Higher education is now run as a business, and while many

2. Establish accountability mechanisms: there should

of the universities are not-for-profit, they are increasingly

be a more transparent feedback mechanism for

run in such a way to maximise profits to benefit the

student and staff satisfaction to be incorporated into

leadership. If education is run as a business, then it

academic administrators’ performance evaluations.

should function as one: academic administration should

3. Universities should adopt financial models that

examine budget items, evaluate costs and personnel,

logically and fairly support each mission of higher

adjust logistics, and ensure that the university’s operations

education: a transparent mechanism should be

are aligned with its missions of teaching and research. In

created to support research, teaching, and service

business, the profits are shared among the stakeholders.

in a way that allows each area to flourish for the

Because even private universities are heavily supported

benefit of all stakeholders. Such a model should

by public (federal) money, the stakeholders at colleges and

support both financial and intellectual value

universities are not only the academic administrators and

creation. For the teaching mission, one way to do

all other staff, but also the students and even the public at

this would be to create tenure lines for those staff

large. So, resources should be distributed accordingly and

focused on excellence in teaching and to fund these

no constituent should benefit to the detriment of another. Administrative priorities are sometimes egregiously

appropriately. 4. Establish

pay

ratios

(Erwin

& Wood, 2014):

misaligned with the best interests of students and

administrative salaries could not exceed, for example,

staff. Recent protests by students and staff point to the

ten times that of the lowest paid full-time academic

fact that policy reform is necessary to make academic

staff member. This would not cap administrative

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salaries, but it would prevent inequities from growing to unacceptable levels. 5. Establish spending ratios (Erwin & Wood, 2014): ratio of spending on non-academic administration to scholarships could be set at, for example, 2 to 1. This would help make higher education more affordable and discourage rapid tuition fee increases. Spending on specialised research instruments (which would be used by a few select students) should also be balanced with spending on classroom technology and online course development (which is likely to benefit a larger population of students). 6. Balance the decision-making bodies: boards of trustees should be composed of individuals from diverse a

socioeconomic

backgrounds.

diversity

Ensuring

decision-making

bodies would reduce the chance that decisions be made to benefit a small but powerful group to the detriment of the university community; inclusive representation would promote equity within the university community and ensure that decisions are made to benefit the community as a whole. We believe that these issues should be openly discussed among the higher education community. As such, we hope that this article will aid in stimulating a healthy debate and discussion of these topics among all of academia’s stakeholders. Viviane Callier is a research scholar in developmental physiology at the Ronin Institute for Independent Scholarship in Montclair, New Jersey and a science writer at a consulting

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References Allen, C. (2013). The Highly Educated, Badly Paid, Often Abused Adjunct Professors. LA Times. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/ la-oe-allen-adjunct-professors-20131222-story.html. Corder, E. (2013). Dr. Tomalei Vess Unexpectedly Loses Position. Collegiate Times. Retrieved from http://issuu.com/collegiatetimes/docs/2013-12-05/1. Dorsey, E. R., Van Wuyckhuyse, B. C., & Guzick, D. S. (2009). Economics of New Faculty Hires in Basic Science. Acad Med, 84(1), 26-31. Erwin, A., & Wood, M. (2014). The One Per cent at State U. Institute for Policy Studies Blog. Retrieved from http://www.ips-dc.org/one_percent_universities. Executive Committee of the UM Chapter of AAUP. (2014). Why the Faculty Needs the AAUP. Retrieved from http://www.umich.edu/~aaupum/facneeds.html. Figlio, D. N., Schapiro, M. O., & Soter, K. B. (2013). Are Tenure-Track Professors Better Teachers? The National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 19406. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w19406?utm_ campaign=ntw&utm_medium=email&utm_source=ntw. Ginsberg, B. (2011). The Fall of the Faculty: Oxford University Press. Goldwater Institute (2010). Administrative Bloat at American Universities: The Real Reason for High Costs in Higher Education. Goldwater Institute Policy Report, 2010. Grant, A. (2014). A Solution for Bad Teaching. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/06/opinion/a-solution-for-bad-teaching. html?_r=0. Hall, B. (2014). AAUP Seeks Better Deal for OSU Adjuncts. The Corvallis Gazette Times. Retrieved from http://www.gazettetimes.com/news/local/aaup-seeksbetter-deal-for-osu-adjuncts/article_e00f4c0a-c050-11e3-b54f-001a4bcf887a. html. Lewin, T. (2014). Student Debt Grows Fastest at Universities with Highest-Paid Leaders, Study Finds. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes. com/2014/05/19/education/study-links-growth-in-student-debt-to-pay-foruniversity-presidents.html?_r=0. Occupational Outlook Handbook, Postsecondary Administrators. (2014-2015). 2014, Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/postsecondaryeducation-administrators.htm.

company in Washington, D.C.

Huffington Post. (2014). Robert Buckingham, University of Saskatchewan Dean, Fired. (2014). Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost. ca/2014/05/14/robert-buckingham-fired_n_5325424.html.

Richard H. Singiser is an associate professor in the

Rojstaczer, S. (1999). Gone for Good: Tales of University Life After the Golden Age: Oxford University Press.

Department of Natural Sciences at Clayton State University in Morrow, Georgia. Nathan L. Vanderford is assistant dean for academic development, College of Medicine; assistant director for research, Markey Cancer Center; and assistant professor, Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, all at the University of Kentucky in Lexington.

Schuman, R. (2013). A Ghost Town with a Quad: Is That the Future of the American University? Slate. Retrieved from http://www.slate.com/articles/life/ education/2013/11/minnesota_state_moorhead_could_cut_18_academic_ programs_why_do_colleges.html. Schuman, R. (2014a). The Clever Stunt Four Professors Just Pulled to Expose the Outrageous Pay Gap in Academia. Slate. Retrieved from http://www.slate.com/ blogs/browbeat/2014/06/16/university_of_alberta_professors_apply_for_vice_ chancellor_s_job_in_clever.html. Schuman, R. (2014b). How to Fix Academic Labor (Pt. 372): Make Better Use of the Scarlet “A”. Chronicle Vitae. Retrieved from https://chroniclevitae.com/ news/530-how-to-fix-academic-labor-pt-372-make-better-use-of-the-scarlet-a. Inside Higher Ed., University of Illinois at Chicago Faculty Strike for First Contract. (2014). Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from http://www.insidehighered. com/quicktakes/2014/02/19/u-illinois-chicago-faculty-strike-firstcontract#sthash.g2GqzDQM.dpbs. Wilkins, J. S. (2014). Rich Dean, Poor Student. The Ronin Institute Blog. Retrieved from http://ronininstitute.org/rich-dean-poor-student/830/.

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The ‘dark traits’ of sociopathic leaders Could they be a threat to universities? Chad Perry Some sociopathic personality traits in managers can derail business organisations even though the leaders have been carefully selected and considered ‘high flyers’. Three of those traits are narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellianism. These traits are ‘socially-aversive’ because the sociopaths have an ingrained disregard for relationships. We will ‘very likely’ come into hurtful contact with a sociopath. This study addresses the problem: Could a leader of a university unit with strong levels of the dark triad traits derail their unit? After considering the literature about the dark triad and university leadership, this study argues that a sociopathic leader could degrade the collaborative nature of much of academics’ work with other staff, students and society enough to produce mediocrity in their part of a university, but not enough to derail it. Implications for universities selecting non-sociopathic leaders and for individuals being led by sociopaths are suggested. Keywords: sociopaths, sociopathic leaders, dark traits, university leadership

Introduction

into professions where power can be exercised, and people without sociopathy appear more often in those

Some sociopathic personality traits in managers can

professions linked to feelings and a human connection.

derail business organisations even though the leaders

Sociopathic managers who derail an organisation do not

have been carefully selected and may be considered

deliver the required outcomes; for example, they make

‘high flyers’ (Furnham, 2010). Three of those traits are

poor decisions, use poor management practices and put

the ‘socially-aversive’ ones of psychopathy, narcissism and

the wrong people into positions (Furnham, 2010, p. viii).

Machiavellianism.

Along the way, they leave a trail of used people and, in

The traits are called ‘dark’ because of their negative

romance, a ‘trail of broken hearts’ (Hare, 1999, p. 113).

associations – research has shown one or more of these

Australians have seen sociopathic behaviour by a recent

traits are invariably linked with counter-productive

prime minister. Arguably, ex-Prime Minister Kevin Rudd

behaviour, and that sociopathic personalities who manifest

illustrates a sociopath’s three traits of dominance and self-

them typically derail (Furnham, Richards, & Paulhus, 2013,

promotion, impetuosity, and playing office politics; and also

p. 206; italics added). Some professions are more likely

illustrates how they go with a lack of empathy. According

than others to attract these dark triad leaders (Dutton,

to what has been reported, he insisted on making most

2012).These professions include business chief executive

decisions himself or with a small ‘court’ of three or four

officers (CEOs) (in Australia, CEOs in finance and mining

ministers. As Marr (2010a, p. 1) noted, ‘Leadership, Rudd

in particular (Manne 2013, p. 192)), lawyers and media;

told me, is always a lonely race.’ He would often phone

those professions least likely to attract dark trait people

journalists very early in the morning about how he was

include care aide, nursing and various ‘health’ therapies.

being presented (Marr, 2010b). He made the very quick

That is, sociopathic personalities typically find their way

decision about the hugely expensive National Broadband

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Network (NBN) in a way that an auditor found was ‘rushed,

and will produce outcomes that are merely mediocre

chaotic and inadequate’ (Hepworth & Bingemann, 2014, p.

– somewhere between a required transformation and a

1). Politics did not just involve electors on the electoral

derailment.

roll but also involved office politics – ‘Tracking down

Addressing this problem of leadership in Australian

the powerful, picking the people he has to know, began

universities is important. University units are not like

as a diplomatic duty and became a lifelong passion.’ He

the business organisations that are transaction-focused

appeared to even leak damaging details to the press about

and attract dark triad managers. In contrast to businesses,

Julia Gillard after she had become leader of his party that

universities are usually heavily-regulated, government-

he had derailed. He was so lacking in empathy that he

subsidised organisations. Yet there has been little

appeared to be surprised when his party voted to remove

examination of the effect of the dark traits in universities.

him as leader.

There is only one mention of dark triad trait academics

The present study addresses the question of whether

and academe in Furnham (2010, p. 103) and only two in

a leader of a university unit with strong levels of the

Hare (1999) where they are said to be similar to other

dark triad traits could derail their unit. It is argued that

white-collar psychopaths within the ranks of doctors,

a university unit has particular characteristics that lessen

police officers and writers (Hare, 1999); but no examples

the chance of a sociopathic leader derailing it, but raise

of academic sociopaths are provided and their leadership

the chance of a sociopathic leader creating mediocrity.

of other academics is not discussed there. Nevertheless,

A note about definitions of three terms is required.

there has been a ‘managerialist’ trend in university

First, consider the term ‘sociopathy’. Because the three

governance in Australia, with leaders who are perceived

traits include the one trait of psychopathy, the term

to be somewhat similar to business managers – some

‘psychopathy’ could not be used to comprehensively refer

even have ‘executive’ in their title – with ‘the emergence

to the three traits together.That is, the term ‘sociopathy’ is

of an academic managerial class that exercises power’

used here to refer to cover the three traits, instead of the

(Aspromourgos, 2012, p. 44).

term ‘psychopathy’ that refers to just one the three traits.

Concomitantly, the number of Australian universities

There is a literature about the changing and confusing use

in the Times HE 200 index has declined from 17 in 2005

of these terms but this straightforward distinction can do

to eight in 2014 (Burdon, 2014; The World University

for this non-specialist article (Diagnostic and Statistical

Rankings, 2014). There are proposals to deregulate the

Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-5, 2013; Furnham, 2010;

university sector even further. International students

Skeem, Polaschek, Patrick, & Lilienfeld, 2011).

reputedly bring into Australia revenues exceeding

Next,in this study,the term‘leader’refers to any academic

$15 billion, so higher education is the country’s third

who is given responsibility for major outcomes in a part

largest gross export earner after iron ore and coal, and

of a university like a department head or a programme

before gas, gold, tourism, oil or wheat (Department of

head. Finally, the term ‘derail’ refers to a unit going ‘off its

Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2014). Its domestic students

rails’ because it does not produce required outcomes. For

represent the future of the country in a skills world.

example, the unit has declining enrolments of students

To our knowledge, the dark traits are not considered in

or declining rankings and declining Course Experience

the selection processes for senior roles at any Australian

Questionnaire results. Depending on what these ‘required

university; although they should be in businesses

outcomes’ are, a leader’s sociopathic tendencies may

(Furnham, 2010). So should they be considered in

not always derail their unit because the tendencies are

universities? In brief, to the extent that are moving in a

dampened or harmless.There is a personality-environment

‘business-like’ direction, looking at dark traits might also

interaction. For example, in stable times a leader with

be important for university management.

sociopathic tendencies may not cause much disturbance

There are three delimitations of this study. The first is

but damaging behaviours and effects may emerge during

that the discussion is restricted to the Australian context

a period of restructuring, redundancies, high competition,

that is, to that country’s universities’ regulations and size.

new opportunities (especially for advancement or fame)

As well, it is about ‘subclinical’ people in the university

or rapid change. For example, a narcissist may be spurred

community rather than extreme ‘clinical’ people who are

into hostile action by a colleague’s success combined

often under clinical supervision (Furnham et al., 2013). In

with opportunities for covert sabotage. This study argues

other words, the university leaders are ‘subcriminal’ who do

that in many university circumstances, a sociopathic

not usually break the law like clinical sociopaths often do,

leader will not produce transformational outcomes

but they do break ordinary standards of behaviour while

The ‘dark traits’ of sociopathic leaders Chad Perry

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violating ‘conventional ethical standards’ (Hare, 1999, p.

impetuosity. So psychopaths give the impression of being

114). Thus the finding that extreme or clinically diagnosed

decisive, ruthless, unemotional and without room for self-

psychopathy has been found in only about four per cent

doubt or empathy-triggered procrastination. ‘Just do it!’ is

of corporate professionals does not mean that this study is

one of their catch cries (Dutton & McNab, 2014, p. 99). For

about only a small number of people (Babiak, Neumann, &

its behavioural significance, psychopathy can be seen as

Hare, 2010). Indeed, we will ‘very likely’ come into hurtful

the most dangerous of the three traits.

contact with a sociopath (Hare, 1999, p. xii). These sub-

Finally, Machiavellism focuses on how others are

clinical sociopaths can exhibit different intensities of each

treated by the sociopath in pursuit of their dreams of

of their three dark traits, and so the positions reached in

dominance over others. In workplace organisations, it is

this study have to be probabilistic. The final delimitation

‘office politics’ or using gossip and other informal means

is that the leaders discussed are the middle-level leaders

to advance personal rather than organisational ends or

responsible for academic leadership of university units

those of someone else. In short, people with this trait

like departments that are directly responsible for some

are ‘characterised by constant, low-level, deviousness’

student outcomes. These department-level managers

and are ‘cynical, unprincipled, believe in interpersonal

make up to 80 per cent of the administrative decisions in

manipulation as the key for life success’ (Furnham, 2010,

a university (Brown & Moshavi, 2002). So administration

p. 18, 200).They can use behaviour like smiling and using

staff

and

vice-chancellors,

deputy vice-chancellors and pro-vice-chancellors are not included. Going beyond these delimitations can and should be done in later research.

a person’s first name to send

Addressing this problem of leadership in Australian universities is important. University units are not like the business organisations that are transaction-focussed and attract dark triad managers.

Literature review

their own message on the other person’s ‘frequency’ (Dutton & McNab, 2014), but do not receive the other person’s message. Because of some common features of the three traits, some

researchers

think

For the present work, the definitions and descriptions

they cannot really be dealt with separately (Furnham

of the traits that make up the dark triad are drawn from

et al., 2013). Indeed, some factor analytic studies have

modern research such as Furnham (2013).The first of the

shown the two traits of psychopathy and narcissism do

triad, narcissism, could be viewed in this organisational

indeed overlap, as have other studies of self- and observer-

context as the core trait that drives the others. Narcissistic

reports, for instance. But other statistical studies have

personalities are likely to perceive inequality in power

shown differences as well as significant and positive inter-

between themselves and others. For example, when asked

correlations between measures of the traits, especially

to draw shapes of themselves and others, they will draw

between the traits of psychopathy and Machiavellianism,

themselves as a bigger shape than the shapes of others

with the lowest inter-correlations between narcissism

(Manne, 2013). They say ‘I’ more often than they say ‘we’.

and Machiavellianism. So the modern position is that the

So they are characterised by self-confidence, and the social

traits are different and are worth considering separately

aversion that is associated with ‘entitlement, dominance

– ‘The lion’s share of research in this review suggests

and superiority’ (Furnham et al., 2013, p. 200). In its

that any apparent equivalence of the dark triad members

extreme form, this narcissism can be called grandiosity

is illusory’ (Furnham et al., 2013). For this research that

without any empathy or remorse. They seek prestige and

has not measured personality traits in university subjects

call attention to themselves by self-promotion. So they

using psychological tests, it is important that observers

dress well and often give favourable first impressions.

can distinguish between the three traits in people.

In turn, psychopathy (Furnham et al., 2013) is

Consequently, the traits are treated separately in this article.

characterised by high impulsivity that could even

Two personality tests are the most common measures

be viewed as thrill-seeking and low empathy. In the

of the triad.The Dirty Dozen has 12 questions (Jonason &

organisational context of this research, psychopathy

Webster, 2010), and the Short Dark Triad has 27 questions

could be seen in quick decision-making and actions with

(Jones & Paulhus, 2014); neither is clearly superior to the

little regard for consultations with others and even with

other although the longer test has slightly better predictive

little concern for others’ reactions to the decision or

power (Furnham et al., 2013). For this research academics

action. In its extreme form, this psychopathy can be called

could not actually be asked to fill in either personality test

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after they were told about the topic, and so the shorter

rule that freedom. ‘Professors, especially tenured ones at

Dirty Dozen has been used as the basis for understanding

places like Harvard, answer to nobody’ (Wood, 2014, p.

each trait in a workplace context. Observer-reports were

57). So this concept of academic freedom may limit the

used in assessing the cases below, and such reports have

‘executive’ power of sociopathic leaders. Paradoxically,

been used before in dark triad research.

it may also foster the development of sociopathy among

The Dirty Dozen’s 12 items could perhaps be used

academics who are non-leaders and who may become

by a reader to get an initial estimate of how intensely

leaders in the medium to long term. Their freedom could

sociopathic they or their leaders are.The items describing

mean there are few constraints on the rise of narcissism

people with the dark triad are (from Jonason & Webster,

among them, and so the emergence of sociopaths among

2010):

academic leaders may actually be more pronounced than

• Narcissistic leaders tend to: want others to admire them;

in business settings. Only the relationships/team spirit

want others to pay attention to them; seek prestige or

developed by a non-sociopathic leader may slow this

status; and expect special favours from others

development of sociopathic academics in the medium to

• Psychopathic leaders tend to: lack remorse; be unconcerned with the morality of their actions; be callous or insensitive; and be cynical

long term. This difference between a university and a business can be explained by external and internal forces operating

• Machiavellian leaders tend to: manipulate others to get

on a university that do not operate on a business. The

their way; use deceit or lies to get their way; use flattery

external forces on universities include the increasing

to get their way; exploit others towards their own end.

competition for students and prestige as seen in the

In brief, the dark triad are three distinct but related

widely-read rankings in Australia’s Good Universities

personality traits that help explain some socially-aversive

Guide. Another external force is the regulation of

behaviour in many organisations. How they could affect

universities by governments that are the main source of

the leadership of parts of universities is examined next.

funds for the universities in Australia. Another external force is private universities and training centres, as well

Higher education and other organisations’ leadership Higher education

as MOOCs – ‘massive open online courses’ – and other internet-related influences. In turn, internal forces are university staff, especially tenured or near-tenured staff, who are inward- and discipline-looking. They are

‘Managerialism’ has become more evident in Australian

concerned with protecting what entitlements they have

universities (Aspromourgos, 2012). The new types of

against leaders and, through what remains of collegial

leaders have the financial power to dominate others

governance, they influence hiring and promotions and so

in their part of the university; for example, the term

‘end up cloning themselves’ (Lohman, 2002, p. 5). Facing

‘Executive Dean’ is becoming more common. The similar,

these forces, some leaders can think the deliberation and

power-changed situation in the United Kingdom has been

consensus of the old collegial governance systems can

summarised in these words: ‘So management ideologies

produce gridlock instead of transformation.

do seem to serve the interests of manager‐academics and

These old collegial governance systems were developed

help cement relations of power and dominance, even in

in the West to allow deep discipline specialisation (into

contexts like universities which were not traditionally

‘silos’) and to protect academics’ independence from

associated with the dominance of management’ (Deem

outside distortions of their research and teaching (Lohman,

& Brehony, 2005, p. 217). But this power and dominance

2002). But small departments/‘tribes’ could compete with

must serve the requirements of leadership. There are

each other for resources, and could ‘Balkanise’ a university.

many different leadership practices, and it will be argued

An alternative is a large multidisciplinary department or

here that the core of all of them is relationships between

to make the smaller departments into semi-autonomous

the leaders and followers.

bodies within the loose federation of a faculty. Another

This leadership in a university is different from leadership in other types of organisations, and it has

alternative is to have distributed leadership (Harking & Healy, 2013).

been likened to ‘herding cats’ (Brown & Moshavi, 2002).

Solving these problems of governance could require

The concept of academic freedom within a class room

non-sociopathic leaders at different strata within a

or laboratory limits much ‘executive’ power. One Harvard

university. These strata all require collaboration within

ex-dean thought that it was laughable that he could over-

teams operating concurrently within and between strata,

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and a sociopathic leader is unlikely to develop this

in 70 US academic departments found that relationship-

collaboration because of their disregard for the empathy

oriented leaders were considered to be the most

that is the core of long-term collaboration. For example,

effective – ‘The unique characteristics of the employment

there could be different leaders for the level of a faculty/

arrangements and psychological contract between faculty

school that could itself be a mix of different disciplines in

and their institutions may make charismatic, relationship-

the discipline strata (like marketing and finance). These

oriented leadership a key determinant of department

disciplines could contribute to programmes for different

chair effectiveness’ (Brown & Moshavi, 2002, p. 79).

student segments (like an MBA and a bachelor of finance

Relationships are the core of collaboration within groups

degree, for example). The contributors to a programme

that improves their teaching.Even one hour of collaborative

from each discipline need to collaborate in order to

discussion per week between all the sessional staff and

develop effective assessment and mix of content (the

the unit coordinator helped improve their effectiveness

ideal size for a team is only about five or six (Thompson,

staff at one Australian university – ‘they matter for the

2003)). If academics at each level do not share insights

motivation of individual sessional staff members and

and processes for fear that others will competitively ‘steal

the overall quality and cohesiveness of course delivery’

my ideas’, the programme will falter. So if a sociopathic

(Byers & Tani, 2014, p. 13). Such collaboration among

leader at any level cannot understand how collaboration

staff can improve teaching at schools (Mosle, 2014) and

is developed, the outcomes at that level and others will

it could improve teaching at universities because such

be mediocre.

social learning through role-modelling and the evolution

There has been some research about the effectiveness

of expectations are hallmarks of the development of

of middle-level university leaders investigated here. One

professionals (Hilton & Slotnick, 2005; Swanwick, 2010).

review found 12 traits were necessary for transformational

The modern requirement for collaboration in Australian

leadership, with 9 of them clearly associated with how the

universities makes a model of ‘distributed leadership’

leader relates to the group and marked with an asterisk in

in discipline management necessary (Harking & Healy,

this list of traits (Bryman, 2007, p. 697):

2013). Finally, even the collaboration among the few

1. Clear sense of direction/strategic vision.

authors of co-authored research articles is useful because

2. *Preparing department arrangements to facilitate the

it results in publications that are more frequently cited

direction set.

(Harzing, 2008).

3. *Being considerate.

This need for collaboration is not limited to the staff

4. * Treating academic staff fairly and with integrity.

in a unit (as noted in Burdon, 2014), for it extends to

5. *Being trustworthy and having personal integrity.

students and to people in society. A history of the digital

6. *Allowing the opportunity to participate in key

revolution covered success and failures, and failures did

decisions/ encouraging open communication. 7. *Communicating well about the direction the department is going.

not succeed because they could not form teams – they could not collaborate (Isaacson, 2014). Relatedly, Australia ranks 11th on innovation inputs but is only the 32nd (out

8. *Acting as a role model/having credibility.

of 33 OECD counties) for innovation outputs. According

9. *Creating a positive/collegial work atmosphere in the

to the Chief Scientist, Australia is also placed 32nd for

department.

collaboration between higher education and business. So

10. Advancing the department’s cause with respect to

Australian academics are rewarded for producing citable

constituencies internal and external to the university

publications where Australia ranks 11th; for impact

and being proactive in doing so.

on society, the rank is a low 66th. Note that co-author

11. Providing feedback on performance.

collaboration on citable publications is often a ‘digital’

12. *Providing resources for and adjusting workloads to

rather a face-to-face relationship with co-authors at

stimulate scholarship and research. 13. Making

academic

appointments

different institutions rather than the longer-term, nonthat

enhance

department’s reputation. Another survey of the literature concluded that, in universities, a people-oriented leadership style is more

sociopathic, relationship-rich collaboration involving frequent reciprocity with other organisations in society and with students. Leaders in universities who value and practise such collaboration are needed.

likely to lead to staff satisfaction, group cohesiveness, and

Given the above considerations, it is possible to imagine

improved performance results (Osseo-Asare, Longbottom,

what a unit lead by a sociopath looks like. First, how

& Murphy, 2005). A survey of 440 university academics

could narcissism be apparent in a university workplace?

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Narcissistic leaders and their cultures of dominance

& Minkov, 2010) of a dark triad university setting, with

would emphasise the importance of their individual

members wanting individual advancement within the

achievements, and how significant they believe these

organisation and having to use manipulation, deceit and

accomplishments will appear to others. It is about looking

flattery for that purpose, exploiting others in the process.

good, as against doing good, and much less about being good. They like to self-promote as a corollary to their

Non-university settings

perceived dominance. For instance, their names would

Modern research about leadership in non-university

often appear often in university communications and

settings confirms the importance of groups relative

other media, even in situations when their influence was

to leadership by one person. For example, The New

small. Their names could appear on letterheads or notice

Psychology of Leadership: Identity, Influence and Power

boards, etc. That their position is clearly above others in

cites over 400 studies of leadership from 1840 to 2010, and

the unit could be shown in an honour board of previous

concludes that leadership is about followers, too (Haslam,

holders of the position. Their titles would appear to be

Reicher & Platow, 2010) – it is the followers who ‘confer’

important to reflect their prestige. Narcissistic people

leadership on the leader who ‘is one of us’ and not ‘one of

expect special favours, and so they expect perks like

them’ (Bartel, 2011, p. 478) or a sociopathic ‘one of them

bigger salaries, types of car, and offices.

self’. Leadership is about engaging followers to work with

Next, how could psychopathy be apparent in a university

workplace?

Psychopaths

the leader to advance towards the organisation’s goals and

make

aspirations. It is about the context of the group, and about

decisions impulsively, with limited consultation with

the contingency of matching leader(s) and the group

others and without regard for the longer-term effect

of which they are a part. There are many examples that

of those decisions on unit members. Meetings of unit

demonstrate that the individual leader is not crucial. For

members would be few, with the leader clearly running

example, to build good-to-great companies did not require

the meeting towards an end that they and their small

‘a genius with a thousand helpers’ but an executive team

‘court’ had decided on beforehand. Indeed, sociopathic

who set the direction (Collins 2001, p. 52). Similarly, studies

leaders who derail or nearly derail an organisation need

of randomly selected leaders versus leaders selected in

their supportive court to do so. Some staff in the court

the usual systematic way show randomly selected leader

are ‘conformers’ or ‘colluders’ who are ‘selfish, ambitious

teams are superior! The reason for the former’s superiority

… and openly supportive of toxic tyrants’ (Furnham,

supports an emphasis on the team because systematically

2010, p. 24).The existence of this court may be somewhat

selected leaders ‘often undermine group goals because

similar to the Stockholm Syndrome, where alliance with

they assert their personal superiority at the expense of

one’s captor may make survival more probable. In the

developing a sense of shared team identity’ (Thompson,

sociopathic workplace, social events for staff would be

2003, p. 235; italics added).

scarce because relationships are not important to the

These considerations suggest that dark triad leaders

leader. For that reason, too, staff would not be in their

may not be effective because they lack the empathy

offices outside of student contact times, and would try

required to allow members of groups to work together

to avoid conflict by minimising contact with the leader

and with the leader.

and their court (Furnham, 2010). Incidentally, staff could

In brief, the ingrained disregard of relationships of

also avoid studying the trail of sociopaths. Studying them

sociopathic leaders should be a cause for concern in

may dehumanise a staff member because subclinical

any organisation. Parts of a university have particular

sociopaths may not exhibit every trait of an extreme

characteristics such as academic freedom that lessen the

sociopath:

chance of a sociopathic leader derailing it, but raise the

There’s a terribly seductive power in becoming a psychopath stalker. It can really dehumanise you … It kind of turns you into a bit of a psychopath yourself in that that you start to shove people into that box. It robs you of empathy and your connection to human beings (Bercovici, 2011, p. 1).

chance that a sociopathic leader will create, or continue to drive, a mediocre part of a university.

Implications There are implications of this position that sociopathic

Finally, how could Machiavellianism be apparent in a

leaders do not benefit a part of a university even though

university workplace? Machiavellianism would flourish

they may not derail it. First, consider what universities

under the high power distance (Hofstede, Hofstede

could look at when selecting leaders for units. Sociopaths

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can quickly ‘read people’ for their own personal purposes,

children, cheat in a game of chance, lie during negotiations

and they lack the social inhibitions that are needed

and endorse unethical behaviour like stealing at work

to develop truly visionary statements with a group in

(Brown, 2013). They attribute success to their own

complex situations. Presumably it would be difficult to

individual skills and talents, and less to the other things

arrange for shortlisted applicants to complete a Dirty

that contributed to that success. Individualism breeds

Dozen test, or a similar test like the give and take test of

further inequality. Narcissists believe their superiority

Grant (2013). Perhaps one could ask them to explain what

entitles them to even more unequal rewards. But their

‘leadership’ is and checking later whether their answer

belief is wrong for ‘there are a lot of new data that show,

coincides with these four characteristics of group-centred

if you’re generous, and charitable, and altruistic, you will

leadership (Haslam et al., 2010): the leader is ‘one of us’

live longer, you will feel more fulfilled, you will feel more

shares the qualities of the group; who champions the

expressive of who you are as a person’ (Brown, 2013, p. 1).

group’s interests; who helps craft the understanding of

Inequality breeds narcissism that breeds inequality. Thus

what the group shares; and so makes ‘us matter’ (Bartel,

there is a benefit in having senior roles in hierarchies for

2011, p. 478). Or ask the interviewee to predict what other

a set, limited number of years, for both the university and

people would do in an interdependent work situation

for the senior person.

(they will explain what they would do) (McKinsey &

There are implications for individuals as well as

Company, 2014). References from superiors or supervisors would be unreliable because sociopaths

treat

them

differently from how they treat

others. Recall

that

sociopaths are adept at office

those for universities. How

Inequality breeds narcissism that breeds inequality. Thus there is a benefit in having senior roles in hierarchies for a set, limited number of years, for both the university and for the senior person.

politics and so they are adept at

ingratiating

individuals can deal with sociopathic managers has been

studied

(Furnham,

2010; Payson, 2002; Stout, 2006), but academic freedom would limit the destructive forces that can leashed upon

themselves

a person in a university who

with their superiors while they ‘brutalise their juniors’

does not want to be a courtier of the leader. Possibly, a

(Hare, 1999, p. 116). And ask referees by phone to explain

non-sociopathic individual should look towards a transfer

how the applicants had led groups in the past is another

to another university.And a non-sociopath who is thinking

alternative, or ask about their self-confidence (narcissism),

about becoming a leader of a unit should look at the unit’s

determination (psychopathy) and awareness of office

staff to check if they are the type of people they want

politics (Machiavellism). Note that some level of the dark

to be ‘one of’. Derailment is caused by bad followers as

traits can be useful in a leader. Few of us would want to be

well as by bad leaders. It bears noting that sociopathic

led by an indecisive, dithering, shrinking violet who does

behaviours of non-leaders can also be damaging. Finally,

not listen to any office gossip at all (Dutton & McNab,

the implications for individual academics who are

2014). Another possibility is to seek comments from an

sociopathic need not be discussed in detail here because

applicant’s subordinates at previous jobs.

sociopathy is often more an ingrained personality disorder

So there are difficulties in selecting appropriate leaders.

than a mental illness that can be easily cured. Perhaps they

Nevertheless, a university should be careful to select non-

could concentrate the relatively solitary career route of

sociopathic leaders.The entitlement beliefs of sociopathic

research? But sociopaths are usually so self-confident that

leadership practices breed on themselves. Seeing their

they do not think they need to change whatever they

position on unit displays or in the size of their car or room

do or to get help (Furnham, 2010, p. 257). So preventing

or salary makes sociopaths think that their circle should

their appointment is better than trying to cure them. In

be even bigger (Manne, 2013). For example, researchers

contrast to sociopathic leaders, other leaders can learn

at intersections and crosswalks have found that drivers

about themselves; they seek feedback and other means

in more expensive, high-status cars give way less often

of self-improvement through coaching and personal

than those in less expensive cars (Piff, 2013). For example,

development.

Mercedes drivers were three to four times more likely to

Considerations like these, of the implications of an

break the law than drivers of lower-status cars. Indeed,

understanding of sociopathy in universities, are becoming

there is experimental evidence from more than 30 studies

more important. Narcissism is becoming more common

that rich people are more likely to: take lollies meant for

in our consumer capitalist society and it may even

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be becoming an ‘epidemic’ (Manne, 2013, p. 25). And sociopathy may be more common among academics than one expects (Hare, 1999). So detecting it and guarding against its effects is hard but necessary.

Conclusion In summary, this study addressed the problem: Could a leader of a university unit with strong levels of the dark triad traits derail their unit? This study argued that a sociopathic leader fosters less collaboration in the unit of a university and so the unit may be mediocre rather than excellent.The study first noted that sociopathic leaders can derail other types of organisations like businesses because these leaders place little value on most relationships. It then argued that there are managerialist forces operating in Australian universities that may enhance sociopathy, but the unusual characteristics of the parts of a university suggest that leaders with some sociopathic dark traits cannot derail them. That is, a sociopathic leader could degrade the collaborative nature of much academics’ work with other staff, students and society enough to produce mediocrity in their part of a university, but not enough to derail it. In short, sociopathic leaders can probably create mediocrity but not much else. In conclusion, Australian universities need to become more aware of the need to have ‘we- oriented’ leaders.The management thinker and writer, Peter Drucker, summed up this required position: The leaders who work most effectively, it seems to me, never say ‘I”… They don’t think ‘I’. They think ‘we’; they think team. They understand their function is to make the team function. They accept responsibility and don’t sidestep it, but ‘we’ gets the credit (quoted in Manne, 2013, p. 191).

Acknowledgement The author thanks Bruce Millettt and several others for their valuable comments on early drafts of this article, and the blind peer reviewers for their valuable comments on the penultimate draft. Chad Perry is a long-time business academic, currently affiliated with the Australian Institute of Business in Adelaide, South Australia.

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Marr, D. (2010a). We need to talk about Kevin ... Rudd, that is. Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved October 27, 2014, from http://www.smh.com.au/national/ we-need-to-talk-about-kevin--rudd-that-is-20100607-xnv5.html McKinsey & Company. (2014, June). Wharton’s Adam Grant on the key to professional success. Retrieved August 17, 2014, from http://www.mckinsey.com/ insights/organization/whartons_adam_grant_on_the_key_to_professional_ success Mosle, S. (2014). Building better teachers. The Atlantic, 314(2), 42–44. Osseo-Asare, A., Longbottom, D., & Murphy, W. (2005). Leadership best practices for sustaining quality in UK higher education from the perspective of the EFQM Excellence Model. Quality Assurance in Education, 13(2), 148–170. Payson, E. (2002). The Wizard of Oz and Other Narcissists: Coping with the One-Way Relationship in Work, Love, and Family. Royal Oak, Michigan: Julian Day. Piff, P. (2013). Does money make you mean? Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/ talks/paul_piff_does_money_make_you_mean Skeem, J., Polaschek, D., Patrick, C., & Lilienfeld, S. (2011). Psychopathic Personality: Bridging the Gap Between Scientific Evidence and Public Policy. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12(3), 95–162. Stout, M. (2006). The Sociopath Next Door. New York: Harmony. Swanwick, T. (2010). Understanding Medical Education: Evidence, theory, and practice. Hoboken NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Retrieved from http://www.chegg. com/textbooks/understanding-medical-education-1st-edition-97814051968021405196807?trackid=2e145e00&autosuggest=1&uqry=understanding+medic al+edu&ii=1 The World University Rankings 2014. (2014). Times Higher Education Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/worlduniversity-rankings/2014-15/world-ranking Thompson, L. (2003). Making the Team. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. Wood, G. (2014). The Future of College? The Atlantic, 314(2), 50–60.

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Motivating change from lecture-tutorial modes to less traditional forms of teaching Helen J McLaren & Paul L Kenny Flinders University

Teaching academics are under pressure to move away from traditional lecture-tutorial teaching modes to less traditional forms. Such pressures are in addition to changes to funding arrangements and other developments that increasingly oblige universities to operate as businesses. The flow-on effects for teachers are increased student:staff ratios, changes in student diversity and less face-to-face time, while also being required to meet expectations for increased research output. While it has become the norm to shift away from traditional teaching methods, individuals are not always equipped with educational theory nor the time, technology and motivations to change significantly what they do. We draw upon a workplace audit that explored the use of four non-traditional teaching and learning modes. These modes were chosen because of professional development workshops available centrally at our university and because they offered promise in terms of time-saving for teachers and educational effectiveness for students. The majority of respondants reported using one or more of these non-traditional teaching and learning modes. However, contradictory information in qualitative descriptions suggested that this majority had limited knowledge about the technicalities and the application of these modes; instead they attempted to fit descriptions of their traditional teaching into the non-traditional descriptors provided. While we seek to understand these responses, which may well be a form of resistance, we consider how diffusion of innovation theory may provide insight into why change has not been forthcoming. Keywords: university teaching, traditional teaching methods, lectures, tutorials

Introduction

added burden and, in itself, pressure to change can become a source of resistance.

When academics are asked to change their teaching

In this paper we commence by sharing our two very

from traditional lecture-tutorial modes to less traditional

different journeys toward the use of non-traditional

forms, they might ask, ‘What’s in it for us?’ But there

teaching and learning modes, which will resonate with

may not be easy answers unless these individuals can

others. We offer that a supported change process is the

observe potential benefits of something new and be

better of our two alternatives, but also contemplate

supported to test it for themselves. The problem is that

contexts in which teaching academics may feel pressured

teaching academics are under increasing pressures

to change at the same time compelled to remain steadfast

to teach more and research more. Developing new

in old ways. Diffusion of innovation theory helps us

materials to enable change of teaching mode is an

to explore barriers to mainstream majority change in

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teaching at our own work location, as well as potential

they took. While driven by anxiety, this haphazard

strategies that may support colleagues in our faculty

approach allowed me to shift greater responsibility to

to transition to less traditional teaching. As described

my students and to manage my workload. What I applied

by Rogers (2003) diffusion of innovation theory offers

was by trial and error, lengthy and at great costs to my

insight into how something new is communicated

research time and work-life balance. I did not know of

among individuals in a given social system over time.

the educational theories to inform what I was doing,

We consider that diffusion of innovation theory offers

such as ‘popular education’ (Freire, 1974), ‘assumptions

insight for targeting support strategies for knowledge

of adult learners’ (Knowles, 1972), ‘participatory learning’

acquisition and subsequent uptake of new teaching

(Kucukaydin & Cranton, 2012) and ‘flipped classrooms’

modes, as well as advocating up for resources, time and

(Bergmann & Sams, 2008). Had I had more knowledge,

space for our colleagues.

support and understanding of educational theory and methods from the onset, my journey would have been

Our journeys

much less arduous.

Shortly after commencing as a teaching academic at

a model for teaching and learning that was grounded in

Flinders University I became a member of a school

educational theory and method. His implementation

On the other hand my colleague and co-author applied

teaching

and

committee,

learning

then

later

appointed as faculty chair. With no formal schooling in educational theory, little experience as a teaching

was

I was simply managing large numbers of students in whatever way I could, for my own survival, while also trying to make learning enjoyable and relevant.

academic and no research interests

informed,

which

ensured a smooth change process

that

impacted

little on his research time. With the introduction of flipped teaching and teambased learning he observed

university

positive changes in student

education I questioned, ‘Why me?’ In my view, I was

attendance, participation in workshops and good

green: flying by the seat of my pants; just keeping my

feedback from student satisfaction surveys. Students were

head above water; and, staying one step ahead of my

engaging in content material specific to their discipline

students. I was not doing anything particularly innovative

while also developing professional etiquette and other

or outstanding. I was simply trying to stimulate student

skills relevant to their future employment (Kenny, 2011;

enthusiasm for learning, efficiently so to balance

Kenny, 2012). For my colleague the benefit of flipping

teaching with my research, and within the confines of

meant that student knowledge acquisition traditionally

my knowledge, resources and space available to me. Is

done in lectures took place outside of the classroom,

this not what all of us are doing?

small stake assessment upon arrival at workshops

I was perceived as innovative in my teaching design

negated ‘free-riders’ and teamwork helped strengthen

and engagement with students, which I adapted from the

depth of understanding and application of knowledge;

teaching and learning styles I enjoyed as an undergraduate.

the products of teamwork were also assessed. The

I had large student numbers and threadbare teaching

obvious benefits were increased student engagement in

space, so I created knowledge acquisition, interactive

pre-learning, peer and teacher support for students when

and assessment opportunities in virtual space which left

developing their thinking in workshops, and reduction

face-to-face time available to rotate smaller student groups

in marking time outside of face-to-face sessions. All this

through my interactive workshops. I was simply managing

made the teaching more enjoyable because teaching

large numbers of students in whatever way I could, for my

was managed and not impacting on other commitments.

own survival, while also trying to make learning enjoyable

The relatively small up-front investment of preparatory

and relevant. I used curriculum matrices for engaging

time translated into large returns in subsequent years.

students in co-creation of their own learning pathways.

While we both experienced significant benefits from the

As well, I drew from the pre-knowledge my students

use of non-traditional teaching, in contrast my up-front

brought to the classroom and this helped with sharing

investment was large.

of expertise with peers.The blend of face-to-face learning

Whether or not our approaches could be named, we

and interactive online work moved students to taking

shared teaching and learning models that offered promise

responsibility for their own learning and the directions

in terms of student engagement, educational success and

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our own time efficiency; we believe more so than most

teaching. While more domestic students are accessing

traditional lecture-tutorial configurations (Bergmann

university education (Bentley et al., 2014), government

& Sams, 2008; Kenny, 2011; Kenny, 2012; Michaelsen &

cost-cutting has influenced Australian universities to seek

Sweet, 2008; Picciano, 2011; Ramsden, 2003). My teaching

full fee-paying students mostly from overseas (Forbes-

approaches were driven by my anxiety and fears about

Mewett & Nyland, 2013; Robertson, 2014). International

workload, which is not a healthy way for anyone to

students represent over a quarter of Australian university

function. On the other hand, my colleague experienced

enrolments and they contribute approximately 40 per

an informed and supported transition to non-traditional

cent of student revenue, but spending per capita in

teaching. We conferred and agreed his was the easier

the classroom is argued to have not likewise increased

journey. But we also acknowledge changing university

(Bentley et al., 2014). The reality of more students and

contexts, external and internal, that have created anxious

relatively fewer resources has no doubt affected the

environments for teaching academics. For many, this

nature of the classroom (Sawir, 2013), and evolutions

makes change difficult. While we seek to understand the

in student diversity has added even more pressures on

contexts that have created imperatives for change, our

university teachers.

ultimate endeavour is to consider how we might advocate

It is often noted that Australian university students

for greater support for our colleagues to transition to non-

are more diverse in terms of cultural makeup than in

traditional teaching in an ever evolving higher education

any previous decades. For example, there has been

environment. This is in preference to having demands

growth in middle- to older-age students (Cooper, 2007;

foisted upon them, which could result in increased levels

Roeder, 2006), more students of low socio-economic

of resistance.

status (Klinger & Murray, 2012) and refugee backgrounds (Wache & Zufferey, 2013) are accessing university, and

Changing contexts

global mobility of students to Australia has increased (Sawir, 2013). Immigration pathways via tertiary education

The Review of Australian Higher Education (Bradley et

have attracted more students whose choice of study is not

al., 2008) required implementation of quality assurance

necessarily the same as the degree into which they are

frameworks for the higher education sector and there

admitted, which presents as variable in motivation for

have been a range of responses by Australian universities.

study (Khoo, Hugo & McDonald, 2008; Robertson, 2014).

With some relevance to this paper are the introduction

All this means that university students are multifarious

of centralised professional development programmes to

in terms of educational background, learning-style

support improvements in teaching and learning (Keirle

preferences, work experience, motivation and their

& Morgan, 2011) and audits to ensure that quality

approaches to study (Cooper, 2007; Gursansky & Le Sueur,

assurance frameworks are met (Department of Education

2012; Hopkins et al., 2005). Researchers have highlighted

Employment and Workplace Relations, 2009). All this

that contemporary students are also balancing work, life

imposes additional pressures on teaching academics,

and study; many demand less on-campus time and/or real-

particularly when amidst constantly changing socio-

time commitments and they want less lecturing and more

political and economic climates informing academia.

interaction when they do attend (Campos-Sánchez et al.,

For example, student:staff ratios continually rise and

2013; Erol et al., 2012). Others have noted that students

workload allocations are always changing – not often

want more use of information technology (Johnson & Luo,

in favour of individuals. But changing dynamics of the

2012; Mirk et al., 2010; Steenkamp & Rudman, 2013) and

higher education landscape does not stop there. Pressure

flexibility in completing their degrees (Lawrence et al.,

to secure outside funding and competition has grown

2013;Taylor & Newton, 2013). Ensuring quality education

into an ‘enterprise’ culture in which teaching academics

in an environment of ‘doing more with less’ while also

are asked to meet key performance indicators in research

maintaining personal and institutional reputation has put

at the same time as managing exponential changes in

immense pressure on teaching academics to respond by

teaching.

changing their teaching approaches. It appears from our

The removal of university enrolment caps (Bradley et

audit of four non-traditional teaching and learning modes

al., 2008; Keirle & Morgan, 2011), the abolition of further

that in our faculty there is awareness of non-traditional

enrolment controls in 2012 (Norton, 2013) and steep rises

teaching modes, at least by name. Despite this, there

in domestic student enrolments across socio-economic

remain a number of challenges with achieving individual

groups have had an impact on Australian university

and mainstream change.

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The audit asked respondants to indicate ‘yes’ against the non-traditional modes if used, then describe how it

My colleague undertook a workplace audit of teaching

was applied to their teaching and learning. In relation

and learning modes in use at our faculty. He asked teaching

to each stated application (n=217), nearly 90 per

academics (n=102) whether they used one or more of

cent (n=195) of descriptions did not support the use

the following four non-traditional teaching modes. If they

of the specified modes. For example, in describing

were in use, the audit asked for detail on how they were

the application of active learning the majority of

applied:

respondants stated that they gave students questions and

1. Active learning: An umbrella term that refers to

case studies to work on during tutorials, which required

several models of instruction that ‘involves students

knowledge from the prescribed readings and lectures.

in doing things and thinking about the things they

This approach appeared more traditional in application

are doing’ (Bonwell & Eison, 1991), thereby shifting

because it did not necessarily shift responsibility

the responsibility of learning to learners.

for learning to learners. Likewise, the majority of

2. Blended learning: ‘Courses that integrate online with

respondants who said they applied blended learning

traditional face-to-face class activities in a planned,

provided little information to support they had deviated

pedagogically valuable manner; and where a portion

far from traditional lecture-tutorial modes. For example,

(institutionally defined) of face-to-face time is

many described that they engaged blended learning by

replaced by online activity’ (Picciano, 2011, p. 4).

providing students with recording of their lectures on

3. Flipped teaching: Material traditionally presented in

the university’s online learning site, as required by the

lectures are pre-recorded and students watch these

university. The use of the online sites for information

before attending class, while learning traditionally

did not achieve integration of online with face-to-face

done as homework is completed in class where

learning in a ‘planned, pedagogically valuable manner’

teacher assistance is available (Bergmann & Sams,

(Picciano, 2011, p. 4). The majority who said they used

2008).

blended learning, therefore, were not. While it appeared

4. Team-based learning: Practices involving independent

that a few respondants had partially flipped their

interactive

classrooms, a large majority of student work that was

learning in small groups that is aimed to improve

traditionally required to be done out-of-class remained

the application of learned material. The majority of

out-of-class. On the basis of descriptions provided, only

face-to-face time used for group work and group

one respondant implemented team-based learning.

assignments, which aim to develop self-managed

Others who facilitated small student group discussions

learning teams (Michaelsen & Sweet, 2008).

offered descriptions that had no apparent difference to

out-of-class

preparation

for

in-class

Forty-five faculty staff members, representing a response rate of approximately 44 per cent, responded

non-assessed group discussion activities in traditional tutorials.

to the audit by providing information about the teaching

Respondants who indicated they did not use one or more

and learning modes they used across 107 subjects.Thirty-

of the four non-traditional teaching and learning modes in

seven respondants (82 per cent) stated that they used at

one or more of their subjects were given the opportunity to

least one of the four non-traditional modes in at least one

explain. Eleven indicated their intention to change, seven

of their subjects; 78 per cent (n=83) of subjects applied

stated they did not have necessary equipment to ‘blend’

active learning; 69 per cent (n=64) blended learning;

or ‘flip’, four preferred traditional lecture-tutorial teaching

33 per cent (n=35) flipped teaching; and, 33 per cent

or provided various other reasons. Qualitative responses

(n=35) team based learning. This represented 217 stated

confirmed our prior anecdotal observations that the use of

applications of non-traditional teaching modes in 91

non-traditional teaching was limited; no more than 10 per

subjects. Respondants provided that 16 subjects used

cent of teaching academics in our faculty appeared to be

only traditional teaching modes, 20 subjects used a single

applying one or more of the non-traditional teaching and

non-traditional mode and 71 subjects used a combination

learning modes. This was despite mandatory professional

of more than one mode. Two respondants advised that,

development activities in teaching for all new teaching

while they used non-traditional modes, they each had one

academics employed at our university, and all four non-

subject where only traditional teaching modes were in

traditional modes being promoted as exemplars in central

use. Eight respondants (18 per cent), responsible for 14

and localised professional development activities available

subjects, applied only traditional lecture-tutorial modes.

to teaching staff.

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Our observations is of low attendance rates by

before existing ones have had a chance to successfully

academic staff at our university’s centralised professional

diffuse. Finally, diffusion is affected by the characteristics

development programmes. Local programmes in our

of communicators and adopters, workplace culture,

faculty are often less well attended. On the other hand, we

institutional regimes (Lyytinen & Damsgaard, 2001) and

have seen that staff participate more in research support

complexity of the innovation (McLaren et al., 2008).

programmes. The Grattan Institute’s Mapping Australian

Rogers (2003) suggested that if barriers, facilitators,

Higher Education helps to explain this: they reported that

communicators and adopter types can be identified

research carries greater prestige among academics than

that it may be possible to develop strategies in support

teaching and cited an international survey of academics

of the spread of something new and according to the

from 18 countries in which Australia ranked fourth lowest

complexity of the innovation, stage of diffusion and the

in their preference for teaching when compared to research

characteristics of individuals involved.

(Coates et al., 2009, in Norton, 2013). This presents some

Rogers (2003) categorised individuals in a given social

obvious challenges for increasing uptake of non-traditional

system on the basis of time it took for them to adopt an

teaching, particularly when teaching in Australia is already

innovation (refer to category descriptors in Figure 1).

on the back foot. Change might be inevitable, but it is

Innovators and early adopters are more likely predisposed

organic and slow. In consideration, we explore diffusion of

to innovative behaviour, which require different strategies

innovation theory and consider the insights it offers into

to stimulate innovation as opposed to diffusing innovations

affecting the rate of teaching mode change.

among the mainstream majority. Moore (2006) extended on the work of Rogers (2003) and proposed the existence

Diffusion process and adopter types

of a ‘deep dividing chasm that separates the early minority of innovators and early adopters from the remaining

Diffusion of innovation is a process involving the

groups’. Moore (2006) suggested that an innovation must

communication of something new among individuals

be in use by approximately 16 per cent of the social

in a social system over time (Rogers, 2003). It relies

system (innovators and early adopters) before diffusion

predominantly on human capital and can be articulated

strategies aimed at the mainstream majority will have

as a series of five consequential stages; knowledge of

chance of success. The issue in our faculty is that with

an innovation, persuasion to consider or try it, decision to adopt, implementation of the innovation and evidence that sustained use is worthwhile. An ideal diffusion of innovation process would pass progressively through each of these stages. Once an innovation is in use by

the

mainstream

majority,

84 per cent of individuals (see Figure 1), diffusion is considered successful. But diffusion can also be iterative or become stagnant. For

example, adopters

may

reject or ‘put on hold’ the use of something new until there is more evidence that adoption will be worthwhile, or until there is time and resources to support adoption and capacity to evaluate viability for longer term use.As well, new innovations may render existing ones obsolete

Figure 1: Diffusion of innovation: Percentage and classification of adopters over time (Moore, 2006)

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no more than 10 per cent of teachers using one or more

‘adopting new technologies in teaching and learning’

of the non-traditional teaching and learning modes, there

(Wilson & Stacey, 2004 p. 40). Jacobsen (2000) argued

is insufficient human capital to communicate benefits

that early adopters often make the use of innovations

that may result from changing teaching mode. Hence

look relatively easy, thereby they mask the knowledge and

strategies to stimulate innovativeness should be priority

skills that the mainstream majority need in order to adopt

then, once sufficient innovation and early adoption is

it. Mainstream majorities are not necessarily adverse

achieved, strategies aimed at mainstream use are more

to evolutionary change, but if staff are not strategically

likely to achieve success.

paired they may not acquire adequate knowledge of an

Innovators and early adopters are more often

innovation or have the opportunity to work alongside

horizontally networked than the mainstream majority

appropriate others to learn. Without opportunity,

(Taylor & Newton, 2013). This means they will generally

perceived complexity may prevent adoption.

be motivated to go beyond their immediate workplace or university in search for new teaching ideas. They are

The need for change

‘venturesome’ (Rogers, 2003) educators when compared to

and

In response to changing contexts, Australian universities

laggards). On the other hand, the mainstream majority

conservative

others

(mainstream

majority

have variably applied cost-saving strategies that include

are more likely to be vertically networked. This means

employment freezes, streamlining of programmes and

that they are unlikely to venture outside their immediate

increased student:staff ratios (Bentley et al., 2014;

social system (Taylor & Newton, 2013) to learn new ways,

McDonald, 2013). Alongside neoliberal trends and

but pick up ideas locally from others around them.This is

global economic capitalism, this has made way for

why it is critical for diffusion to have sufficient innovators

universities to increasingly operate as global businesses

and early adopters in a given social system; that is, so

(Brown & Lauder, 2012; Daymon & Durkin, 2013). The

others can pick up ideas and observe proven benefits

competitiveness of Australian universities has grown

such as saved teaching time. It becomes decisive to target

to ensure a slice of domestic student markets, online

diffusion strategies according to whether individuals are

education, the expanding international higher education

innovators and early adopters, or majority others. For

market and research related grants (Von der Heidt, 2013).

example, greater incentives to innovate and share, then

This has an inevitable impact on the experiences of

localised strategies to diffuse among others. However,

teaching academics who are expected to manage titanic

the pressure for teaching academics ‘to do’ rather than

shifts in teaching and learning (Keirle & Morgan, 2011).As

to diffuse their teaching means that the minority of

well, the tendency toward reducing face-to-face contact

innovators and early adopters may not perform the role of

time with students (Symonds, 2014) pressures academics

sharing, especially if there is no obvious reward or benefit

to either be ‘leaner and meaner’ or to develop the

to themselves (McLaren et al., 2008).

pedagogical expertise (Keirle & Morgan, 2011) needed

While centralised programmes may be of interest to

to maintain quality education. The need to understand

horizontal networkers, others may not have the same

how to diffuse knowledge and methods among individual

regard. Wilson and Stacey (2004) articulated the benefits

teaching academics, to enable teaching ‘smarter’ is

of ‘a localised, faculty based approach to the provision of

necessary for individual wellbeing, student outcomes and

staff development’ that targets vertical networkers ‘with

university reputation.

staff appointed to work alongside of and provide peer

Reducing face-to-face time in our faculty often

support to others engaged in adopting new technologies

results in maintaining the length of traditional lectures

in teaching and learning, building on good practices

and shortening tutorials. Tutorials are the place that

that already exist’ (p. 40). At our faculty, there are one-

traditionally interaction and engagement in deep learning

on-one strategies in place to support communication of

is more likely. Hence reducing face-to-face time with

teaching innovations between colleagues. These include

students is done at the expense of interactive learning.

a peer review of teaching strategy and a colleague

Keeping traditional teaching as dominant, with reduced

assisted subject improvement programme. The problem

time for discussing learning materials, problem-solving

is that innovators and early adopters are not strategically

and thinking, puts the quality education at risk (Prideaux

paired with mainstream others. This means that there

et al., 2013; Wolf & Archer, 2013). In addition, changing

is more chance of communicating traditional teaching

one’s way of teaching may be limited by other local

or misunderstandings of non-traditional modes, than

challenges that include workload priorities in favour of

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research, lack of incentives offered for staff to change and

perceptions that traditional teaching is easier. It cannot

limited knowledge of the time-benefits of non-traditional

be expected that every teaching academic will balance

teaching. Traditional teaching space and timetabling can

their regard for teaching equally with research, nor

also make implementing non-traditional teaching modes

make effort to change even when benefits are obvious.

difficult for those individuals without the pedagogical

Attending professional development or communicating

expertise to do so.

with peers about their teaching may be met with the

Our audit of non-traditional teaching indicated that

same disregard – simply, attitudes do exist that putting

the majority of respondants were engaged in traditional

more effort into teaching it is not supported, time-

teaching. According to Figure 1, they are the mainstream

consuming, not well regarded and not worthwhile.

majority and laggards. Communicating and subsequent

However, we suggest that if more effort is put into

diffusion of the four non-traditional teaching modes to

rewarding innovation and dissemination of teaching

these groups will be difficult if there is insufficient mass

innovations that more academic teachers might see the

of innovators and early adopters to cross the diffusion

value of being innovators themselves. With sufficient

chasm. As well, the majority who incorrectly said they

innovators and early adopters, increased levels of

used one or more of the non-traditional modes may not

communication needed to cross the chasm is more likely.

wish to engage in teaching and learning knowledge

Investing resources according to horizontal and vertical

acquisition if they believe they are already using them.

networker (adopter type and stage of diffusion) may

Some respondants fitted their traditional teaching

translate into cost-saving and benefits for individuals and

descriptions into the non-traditional audit descriptors

their institutions in the longer term.

and may have done so to prevent scrutiny or as a form of resistance. In our faculty, it appears that we have less than 10

Helen J McLaren and Paul L Kenny are respectively, Chair of Teaching and Learning and Dean of Education at the Faculty

per cent of teaching academics who are innovators and

of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Flinders University,

early adopters of non-traditional teaching and learning

Australia.

modes. Hence the human capital with the knowledge of educational theory and method necessary to communicate these modes to the mainstream majority is currently insufficient. Diffusion of innovation theory conveys that motivation to try something new and subsequent uptake is more likely once the diffusion of innovation chasm has been crossed, hence crossing the chasm is priority. That means growing a culture of innovation with the use of adequate incentives and rewards in the first instance. Once the early minority reach a critical mass of 16 per cent, they are the ones that need to be encouraged and supported to communicate their teaching modes to mainstream others. But when it is known that research carries greater prestige than teaching among academics at Australian universities, time spent sharing teaching and learning innovations rather than doing, to the expense of research, is a barrier. Stimulating innovation, early adoption and communication to others needs to carry sufficient benefits to be perceived as worthwhile.

Conclusion While the political and socio-economic environments currently informing Australian universities highlight that prestige and higher rewards are to be found in research, we acknowledge that the current system may give rise to

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Evaluating how universities engage school students with science A model based on the analysis of the literature B J Cridge & A G Cridge University of Otago

Every year fewer students are electing to take university level science courses, particularly physics. This situation has led universities and employers to try and encourage more students into science subjects through the development of numerous science outreach initiatives such as guest lectures and summer schools. Much of this work is of an ad-hoc nature, with little understanding of the underlying motivations and conditions that guide studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; subject selection. Therefore, we have analysed a range of literature sources to develop a simple model for school student engagement that can help guide university-initiated science outreach programmes. This model takes into account factors such as the different life stages of the student, the myriad influences that affect career decisions, and resource availability. As part of this work we also present an overview of the research around increasing progression into higher education. As experienced practitioners and researchers in science outreach we have developed an easy-to-use set of guidelines that are applicable in the real-world situation of limited budgets, time and staff resources. Keywords: outreach, widening participation, universities, science, marketing, STEM

Introduction

intervention. In this paper we discuss a model for student recruitment that looks at these approaches and develops

Universities around the world invest heavily in student

a framework of what interventions are most appropriate

recruitment. Often marketing initiatives are run under

and when they should be carried out. We describe the

multiple budget headings including recruitment, outreach,

literature on factors that influence student decision-making

equity and diversity programmes. Overlap in purpose

concerning career choice and university attendance. We

is common, with almost all of these initiatives aiming,

then bring this disparate information together in a simple

ultimately, to increase student participation. However,

model that can be applied across the marketing, recruitment

often there is disparity between the approaches to

and equity teams to allow them to work together towards

student recruitment with some areas favouring a mass-

a common goal, viz. increasing student participation at the

target approach and others a personal one-on-one lifetime

tertiary level. In this study we use literature from science

Evaluating how universities engage school students with science B J Cridge & A G Cridge

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

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and science education as these are areas most familiar to

within their chosen field of study) and price (fees, living

the authors, however this does not preclude the results

costs and distance from home) (Maringe, 2006). In

from being used in other discipline areas.

response to this consumerist approach from students, universities market extensively to students in their last

The problem

years of high school. These campaigns are generally based on business-led market theory (concepts such as

The number of students studying a science is decreasing

brand-loyalty, profitability, market segmentation) (Angulo,

worldwide. This trend is especially prevalent in OECD

Pergelova & Rialp, 2010; Bennett & Ali-Choudhury, 2009;

countries whose governments and universities are

Canterbury, 2000). This model pits one university against

expressing concerns over the decreasing numbers

another and often one faculty against another, in direct

of students that are interested in pursuing scientific

competition (as determined by the capitalist model) and

careers. In the US the numbers of students expressing

does not attempt to engage with the lifelong journey of

an interest in science throughout their school career has

the student and their educational choices.

been decreasing year on year. International comparisons

Within the larger trend of falling student numbers

suggest that American students are falling behind their

in sciences there is ongoing concern regarding the

international counterparts; an effect that is concerning

participation rates of women and minorities in the

at the tertiary education and governmental level (Stake

physical sciences (National Academies, 2005; Bray &

& Nickens, 2005). This effect is particularly noted within

Timewell, 2011; Department of Education, 2006; Mulvey

the physical sciences where university enrolment

& Nicholson, 2012). This problem is often approached

growth has been static or experiencing minimal growth,

separately from pure recruitment, generally under the

while enrolment in the biological sciences or non-

banner of equity or widening participation programmes

science courses grows rapidly (Stake & Nickens, 2005;

(Cuny & Aspray,2002;Frieze & Blum,2002;Gale et al.,2010).

Mulvey & Nicholson, 2012). This trend is at odds with

The result of this is a duality within the university system,

international government policies that are looking to

with one arm focussing on increasing recruitment within

science and technology as economic saviours (Business

a marketing or economics paradigm and another arm

Roundtable, 2005; Higher Education Research Institute,

tackling equity issues by running programmes targeted at

2010). Science and technology are seen as a new way for

a particular type of student (Licata & Frankwick, 1996; Hill,

economies to generate products and in turn increase the

Corbet & St Rose, 2010). While marketing strategies tend

gross domestic product. Without science development

to focus on mass-media campaigns and high spending,

many countries fear they will be unable to generate

equity programmes tend to be focussed, individualistic

the new high-value products of the future (National

and developed on a limited budget. Often these two

Academies, 2005; Bush, 2006; European Commission,

sectors within a university or science faculty are working

2004; Ministry of Science, 2008). The lack of recruitment

independently of one another and rarely, if ever, are

of students into science courses at university is attracting

these objectives combined and co-ordinated (Gale et al.,

high level attention and governments are expecting

2010). However, as graduate numbers decrease alongside

universities to address this issue.

a strong politically-led agenda to increase science and

University marketing is a multifaceted and expanding field. The new economic model of universities as

technology student numbers, a new approach to student requirements needs to be undertaken.

businesses means that many institutions are beginning

This work uses the framework of narrative review to

to charge fees for study (historically more common in

assess the literature around students progressing from the

the US) and this in turn drives students into the role of

secondary school environment through to university. An

consumer (Harrison-Walker, 2010). This drives a feedback

extensive review of literature from differing research fields

loop whereby universities are forced into a highly

was searched through online databases in order to develop

competitive marketing drive to recruit students (Harrison-

a thorough understanding of current research knowledge

Walker, 2010). Research into the factors that influence

surrounding factors that influence student choice and

student choice in the latter years of high school shows

study habits. Database searches included information

that they conform to a 7 â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Pâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; marketing model, analysing

retrieved from ERIC, PubMed, EconLit, Intute, PsycInfo,

programme, price, promotion, people, prospectus,

Web of Knowledge, ScienceDirect, Scopus and Google

prominence and place. Of these factors students prioritise

Scholar. Evidence was included based on an assessment

the programme (whether an institution is well-regarded

of the research representing the overall consensus of

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the given field at the time this article was developed. By

personality type (realistic, investigative, artistic, social,

combining research from a large variety of sources, with

enterprising or conventional) whereas Super’s theory

our own experience in outreach development, we suggest

takes a developmental approach and supposes that career

a programme that works alongside students to develop

choice is a fluid process that develops over an individual

and maintain an interest in science that universities can

life span (Holland, 1997; Super, Savickas & Super 1996).

use as a framework for increasing the numbers in science

Both of these ideals are expressed within the Social

and technology courses. This methodological framework

Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM).

allows the development of an informed rationale for

This theory describes four factors relevant to career

decisions, based on current evidence. While a systematic

decision making (reviewed in Niles & Hartung, 2000):

review of the literature would be considered more robust

• Genetic ability: inherited traits such as sex, intelligence,

in terms of overall quality of data, the narrative review

athletic ability, artistic talent etc.

allows a wider scope and assimilation of current resources

• Environmental conditions: social, cultural and political

from a wider range of academic fields (Collins & Fraser,

factors such as financial sponsorship programmes,

2005). A systematic review necessitates focussed search

family traditions, familial, and societal expectations.

criteria with the aim of reducing reviewer bias. In the

• Learning experiences: the combinations of natural

current work, this narrowed perspective would eliminate

talent with positive learning experiences, exposure to

the ability to synthesise information from diverse sources

positively reinforcing messages and situations such as

i.e. from education, science and economics. Indeed the

good teachers, museums, science clubs or role models.

aim was to introduce an author voice to interpret and craft

• Task approach skills: work habits, mental set, emotional

the information into a widely applicable model.Therefore,

responses and problem-solving skills.

in this instance the format of the narrative review, with its

The Social Cognitive Career Choice Model (Bandura,

wider, less-rigid, search criteria was deemed appropriate.

1986; Fouad, Smith & Zao, 2002; Lent, Brown & Hackett,

The results in this paper differ markedly from others in

1994) is another theory that highlights similar factors as

the area in the diversity of information presented. Most

expressed above. Under this model the important criteria

literature focuses narrowly on a single research question,

for career choice are (from Hazari et al., 2010):

examining the effect of one factor at a time on student

• Curriculum elements: specific content or curriculum

engagement (Ferre et al., 2013; Frølich & Stensaker, 2010;

designs which enhance interest in a particular subject

Luscombe, Lewis & Biggs, 2013).This paper diverges from

area.

these empirically driven studies and strives to take a step back to examine the interplay of multiple factors in a complex behavioural array. For this reason, the results that follow are organised by theme rather than discipline.

• Classroom/school characteristics: class size, resourcing, public or private education, single sex etc. • Teacher characteristics: equitable behaviour, communication, background. • Student characteristics: educational ability, test scores,

The evidence

socio-economic background, self-perception. • Relationships: with peers, family, role models.

How do people decide what they want to do for a job and

• Out of school experiences: informal education

when do they make these decisions? These two questions

opportunities (e.g. museums, science clubs), childhood

lie at the heart of any quest to understand how to increase

experiences.

the number of students that study science. Without a

By examining the two theories side by side it becomes

comprehensive understanding of how people choose

obvious that both internal and external factors are at play

their career path, we can have little hope of changing

when developing a career choice. Both theories suggest

or influencing their choices. Strangely, this knowledge is

that career decisions are linked to the development of

often omitted from outreach programme design. We will

the individual through their life history. This suggests a

present an overview of the current theories around career

pattern as follows: Both theories work on the assumption

development and how this knowledge pertains to student

that career choice stems from an internal self-interest but

recruitment into tertiary level science courses.

that this interest is subject to external forces. In addition,

How do people make career decisions?

there is an underlying belief that career choice is linked to a student’s intrinsic element of interest in the subject

Holland’s 1997 theory of vocational personalities

or career field. However, it is the author’s view that this is

suggests that people match their career choices to their

a modern, largely Western, way of viewing career options

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based on limited evidence that Asian youth are more likely

The oldest children in the study were ten years old and

to be influenced by parental expectations than intrinsic

by this stage many had made preliminary decisions

factors (Ma and Yeh, 2005; Mau, 2000). The prioritising

about their career track.The influence of the parents was

of self-interest above societal and parental judgements

often obvious in terms of the level of ambition (aiming

echoes the increasing predominance of individual self-

for careers requiring higher education or not) and the

worth that is often observed in youth culture in Western

subtle support given for some subjects above others (for

societies today. This individualism is not necessarily a

example choices of access to extra-curricular clubs and

negative factor but time may prove it to be a social trend

activities) (Buzzanell et al. 2011).

rather than a stable construct.

From the earliest age, parents guide their children in

In terms of career choice, the internal factors combine

developing skills and oversee their academic advancement.

with external factors to develop a ‘career identity’. Within

As children naturally gravitate towards careers which they

science, development of a career identity is often thought

enjoy, and enjoyment is often closely linked to academic

to be heavily influenced by whether or not a student

achievement, parents have a subtle ongoing influence on

identifies with scientists and can visualise themselves

career choice (Aschbacher et al., 2010; Beaton et al., 1996;

as a scientist (Aschbacher, Li & Roth, 2010; Cleaves,

Shrigley, 1990; Simpson & Steve Oliver, 1990). Mothers

2005; Maltese & Tai, 2009; Stake & Nickens, 2005). This

in particular have been shown to influence self-belief

projection is described as the potential self or possible

in terms of career (Eccles, 2011; Eccles (Parsons) et al.,

future self (Stake & Nickens, 2005) and is influenced by

1983; Jacobs & Eccles, 2000). Bleeker and Jacobs (2004)

several factors.

demonstrated that mothers’ beliefs about their children’s

The theories mentioned above provide some clues as to

abilities in maths and science were shaped by gender

the drivers at play in the development of career decisions.

stereotype and were highly predictive. The mothers’

Important external factors are parents, teachers and peer

beliefs were also shown to influence career choice

interactions and societal expectations. Balanced with this

and helped determine whether or not children had an

are the internal factors of self-awareness, self-motivation,

internal belief that they could achieve in science or maths

development and sustained interest in a topic.

(Emmanuelle, 2009; Bleeker & Jacobs, 2004).

The role of parents

for a student, and mediating the transition to a higher

From the earliest age, parents are an important force in

education organisation. Parents who have negotiated

our lives; therefore it is not surprising that this influence

their own way through the tertiary system are better

extends to the selection of a career. The simplest analysis

equipped to assist their children with this transition, and

shows that parental education almost directly correlates

tertiary qualified parents are more likely to be financially

to university ambitions (Roksa & Potter, 2011; Schuette,

secure (Downs et al., 2008). Parents who are unsure about

Ponton & Charlton, 2012). This is most often seen within

the demands of higher education, or are worried about

the context of students who are the ‘first-in-family’ to

the cost, may give negative reinforcement to students,

attend university. Such students are difficult to attract into

particularly if the students are wanting to follow highly

the tertiary setting and many outreach programmes are

competitive subjects or those with a high level of difficulty

designed to work alongside these students to increase their

(threatening long term success) (Downs et al., 2008;

aspirations to include higher education (Gale et al., 2010).

Kahneman & Tversky, 1984). Many widening participation

A final role of parents is in providing financial support

Parental influence has been demonstrated to be one

projects aim to address these logistical concerns but may

of the earliest and most powerful effectors surrounding

miss many of the subtle long-term effects of the family

career decisions. Buzzanell, Berkelaar & Kisselburgh

environment (Gale et al., 2010).

(2011) interviewed 800 children from China, Lebanon, Belgium and the United States in order to examine how

The role of teachers

stable the effect of parent is on career choices across

Particularly during adolescence, teachers exert a powerful

societies. Their research shows that, independent of

influence on career selection. The most obvious route for

societal influences, parents are a major influence on the

this pressure is through the development of self-belief

perception of work and career. From as young as four years

and subject-specific achievement. The role of quality

old children were aware of the work that their parents

teaching in student achievement is highly controversial

did, were internalising positive and negative impressions

(Cohen, 1981; Goldhaber & Brewer, 1997; Hattie, 2004;

of work and beginning to understand different careers.

Rockoff, 2004; Rubie-Davies, Hattie & Hamilton, 2006).

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Work by John Hattie demonstrates that, after the students

enjoyable and appropriate (Duncan, 1993; Eccles, 2011;

own ability and drive to succeed, teachers are the most

Patrick et al., 1999). These factors are closely linked to

important factor in achievement at school (Hattie, 2004).

the ongoing motivation that a student has for a particular

His research over several years suggests that teachers

activity, and how much time they are likely to devote

contribute up to 30 per cent of the variance in student

to developing their ability within that field (Patrick et

achievement and, as such, quality teaching is vital to the

al., 1999). Stake and Nickens (2005) demonstrate that

school system (Hattie, 2004). This is obviously important

having peers engaged and supportive of science activities

from a career selection point of view as a good science

positively encouraged individual expectations of a future

teacher may increase the sense of achievement of students

life as a scientist. Programmes which allow the participants

in this area and therefore help to sustain their interest in

to form social networks with scientifically-minded peers

the subject. This factor is particularly pertinent to the

are likely to have a greater long-term impact (Davies &

physical sciences, which are historically deemed difficult

Kandel, 1981; Stake & Nickens, 2005).

subjects to master (Cheng, Payne & Witherspoon, 1995;

Diverse cultures value different subjects and career

Crawley & Black, 1992). These subjects are also often

choices. Asian families are reported to favour scientific

linked to a parental belief of inherent ability, either you

careers as they are associated with long-term advantages

‘get’ science or you do not (Bleeker & Jacobs, 2004; Eccles,

(Woodrow, 1996). Conversely, other cultures may perceive

2011; Gouthier, Manzoli & Ramani, 2008; Kelly, 1981). A

school-based science as a Western construct and therefore

good teacher may be able to mould these expectations

struggle to connect with it (Lemke, 2001).The underlying

or experiences and so make science more accessible to

epistemologies of science may be an anathema to cultural

a wider range of students. Quality science teaching is

knowledge and therefore science may be devalued or

therefore an important component in sustaining scientific

shunned within certain cultural contexts (Cunningham,

interest throughout a child’s school career.

2000). Therefore, in some cultures science is highly

In addition to maintaining self-belief and supporting

valued and a scientific career is seen as prestigious. In

academic achievement, the role of the teacher often

other cultures science is not a worthy pursuit and as such

extends into the realm of mentor. Students seek teachers’

children are less likely to be encouraged and supported

views on higher education providers, possible courses

in their studies. These underlying cultural biases also

and expectations of achievement (Hazari et al. 2010;

affect other influencers such as parental support, peer

Munro & Elsom, 2000). The teachers’ own backgrounds,

acceptance in addition to the student’s personal internal

education, social networks and beliefs strongly influence

motivation (Hartung, 2002; Kim, Li & Liang, 2002).

how they communicate with the students about their options in higher education. This set of unconscious

Career counsellors and role models

behaviours and expectations can be referred to as the

Other individuals have been hypothesised to influence

teachers habitus, the ‘durable, transposable dispositions’

student career choices. However evidence from the

that are developed early in an individual’s life and

physical sciences suggests that the impact of career

manifest in manner, style, gait and language (from Oliver

counsellors, role models and guest speakers is minimal.

& Kettley, 2010). A teacher’s expectations, knowledge

The role of career counsellors is similar to the role of

and sense of achievement within science can profoundly

teachers, with similar issues and problems around

influence a student’s perception of their own abilities.

habitus expected to be relevant. This means that the

This is particularly relevant to the reported gender bias

career counsellors own expectations and life experience

within the physical sciences. Teachers who believe,

of careers will influence their advice (Oliver & Kettley,

often unconsciously, that males are better than females

2010). Research has demonstrated that the effectiveness

in the mathematical and physical sciences transfer this

of career counselling is directly related to the motivation

expectation to their students and their understanding of

and abilities of the individual counsellor (Taurere, 2010).

their potential career options (Aschbacher et al., 2010;

For the purposes of this work we have grouped career

Jones & Wheatley, 1990; Osborne, Simon & Collins, 2003).

counsellors with science subject teachers with the intention that resources should be targeted to individuals

Peer interactions and society expectations

with sufficient interest and willingness to engage with the processes.

Adolescents often seek the support and approval of peers.

Some studies have suggested that role models can

Peer support influences what students think is valuable,

influence, if not alter, career decisions (Maltese &

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Tai, 2009). Programmes implemented around raising

2003). It is notable that these early decisions are relatively

aspirations, especially for students from low socio-

stable (Helwig, 2008; Schuette et al., 2012;Tai et al., 2006).

economic areas, often utilise role models to showcase

When interviewing scientists and graduate students of

possibilities outside the immediate environment of

science, Maltese and Tai (2009) highlighted a trend for

the student (Gale et al., 2010). The use of role models

people who select this trajectory to decide early in life.

is supported and acknowledged but their influence is

Sixty-five per cent of interviewees reported that their

often compromised by the ongoing, direct influences of

interest in science developed before their middle school

parents, teachers and peers.

years (around 11-14 years of age) with a further 30 per

When do students make career decisions?

cent indicating that their interest in science developed during middle or high school (11-18 years). Young men

The two main forms of outreach, marketing or widening

tended to report an interest in science earlier than young

participation programmes, are largely aimed at students

women with 80 per cent of male interviewees declaring

studying at high school. Generally the youngest students

that they had decided on a science career before they

that universities interact with are at least 14 years

attended high school. Female students were slightly more

old. The exception to this is through participation in

inclined to develop science interest during their high

science festivals such as ‘Scientriffic’ (Wrexham, Wales)

school years (14 per cent of female students developed

‘Incredible

(Auckland, New

Science’ Zealand).

These initiatives are generally collaborative and may target younger students through exciting science shows or experiment demonstrations. Criticism

often

raised

however, by faculty members

their science interest in high

What stands out about the student choices during high school is that negative influences are more powerful than positive ones. ... It is common for students, females in particular, to select out of science subjects as they are no longer able to imagine their future selves as scientists...

that these events are a waste

school as compared with 10 per cent of male students) (Maltese & Tai, 2009). By

years

age,

roughly half way through high school, the majority of students have selected their probable career path and are starting to refine their

of resource as they don’t

subject options (Brown et

allow direct interaction with the target audience (Bray,

al., 2011; Lindahl, 2003; Schuette et al., 2012).What stands

2010). Should universities be trying to engage a younger

out about the student choices during high school is that

audience or should resources be prioritised to students in

negative influences are more powerful than positive

the final years of high school? When do students make the

ones. During this time female students are vulnerable

decision about what to study?

to influences such as poor academic performance and

As outlined above, children are exposed to work and

peer- and self-perception (Cleaves, 2005). It is common

careers from a very early age (Buzzanell et al., 2011). From

for students, females in particular, to select out of science

as young as two or three years children are aware of their

subjects as they are no longer able to imagine their future

own parents’ work situation and start to develop their

selves as scientists (Aschbacher et al., 2010; Stake &

own understanding of work options. By age five or six

Nickens, 2005). This vulnerability to negative messages

children can confidently answer the question ‘so, what do

is one that is often overlooked in the development of

you want to be when you grow up?’ Answers are typically

outreach and marketing programmes.

stereotypical (e.g. ‘I want to drive trains/be a footballer/

This evidence suggests that universities often target

be a singer’) but demonstrate that both children and

students too late to effect real change in their career

adults are already starting to focus on future career

options. If outreach programmes are to attract students

options. Research demonstrates that throughout primary

into science, they need to address the wide range of

school students are evaluating, investigating and selecting

influences on students’ lives, and engagement must be

possible career options (Brown, Ortiz-Nuñez & Taylor,

made with students while they are making their career

2011; Buzzanell et al., 2011; Helwig, 2008; Lindahl, 2003;

choices. The information available to date suggests that

Schuette et al., 2012; Tai, Qi Liu, Maltese & Fan, 2006). It

to be effective in increasing the number of students

is widely accepted that by around 10-12 years of age (late

electing to take science subjects, universities need to

primary school) students have largely decided the general

put in place programmes that work with students before

field of work that they want to be involved in (Lindahl,

they reach high school, and there needs to be a greater

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understanding of the importance of science during the primary years. The general lack of recruitment initiatives and focus on scientific literacy for younger students can compound the lack of understanding of science careers and career options (Osborne & Dillon, 2008; Education Review Office, 2012). What turns students on to science when they are young? Why do some students gravitate towards science subjects and reject others? Evidence suggests that those students that persist with science found it interesting and fun from a young age. They felt able to achieve within the science context and they found it relevant to their world. Students that continued along the science path to tertiary study often have the support of their families and it is within accepted social norms for them to pursue a highly academic and perhaps financially risky career path. They were supported by teachers who made science fun, relevant, and achievable. This assisted them in forming peer groups where studying science was the norm that in turn allowed them the space to achieve to a high level. With all these competing factors and inputs can universities hope to have any influence? We think the answer is yes, but a rethink of how they utilise and mobilise their resources needs to happen.

Fig. 1. An outline of a new model for universities to engage school students with science

The model Compton, 2012). In terms of child development the preOur model rests on three key ideals; engagement with

teen years are associated with a period of exploration

potential students needs to happen early, be sustained

where the individual is more receptive to new

over the life of the student and reach beyond the student

concepts; younger students are therefore more open to

to encompass their parents, teachers and peers. This

alternative career options (Eccles, 1999). This openness

structure is illustrated in the diagram in Figure 1 and

can be harnessed and built upon to open up student

explained in more detail in the following sections.

expectations and possible future selves.

Engagement needs to happen sooner

Engagement needs to be sustained

Based on the evidence, we believe that universities

One off, one day events are easy to run but they are

should be involved with, and support initiatives, that

unlikely to have significant impact amongst the variety

allow primary-aged students to participate in science.

of other factors in the life of a student. To be really

These activities should be designed to be fun and

effective the university needs to be seen as an ongoing

motivational, showcasing science as part of everyday

part of the student journey (France and Compton,

life and relevant to everyone. The criticism that younger

2012). However, it should be realised that through their

students are unlikely to follow into higher education,

mid-teens students are uniquely sensitive to negative

that the university has no place in this space, are

images (Eccles, 2011; Freeman, 1997). For this reason we

unfounded. Higher education institutes have access to

suggest that this is the ideal time to support achievement

myriad resources and people that are of immense value

through indirect channels. Career literature identifies the

to the primary school sector. In addition, under-graduate

strong influence that role models play at this time of life,

and graduate students can gain a wealth of skills through

including parents, teachers, peers and career counsellors

interacting with young students. Universities should

(Hodkinson & Sparkes, 1997). Engaging with students in

encourage site-visits for primary aged children to allow

the middle-school (intermediate) and early high school

them to view university scientific facilities (France &

years through these alternate routes could be a key to the

Evaluating how universities engage school students with science B J Cridge & A G Cridge

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success for these programmes (Catsambis, 2001; Fadigan

perhaps 4,000 students over a lifetime. Teachers can be

and Hammrich, 2004). The final phase of interaction is

a universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s best advocates. Great teachers help develop

during the last two years of high school. Outreach during

great scientists; their influence should not be under-

this time is often a pure marketing exercise, choosing

estimated (Munro & Elsom, 2000). We would suggest that

one institution above another. It is not a time to convert

universities working to support and develop teachers,

students to science or science disciplines as these

through offering continuing training and science

messages are likely to be lost. Few, if any, students are

upskilling through access to university resources, is an

motivated to change their career focus at this late stage of

effective and cost-minimal way to increase engagement.

their development (Cleaves, 2005). Programmes need to

A vast array of such programmes have been undertaken

focus on the advantages (price, courses available, lifestyle

worldwide with the best examples using a partnership

and prestige) of one institution over another. Parents

model and mutual cooperation to have an ongoing impact

are also likely to be very interested in this stage of the

on student engagement and learning (Richmond, 1996;

decision-making and should not be excluded from these

Tanner, Chatman & Allen, 2003). Teacher open days have

discussions (Maringe, 2006).

been used successfully to market universities to teachers

Engagement needs to include parents, teachers and peers

but this should be used with caution around the habitus of the teacher (Oliver & Kettley, 2010). Peers are also important.To develop peer relationships

Universities are often very willing to talk directly to senior

we suggest that at least some programmes are formed to

students but are less interested in working alongside

challenge school groups. If a student is able to remain

teachers, career counsellors or parents to explore career

within their normal cohort of friends, and this group

options.This is a mistake.The literature clearly shows that

is anti-science then it is unlikely that the student will

these external people play an important role in guiding

feel comfortable pursuing study in science. Activities

and supporting the individual.

such as summer schools, site visits and research days

Parents perform an increasingly important role in

which allow for group interaction (not merely sitting

guiding the career choices of their children. The actions,

in a lecture group for a day) are all valuable tools for

expectations and prejudices of the parents are absorbed by

introducing students from a range of backgrounds into

students from an early age. One avenue for increasing the

a science-supportive environment (Jacobs et al., 1998;

number of students in science is to increase the science

Packard & Nguyen, 2003). Institutions should be looking

literacy of the parents. Outreach programmes such as

to provide environments where a student who may

science festivals play an important role in normalising

be isolated in terms of science interest in their local

science within a family (Riise, 2008). Often the challenge is

school can develop networks with peers that support

reaching out to communities and families where science is

and encourage science achievement, even if this is

not valued; such families are not the ones that traditionally

maintained across geographical boundaries.

attend science fairs (Dawson & Jensen, 2011). Events that

We suggest universities work towards an integrated

take science to non-traditional locations (supermarkets;

policy for recruitment for students into scientific courses.

community halls) are worthy of consideration.These events

This should start with sparking an interest in science

need to be supported by the provision of good written

(at primary level), through science fairs or outreach

material that parents can take with them. These need to

programmes that target both parents and children.

outline what careers are available in science, the earning

The second phase (through intermediate and lower

potential for BSc graduates, what courses are available and

secondary) should sustain interest. This is best achieved

the application pathways.

through an indirect method particularly through working

Supporting quality teaching is another key area. What

with teachers. Models for this might include teacher

makes an excellent teacher and how to support quality

professional development courses or teacher conferences

teaching is an issue fraught with difficulties (Hattie,

and may involve either on site visits or outreach

2011), a complete discussion of which is beyond the

programmes as appropriate. The last phase is to convert

scope of this paper. However, ongoing discussions on

a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interest in science into tertiary enrolments

how universities could support quality teaching should

which can be done through open days, marketing

be encouraged and it should be noted that supporting

material and summer schools. Marketing material needs

local teachers has a multiplying effect, each teacher will

to be inclusive of parents and caregivers as they are highly

be teaching between 20 and 100 students a year and

influential in decision-making at this time.

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Of course, it is accepted that currently many of the suggestions presented here are not supported by data – proving effectiveness. Many of the programmes outlined here as suggestions and examples have been drawn from the author’s personal experiences and conversations.With many of these projects there is little or no resource (money or time) to complete comprehensive evaluation of the

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Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Beaton, A., Martin, M. O., Mullis, I., Gonzalez, E. J., Smith, T. A. & Kelley, D. L. (1996). Science achievement in the middle years: IEA’s Third International Mathematics and Science Study. Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College. Bennett, R. & Ali-Choudhury, R. (2009). Prospective Students’ Perceptions of University Brands: An Empirical Study. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 19(1), 85-107. doi: 10.1080/08841240902905445.

in evaluation including under-resourcing, biasing towards

Bleeker, M. M. & Jacobs, J. E. (2004). Achievement in Math and Science: Do Mothers’ Beliefs Matter 12 Years Later? Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 97-109. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.97.

success (to ensure ongoing funding), confidentiality

Bray, B. J. (2010). [Incredible Science, is it the right thing to do?].

clauses or just confounding by the huge range of factors

Bray, B. J. & Timewell, E. (2011). Gender equality in New Zealand Science. New Zealand Science Review, 68(4), 140-143. Retrieved from http://www.scientists. org.nz/files/journal/2011-68/NZSR_68_4.pdf.

programme. This is coupled with wide-ranging problems

that encompass career selection. Measuring the success of ventures such as open days, outreach programmes and teacher partnerships with sufficient power to prove effectiveness is almost impossible. Therefore, we have instead provided examples and ideas of programmes that we have experienced to highlight how a university might begin to develop a strategy of engagement. Wideranging reviews of the literature suggest that a model such as we have outlined, starting with younger age groups, involving teachers and parents and building to a pure recruitment drive, may be a logical way to develop or reform recruitment strategies. We have also provided a wealth of research to help those developing programmes to understand career influences and help them synthesise the salient factors so that they can produce a tailored and evidence-based strategy for student recruitment and engagement. However, the authors accept that until such programmes are actually put to practical use their true worth cannot be determined. We strongly encourage programme leaders and their managers to include robust evaluation measures into their work. To this end, the authors themselves are currently undertaking a programme of research to determine the ultimate value of the strategies presented here. Andrew Cridge is a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Otago, New Zealand. Belinda Cridge is a lecturer at the University of Otago, New

Brown, S., Ortiz-Nuñez, A. & Taylor, K. (2011). What will I be when I grow up? An analysis of childhood expectations and career outcomes. Economics of Education Review, 30(3), 493-506. doi: 10.1016/j.econedurev.2010.12.003. Bush, G. (2006). State of the Union Address. Retrieved from http:// georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/stateoftheunion/2006/. Business Roundtable. (2005). Tapping America’s potential: The education for innovation initiative. Washing D. C.: Business Roundtable. Buzzanell, P. M., Berkelaar, B. L. & Kisselburgh, L. (2011). From the Mouths of Babes: Exploring Families’ Career Socialisation of Young Children in China, Lebanon, Belgium, and the United States. Journal of Family Communication, 11(2), 148-164. doi: 10.1080/15267431.2011.554494. Canterbury, R. M. (2000). Higher Education Marketing: A Challenge. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 9(3), 15-24. doi: 10.1300/J050v09n03_02. Catsambis, S. (2001). Expanding knowledge of parental involvement in children’s secondary education: Connections with high school seniors’ academic success. Social Psychology of Education, 5(2), 149-177. Cheng, Y., Payne, J. & Witherspoon, S. (1995). Science and mathematics in full-time education after 16: England and Wales Youth Cohort Study. London: Department for Education and Employment. Cleaves, A. (2005). The formation of science choices in secondary school. International Journal of Science Education, 27(4), 471-486. doi: 10.1080/0950069042000323746. Cohen, P. A. (1981). Student Ratings of Instruction and Student Achievement: A Meta-analysis of Multisection Validity Studies. Review of Educational Research, 51(3), 281-309. doi: 10.3102/00346543051003281. Collins, J. A. & Fraser, B. C. J. M. (2005). Balancing the strengths of systematic and narrative reviews. Human Reproduction Update, 11(2), 103-104. doi: 10.1093/humupd/dmh058. Crawley, F. E. & Black, C. B. (1992). Causal modeling of secondary science students’ intentions to enroll in physics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(6), 585-599. doi: 10.1002/tea.3660290607.

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Please don’t aim for a highly cited paper Michael C Calver Murdoch University

Citation-based metrics are important in determining careers, so it is unsurprising that recent publications advise prospective authors on how to write highly cited papers. While such publications offer excellent advice on structuring and presenting manuscripts, there are significant downsides, including: restrictions in the topics researched, incentives to misconduct and possible detriments to motivation, innovation and collegiality. Guides to writing highly cited papers also assume that all citations are equal, ignoring new directions in bibliometric research identifying ‘quality’ and perfunctory citations. Rather than pursuing citations, with the uncertainty about their significance and the potential negative consequences, authors may fare better by following evidence from several disciplines indicating that persistence, a focused research program, good methodology and publishing in relevant journals are more important in career development and disciplinary influence than the odd star paper. Research administrators could encourage such steps by considering innovative new multivariate assessments of research productivity, including assessing social impact. Keywords: citation, quality citation, motivation, misconduct, innovation, highly cited

Introduction

and clarity of style, encouraging people to aim consciously to write highly cited papers is concerning

Increasingly, researchers find their track records under

for five main reasons: (i) it narrows the scope of research

scrutiny as supervisors and funding agencies seek the

undertaken or published; (ii) the focus on reward

most successful groups to fund, or individuals to reward

may reduce intrinsic motivation, innovation and true

with appointments, promotion, tenure or prizes (Corsi,

collaboration but encourage mistakes and misconduct;

D’Ippoliti & Lucidi, 2010; Oswald, 2010; Teixeira et al.,

(iii) despite substantial research, the significance of

2013). Consulting the citation records in major databases

citations remains controversial; (iv) empirical evidence

is a more rapid and cheaper way to make such assessments

from several disciplines indicates that persistence,

than through peer review (Hodge & Lacasse, 2011; Buela-

research

Casal & Zych, 2012), so citation profiles are increasingly

publishing in germane journals are most important in

important in determining careers (Calver, 2013; Calver et

developing a career and influencing a discipline, not the

al., 2013a; van Wesel, Wyaat & ten Haaf, 2014).

occasional highly cited paper; and (v) the convenience of

specialisation,

good

methodology

and

One must publish to be cited, so it is unsurprising that

citation counting may impede development or adoption

the valuable guides to scientific writing and publishing

of innovative new multivariate assessments of research

from experienced authors, editors or teachers (e.g.

productivity, including evaluation of wider social impact.

Glasman-Deal, 2010; Cargill & O’Connor, 2013;Tress,Tress & Saunders, 2014) have been joined by a new category

Narrowing research scope

of advice – how to write a highly cited paper (Pyke 2013; 2014).While both traditional and new guides share

The topic and the type of study are important predictors

concerns for excellent presentation, sound scholarship

of citation potential, so choosing a topic is a key part of

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advice on writing highly cited papers (Pyke, 2013; 2014).

between external rewards and intrinsic motivation accept

Taxonomists, for example, have vented their frustration

that rewards depress intrinsic motivation when the task is

regarding belittling of their important work on the basis

interesting, the possibility of reward is known in advance

of the low citations it attracts (Valdecasas, Castroviejo

and the likelihood of reward is ambiguously connected

& Marcus, 2000; Valdecasas, 2014). Their specialised

to performance (Cameron, Banko & Pierce, 2001). This

subject matter is of immediate interest to just a few

matches aiming for a highly cited paper because the

experts (Ebach, Valdecasas & Wheeler, 2011), although

research is interesting, authors know that citations may

it subsequently underpins (without citation) diverse

follow, but even good work may only receive modest

areas of biological inquiry (MacRoberts & MacRoberts,

citations (Valdecasas et al., 2000; Shewan & Coats, 2006;

2010). The same is true of many areas in mathematics

Jones, 2007).

(Adler, Ewing & Taylor, 2008), some medical specialities

Critiques of using rewards as motivation also note that

(van Eck et al., 2013) and numerous applied disciplines

while they may increase basic productivity, innovation

where the significance of work comes not from academic

may decline (but see Curran & Walsworth, 2014 for

citations but from influence on practitioners (Shewan &

suggestions that the type of reward may be important in

Coats, 2006; Jones, 2007; Calver, Lilith & Dickman, 2013b).

determining whether or not it encourages innovation).

In contrast, hot topics and reviews are more likely to

It may be better to use tried and true methods in case

attract citations (Davis et al., 2008; Davis, 2009; Teixeira

the new approach fails, or people may simply be so

et al., 2013), as are positive studies (those supporting the

busy chasing the reward that they do not consider an

hypothesis tested) (Falagas & Alexiou, 2008; Song et al.,

alternative approach (Ariely et al., 2009;Webb,Williamson

2010; Jannot et al., 2013). Keeping good company may be

& Zhang, 2013). Charlton (2008) speculated that science

important too: papers with many authors or at least one

in the UK is undergoing just such a process, with a

highly cited author attract more citations, which is why it

preference for more productive ‘normal science’ over

is necessary to control for the number of authors in some

less productive but potentially more ground-breaking

bibliometric studies (Calver & Bradley, 2010).

‘revolutionary science.’ In academia, the problem may be

Thus authors hungry for citations will neglect some

compounded by a preference for the tried and true at

fields or topics, regardless of their potential merit, in

the grant application stage (Martin, 2000) or in editorial

favour of the fashionable or the review, preferably written

process with publications (Horrobin, 1990). Surprisingly,

with many influential colleagues. They certainly won’t

mistakes may actually increase when the focus is on the

tackle ‘... areas of public interest where little research is

outcome rather than the process, a phenomenon well

being done’ (Martin, 2012, p. 168) and will probably have

documented in declines in athletic performance under

less time for applied research or engaging the public

pressure (DeCaro et al., 2011).

(B. Martin, 2011). A narrowing of research diversity is as

True collaboration may suffer too, because genuine

valuable to scholarship as atherosclerosis is to the cardiac

collaborative relationships may be replaced by a

patient, yet one follows citation hunger as surely as the

‘contrived collegiality’ in which there is uncritical

other follows a fatty diet.

acceptance of striving for an external goal or meeting an external agenda (Boocock,2011).For example,in 2007 the

Focus on reward

UK began planning its first iteration of the REF (Research Evaluation Framework) for evaluating research in higher

Intrinsic motivation, or the desire to complete a task

education, with a strong emphasis on citations. Several

for personal satisfaction rather than external reward

senior academics predicted that authorship practices

(Cerasoli, Nicklin & Ford, 2014), may be at risk when

would shift to the disadvantage of junior researchers.

the focus is on an external outcome or reward, such as

Specifically, junior researchers would be excluded from

high citations, rather than the process of conceiving,

secondary authorship on group publications so that

implementing and communicating a good study. Some

they could later cite those papers without a penalty for

empirical studies and meta-analyses of relationships

self-citation for the senior colleagues on the original

between external rewards and intrinsic motivation find

papers. On the other hand, senior researchers were

a reduction in intrinsic motivation when rewards are

predicted to form ‘citation clubs’, in which they agreed

offered (e.g. Ryan & Deci, 1996; Deci & Ryan, 2013; Green,

to cite each other’s papers for mutual benefit (Corbyn,

2014). Others do not (e.g. Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996;

2008). Citation clubs are already documented at the

Reiss, 2005). Nevertheless, even critics of negative links

journal, if not the individual, level (van Noorden, 2013).

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These examples fulfil predictions that obsession with

(Zhu et al., 2014). Bergsma et al. (2014, p. 35) also claim

numerical assessments rewards aggressive, acquisitive

significant improvement in assessing an author’s influence

and exploitative behaviour (Lawrence, 2002).

by replacing citations with multivariate data including

Finally, a conviction that success is ‘deserved’ may

‘novel social, linguistic, psychological, and bibliometric

tempt authors into misconduct to gain the reward, just

features.’ Applying methods such as these may reduce the

as an athlete may rationalise doping (Martinson,Anderson

value of some highly cited works such as reviews relative

& De Vries, 2005; Fanelli, 2009; Deci & Ryan, 2013).

to empirical papers making original contributions. They

Thus ‘Excessive focus on building publication records

would also threaten questionable practices such as the

may lead to over-bias towards choosing high-impact

boosting of citations by commissioning opinion pieces

journals for publication, violation of publication ethics,

that offer extensive opportunities for the self-citation of

and unbalanced development of writing skills’ (Cheung,

authors and journals (Heneberg, 2014).

2008, p. 41). Buela-Casal (2014) argues that excessive

Overall, striving for a highly cited paper is not necessarily

concern with research status and associated marketing

the same as aiming to produce influential work. To use

meet the criteria of a psychological disorder, manifesting

an analogy from novelists, Harold Robbins may have sold

in behaviour such as fraudulent misrepresentation of

more copies than William Faulkner or Ernest Hemingway,

research data or bibliometric profiles, personal belief in

but Faulkner and Hemingway have surely had a greater

such misrepresentations, and an obsession with self-image.

influence on modern literature.

What does a citation mean?

Lessons from successful researchers

Critiques

highlight

Commentaries by authors on their highly cited papers

numerous biases and unchecked assumptions, some of

simplistic

citation

analyses

nominated interest from the scientific and lay communities,

which remain unaddressed (Appendix 1). Furthermore,

novelty, utility to broad audiences and significance in

in some fields citations correlate significantly with peer

addressing an important or fundamental problem as key

assessments of impact or influence such as prizes and

reasons for the high citations. The categories were not

awards, but in others they do not (Bergsma, Mandryk &

mutually exclusive, so authors often referred to more than

McCalla, 2014). This calls into question their validity as

one (Small, 2004).

measures of quality.

However, significant influence on a discipline is more

More recently, bibliometricians note that not all citations

likely to follow from consistent performance over a

are equal, even leading to the farcical situation where a

career, not one star paper. In ecology, such influence

non-existent paper is cited frequently because authors

correlates strongly with research specialisation, a

have copied a referencing error (Dubin, 2004). Not so

focused body of work (not necessarily on a fashionable

farcical are examples where misrepresentation of what

topic) and publication of good papers in germane (not

was actually written or echoing a fallacy by not checking

necessarily highly ranked) journals (Parker, Allesina

the original promulgates misinformation (Wetterer,

& Lortie, 2013). In this context, it is worth noting that

2006; Wright & Armstrong, 2008). These problems may

the citation gap between elite journals and the others

be common. In the field of marine biology one in four

is declining (Acharya et al., 2014). Padial et al. (2010)

citations was found to be ambiguous in relation to the

further stressed the value of innovation in ecological

statement it was supposed to support, offered no support

papers. Hermanowicz (2006), in a survey of physicists,

at all, or was empty (a reference to a secondary source)

found that the top-ranked quality for success was

(Todd et al., 2010).

persistence in the face of difficulty or publication

A recent review claims that between 40 and 80 per cent

rejection. This is echoed in the case of ecology by

of citations are inessential or perfunctory. The authors

Cassey and Blackburn (2003, p. 375), who found that

then suggest a framework for identifying influential

‘publication success and manuscript rejection are not

citations on the basis of repeated use in one paper,

strangers’, and in psychology by Douglas (1992), who

similarities between the citation title and the title or sub-

claimed to have received up to three rejections for every

sections of the citing paper, the context of the citation

highly cited paper he published. To all of these can be

in the paper (noting any descriptors such as ‘important’,

added the blessings of Lady Luck, because of ‘... the key

‘baseline’, ‘key’ etc. or whether the citation appears alone

role that error, chance or accident can sometimes play in

or in a series), and the location of the citation in the paper

scientific endeavour’ (Campanario, 1996, p. 20).

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noted cynically: ‘In any event, if you were to set out in cold blood to write a highly cited article, your best bet

Citation counting for research assessment is attractive to

would be to devise or revise a paper-and-pencil test of

research administrators because it is speedy and offers the

personality or motivation, improve on a commonly used

illusion of objective numbers (Adler et al., 2008), despite

method, coin a snappy new word or phrase, or think of

the problems reported (Appendix 1). This may restrain

a new way to apply statistics.’ With no intent at cynicism,

support for the more challenging approach of allowing

van Wesel et al. (2014, p. 1612) advise:‘If scholars or their

individuals or organisations undergoing evaluation to

institutions want to contribute to scientific literature, and

demonstrate the impact of their work beyond bibliometric

to be seen to contribute, and if they wish promote (sic)

indicators. Possibilities might be changes in professional

their individual and collective reputations in rankings and

or government practice as a result of research (Witten &

evaluations, they need to be aware of how the invisible

Hammond, 2010), publishing in local languages rather than

hand in science works, and how it can be influenced.

English to reach regional communities or practitioners

Form and style also influence how well individual scholars

(Adler & Harzing, 2009), or online readership/download

and their institutions fare in the global competition that

statistics where readership may be more important than

scientific publication has become.’ Such an outcome-driven approach reduces research

citations (Bollen et al., 2009). Several major initiatives are attempting just such broad

diversity,encourages selfish behaviour or even misconduct,

assessments. For example, STAR METRICS (Science and

conflicts with empirical evidence about what practices

Technology for America’s Reinvestment: measuring the

are most likely to lead to a strong and lasting influence

effects of research on innovation, competitiveness, and

and might hamper the uptake of innovative new methods

science) focuses on a wide range of results and impacts

of assessing the significance of research, especially

from federally-funded US researchers (Largent & Lane,

efforts to assess social impact. It leads to complaints that

2012). In Brazil, the Lattes Platform takes a multivariate

‘... dodgy evaluation criteria such as impact factors and

statistical approach to evaluate the broad impact of

citations are dominating minds, distorting behaviour and

Brazilian researchers (Araújo et al., 2014). In Europe, the

determining careers’ (Lawrence, 2007, p. R583) and that

Social Impact Assessment Methods through Productive

research rankings based partly on citations are ‘... causing

Interactions (SIAMPI) project is a broad-based initiative

biomedical scientists to focus more on their careers and

involving contributors from The Netherlands, Spain, France

less on understanding nature and disease’ (Lawrence 2002,

and the UK. Its goals include assessing the social impact

p. 835). Valuable points about style and crafting a paper

of research and providing granting bodies with diverse

can be taken from advice on writing highly cited work

data on the effectiveness of their activities (Molas-Gallart

(Pyke, 2013; 2014; van Wesel et al. 2014), but there are

& Tang, 2011; Spaapen & van Drooge, 2011). Innovative

dangers in moving beyond that to selection of research

online resources are also growing. Examples include:

topics on the basis of citation potential. Surely, one should

Metrics from Scholarly Usage of Resources (MESUR),

advise authors to aspire to influencing their discipline

Standardised

Initiative

through quality work rather than writing a highly cited

(SERU)

paper – with all the uncertainty about what a highly cited

Usage

(SUSHI), Shared

Statistics

E-Resource

Harvesting Understanding

and Counting Online Usage of NeTworked Electronic

paper actually means.

Resources (COUNTER) (Pesch, 2011). These suggestions

Research administrators might also consider the

are difficult and possibly expensive (B R Martin, 2011),

advantages of more broad-based methods of research

but the alternative is a simplistic, restricted assessment of

assessment, heeding the call of ‘The San Francisco

the value of research to the community (Lane, 2010; Lane

Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA) (http://

& Bertuzzi, 2011).

am.ascb.org/dora/) to ‘... consider the value and impact of all research outputs (including datasets and software)

Assessment

in addition to research publications, and consider a broad range of impact measures including qualitative indicators

While some assert that ‘Writing highly cited articles is

of research impact, such as influence on policy and

an important goal for scholars’ (van Wesel et al., 2014,

practice.’ Such a focus on the broad impacts of research

p. 1602), aiming for a highly cited paper concentrates

would assist authors in shifting their emphasis from the

on an outcome, not the process of doing good research

‘hot topics’ that feed citation hunger to a wider range of

and disseminating the results. As Douglas (1992, p. 405)

problems of social, political and environmental relevance.

Please don’t aim for a highly cited paper Michael C Calver

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Acknowledgements

individual research records of ecologists and conservation biologists. Pacific Conservation Biology, 19, 320-330.

I thank Joe Fontaine, Harry Recher and Denis Saunders

Calver, M.C., Lilith, M. & Dickman, C.R. (2013b). A ‘perverse incentive’ from bibliometrics: could National Research Assessment Exercises (NRAEs) restrict literature availability for nature conservation? Scientometrics, 95, 243-255.

for comments. However, they may not share all opinions expressed.

Cameron, J., Banko, K.M. & Pierce, W.D. (2001). Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues. Behavior Analyst 24, 1-44.

Michael Calver spends much of his productive time in the

Campanario, J.M. (1996). Using citation classics to study the incidence of serendipity in scientific discovery. Scientometrics, 37, 3-24.

School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, WA.

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Appendix 1. Criticisms of citation analysis taken from MacRoberts and MacRoberts (1996), together with responses in bibliometric research. Criticism

Response

Authors do not cite all their influences

The criticism that authors cite only a fraction of their influences in their papers remains unanswered, while the range of reasons other than influence for choosing a citation is growing. These include, amongst others, availability (Harnad et al., 2004), personal contacts (White, 2001), and a preference for secondary sources (MacRoberts and MacRoberts, 1996).

Citations are biased

It is acknowledged that, for a range of reasons, authors cite selectively, introducing bias (Song et al., 2010). The possibility of replacing citations selected by authors with others based on electronic assessment of publication similarity (‘virtual scientometry’) is possible but challenging (Amancio et al., 2012).

Secondary sources are preferred

Reviews attract disproportionately high citations (Davis et al., 2008; Davis, 2009, Teixeira et al., 2013), so the reviewer takes credit really due to the authors of the primary papers. The trend for reviews to receive disproportionately more citations is so well established that it is controlled in citation-based studies (e.g. Calver and Bradley 2010).

Informal influences are uncited

Informal influences may be noted in acknowledgements or ‘personal communications’ but not a full citation, which means that they earn no credit.

Citer motivation is unknown

It is recognised that citation is not simply an acknowledgement of credit – many factors influence the choice of citations in a paper. Journal restrictions on the number of citations allowed in a paper is one good example! Another is the pressure editors may place on authors to cite papers from particular journals (Yu et al., 2014).

Citation rates vary between disciplines

There has been much work on addressing this, particularly in relation to journals, through indices such as SJR1 and SNIP2. Nevertheless, fine-scale differences in citations can exist between sub-fields (e.g. the higher citations for basic medical research as opposed to clinical medical research – Opthof, 2011; van Eck et al., 2013, or variations in citation rates across subdisciplines in mathematics – Smolinsky and Lercher, 2012).

Self-citation

This is recognised as excessive (Aksnes, 2003), with options to exclude it provided in some databases.

Audiences vary between disciplines, but are generally unknown

There has been much work on addressing this, particularly in relation to journals, through indices such as SJR1 and SNIP2.

Some sources are traditionally not cited

It is acknowledged that some types of information are traditionally uncited (for example, floras) (MacRoberts and MacRoberts, 2010).

Ignorance of the literature

It is acknowledged that the literature in many fields is so vast that an exhaustive review cannot be undertaken, so relevant papers may be missed from ignorance.

Data are biased

Bibliometricians acknowledge that databases are selective, so citation performance may vary depending on the one used (Jacsó, 2008).

Databases have technical problems

Despite the best efforts, there are errors in databases (Leydesdorff, 2007). Bibliometricians offer advice on tracking down orphan references (references with no master records in a database) and stray references (that cannot be linked to the master record in the database because of errors by the citing authors), but such errors may exert an unknown influence on citation analyses (Jacsó, 2008).

1 SCImago Journal Rank (see Colledge et al. 2010 for further explanation) 2 Source Normalised Impact per Paper (see Colledge et al. 2010 for further explanation) vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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Students from Australian universities studying abroad A demographic profile Steve Nerlich Australian National University

Australia is one of many countries to encourage its students to study abroad and hence develop a global perspective. Traditionally, students who have pursued this option represented a relatively privileged and demographically narrow group. More recently, governments and other agencies have been offering funding support with the aim of ‘democratising’ study abroad so that it is more accessible to all students. To help inform the ‘democratisation’ discussion, this paper presents an analysis of the demographic profile of students from Australian universities who currently study abroad, examining changing trends over time and identifying demographic groups that may be underrepresented in the current Australian study abroad population. Keywords: study abroad, student mobility, New Colombo Plan

Introduction: Defining and quantifying study abroad

different activity from other forms of outward student mobility, which involve study towards a full qualification that is granted by a foreign host institution.

Study abroad encompasses activities through which

Study abroad data can be readily collected by

students receive academic credit from their home

institutions that send their own enrolled students

education institution for study undertaken in another

overseas. However, counting international students who

country. It includes undergraduate and postgraduate

have enrolled to complete a full award course in other

tuition, supervised research and curriculum-related work

countries generally requires those other countries to

experience, such as internships. It also includes study

report data on the nationality of incoming students,

exchange programmes between domestic and foreign

perhaps to a global database such as the one hosted by

institutions. A common feature of study abroad is that it is

the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

not for the purpose of gaining an award (i.e. a degree or

Organisation (UNESCO) Institute of Statistics (UIS, 2014).

qualification) from a foreign host institution, but instead

A substantial quantitative difference between study

involves students undertaking discrete units of study,

abroad and award (or full-degree) mobility is readily

generally for the purpose of gaining academic credit that

apparent from data on United States of America (US)

will be recognised by the award-granting institution they

students studying outside the US.The annual report Open

are enrolled in, in their home country. This is a distinctly

Doors by the Institute of International Education (IIE)

Students from Australian universities studying abroad Steve Nerlich

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identified 273,996 US students studying abroad in 2010-

Otero, Huisman, Beerkens, de Wit & Vujic (2013), while

11 (Farrugia, Bhandari & Chow, 2012). The IIE, which

acknowledging limited data sources, indicated that Europe

administers the annual Open Doors survey, also conducted

had not yet achieved a target of 10 per cent of European

a parallel survey in foreign host countries to count the

higher education students being mobile during the course

number of US students studying full-degree courses. That

of their degree, with only 4 per cent of students drawing

survey identified 46,635 US students studying full degrees

upon Erasmus funding for the purpose of studying abroad.

in other countries in 201011 (Belyavina & Bhandari,

... while many students in the first year of their study programme expressed enthusiasm to study abroad, this was often not realised over the course of their degree. The authors attributed this to curriculum inflexibility and lack of advocacy by faculty ...

2012). The

UNESCO

Institute

of Statistics (UIS) counted 47,123 US students studying in other countries in 2011, which is roughly equivalent to the US survey count of full-degree

students

The objectives of study abroad Increasingly,

governments

and education agencies are promoting and

study

providing

abroad

incentives

to do so, particularly for

and

undergraduate students, for

clearly did not capture the

whom study abroad may

much larger cohort of over a quarter of a million US study

provide a transformative experience at an early point in

abroad students. The relevant UNESCO data definitions

their academic development (Rowan-Kenyon & Niehaus,

indicate that only students enrolled in courses of at least

2011).

two years’ duration are counted in the UNESCO data collection (UIS, 2014).

recent

international

education

strategy

Succeeding globally through international education

A robust picture of Australian university students

and engagement (US Department of Education, 2013)

studying abroad is emerging from a national survey first

defined three main areas of benefit that may arise from

undertaken in 2005, when over 7,000 students from

international study experience before graduation. These

Australian universities were identified as studying abroad

largely involve gaining skills to:

(Olsen, 2008), rising to over 24,000 students in 2012

• Work in a global context and enhance their country’s

(AUIDF, 2013). In comparison, UNESCO has reported a relatively static annual figure of around 10,000 Australian

economic competitiveness. • Deal with emerging global challenges (including

students studying in other countries over five years up to

financial, environmental and health-related challenges).

2012 (UIS, 2014). As was the case with the US example

• Engage both with international collaborators and with

above, it is likely that this UNESCO statistic represents a

an increasingly multicultural population at home.

separate cohort of Australian nationals who are studying

Various US agencies have established aspirational targets

full-degree courses in other countries and does not

for growth in the US’s study abroad numbers, including

include Australian study abroad students. However, some

the 100,000-strong initiative to China, the 100,000-strong

degree of overlap between these two cohorts cannot be

in the Americas (encompassing Latin American and

ruled out.

Caribbean destinations) and the Generation Study Abroad

In 2005, it was estimated that 4.8 per cent of completing Australian

undergraduates

had

overseas

study

initiative intended to double study abroad numbers by 2020 (IIE, 2014).

experience during the course of their degree (Olsen,

The UK’s Strategy for Outward Mobility (UK Higher

2008), an estimate which rose steadily in subsequent

Education International Unit, 2013) acknowledged the

years, reaching 13.1 per cent in 2012 (AUIDF, 2013). By

economic importance of providing domestic students

comparison, 14.2 per cent of US students studied abroad

with international study experiences and also prioritised

in 2011-12 (Farrugia & Bhandari, 2013).

the comprehensive reporting of data on UK students’ Education

outward mobility to monitor trends. Enhancing data

International Unit (2013) reported that over 15,000 UK

The

United

and data reporting is also an important strategic goal

domestic students studied abroad in 2011-12, primarily

for wider-Europe (Kelo, Teichler & Wächter, 2006; Souto-

through

Otero et al., 2013).

the

Kingdom

European

(UK)

Union’s

Higher

Erasmus

Mobility

Programme. It was estimated that this represented 6

Australian Government agencies and educational

per cent of all UK domestic students in that year. Souto-

institutions have supported outward student mobility,

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Figure 1: Australian university student instances of study abroad, 2005 to 2012 Source: Data consolidated from six surveys reported in: Olsen (2008); and AUIDF (2008, 2010, 2011, 2012 & 2013).

including study abroad, for many years through a range of

income from a part-time job in order to study abroad.

scholarship and loan programmes (Australian Government,

Perhaps for this reason, uptake of study abroad by

2013). More recently, the Australian Government has

part-time students and community college students

supported study abroad under the New Colombo Plan

has been reported as being relatively uncommon in

(Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2013).

the US (Desoff, 2006). Paus & Robinson (2008) also

Australia has also recognised a need to strengthen the reliability of its data sources on outward student mobility (IEAC, 2013).

discussed curriculum as a significant barrier, where a student may be unable to include units of study abroad in a fixed and inflexible programme. Perhaps for this reason, study abroad is traditionally reported as more

Growing study abroad numbers through democratisation

commonly pursued by students studying liberal arts degrees, rather than students studying less-flexible science, technology, engineering and mathematics

Salisbury et al. (2009) described democratising under-

(STEM) degrees, which may have a lower capacity for

graduate study abroad as a major next step in the

including elective units.

evolution of American education, indicating intent to

While

credit

recognition

for

study

abroad

expand study abroad opportunities beyond the limited

increasingly commonplace, it is not commonly graded

demographic groups that currently dominate it. Twombly,

credit, which may be perceived as a disadvantage by

Salisbury, Tumanut and Klute (2012) have described the

students seeking to maximise their grade point average,

predominant demographic profile within the US study

reported as a particularly important issue for students in

abroad population as being female students, generally from

pre-professional degrees such as medicine, architecture

higher socioeconomic backgrounds, who have travelled

and engineering (Stroud, 2010).

previously, have university-educated parents and study in

Paus & Robinson (2008) also noted that while many

the arts, humanities and social sciences. Bell and Watkins

students in the first year of their study programme

(2006) noted a similar dominant profile in ERASMUS

expressed enthusiasm to study abroad, this was often

exchange students in Europe and Daly (2011) reported

not realised over the course of their degree. The authors

much the same for Australian exchange students.

attributed this to curriculum inflexibility and lack of

Doyle et al. (2010) suggested that the demographic

advocacy by faculty, particularly in STEM-related fields.

profile of students who study abroad is constrained by

The following analysis of Australian study abroad data

perceived and actual barriers such as cost, which may

outlines what is currently known about the demographic

be both financial or opportunity cost, an example of

profile of the Australian study abroad population. The

the latter being where students must waive potential

analysis focuses on whether particular groups are under-

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Figure 2: Percentage of Australian university study abroad students by Destination, Level & Field of Education in 2012 Source: AUIDF (2013) Legend: Destination: the Other category includes instances for which destination was not reported. Level: PG â&#x20AC;&#x201C; C is Postgraduate by coursework; PG â&#x20AC;&#x201C; R is postgraduate by research; UG is undergraduate. Field (of education): ASSH is arts, social sciences and the humanities; STEM is science, technology, engineering and mathematics, which includes information technology and agriculture, environment and related studies; Mgt is management and commerce.

represented and to what extent further massification

in 2012, 68 per cent of short-term student mobility was to

through democratisation could be achieved.

China, compared with only 19 per cent to the US.

Data on Australian study abroad students

students from Australian universities according to the

Figure 2 summarises AUIDF data of study abroad destination region, the level of student course, and the The annual survey of Australian universities undertaken by

field of education of the course being undertaken by

the Australian Universities International Directors Forum

study abroad students. The graph represents 24,763

(AUIDF) since 2009, with two earlier surveys reported for

students engaged in study abroad in 2012.

2005 and 2007 provides the best picture of study abroad

With respect to destination, about one-third of study

activity from Australia at a national level. The data do not

abroad in 2012 was to Asia, a proportion that has steadily

identify students or their home institutions, but do provide

grown since 2005, when it was 26 per cent. Of this cohort,

a range of demographic details about the student cohort.

2,145 students studied in China and 835 in Japan. The

As shown in Figure 1, the number of Australian university

major English-speaking destinations, the US (3,672), the

students studying abroad is clearly growing strongly. In

UK (2,115), Canada (1,277) and New Zealand (723), when

2012, there were 24,763 instances of Australian university

combined, represented just one-third of all study abroad

students studying abroad, with over 17,000 involving

instances in 2012. Apart from the UK, the main European

undergraduates.

countries attracting study abroad students from Australian

Instances of short-term study abroad are becoming increasingly popular with students from Australian

universities were Italy (996), France (974) and Germany (933) (AUIDF, 2013).

universities.This is also a common trend in other countries

Figure 2 also indicates that undergraduate students

with study abroad programmes (Chieffo & Griffiths, 2004).

represented nearly three-quarters of all study abroad

In the 2005 survey, 46 per cent of all instances of student

in 2012, which is reflective of their proportional

mobility were short-term programmes (less than one

representation

semester), which rose steadily to 66 per cent in the 2012

However, postgraduate research students were over-

survey. These instances of short-term student mobility

represented, making up 11 per cent of the study abroad

more commonly involve destinations in Asia. For example,

population, although only 3 per cent of the overall student

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the

overall

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population.

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to level of study. More than 40 per cent of undergraduate research student instances did. It is likely that many of

Study abroad or student exchange

were in a formal study exchange programme. However,

Do not know about

the available data could not be desegregated sufficiently to confirm this (AUIDF, 2013). education is commonly reported to be skewed towards an over-representation of arts, social sciences and humanities students and an under-representation of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) students (Paus & Robinson, 2008). In 2012, the largest

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Student year 1st year

the undergraduates studying for more than one semester

Study abroad propensity across different fields of

Table 1: Survey responses from first and later year Australian domestic university students (2012)

population.The duration of study abroad varied according instances exceeding one semester, but few postgraduate

S I

Total Later years

Have not decided

28%

16%

22%

Do not plan to do

33%

56%

46%

Plan to do

29%

12%

20%

Done

Total

100%

Source: ACER: unpublished data collected in the 2012 AUSSE from 17,585 domestic students.

proportion of Australian study abroad experiences were in the arts etc. fields (29 per cent), while 18 per cent were

students’ awareness of, and participation in, study abroad

in STEM fields. However, a proper estimate of propensity

and student exchange programmes.The survey provides a

also needs to consider the base population.

useful source of demographic data on students who do or

When compared with the base university student

do not study abroad.

population in 2012, arts etc. fields (21 per cent of base)

In 2012, a survey of over 17,000 Australian domestic

did appear somewhat over-represented in the study

university undergraduate students found that 31 per cent of

abroad population (29 per cent), although STEM fields

first year students planned to (29 per cent), or had already

(19 per cent of base) seemed relatively-well represented

(2 per cent) studied abroad. However, only 20 per cent of

in the study abroad population (18 per cent). The most

later year students were still planning to (12 per cent), or

under-represented area was management and commerce,

had already (8 per cent) studied abroad. The unweighted

representing only 14 per cent of the study abroad

size of the first and later year cohorts surveyed in 2012

population, but 22 per cent of the base population. This

were similar (both exceeding 8,000 students).

is a surprising finding given a key objective of study

To frame this finding in a different way, while only 33

abroad is to enhance Australian students’ ability to engage

per cent of first year students reported that they would

in international business. This finding suggests there is a

not be studying overseas during their degree, 56 per

need to better promote the benefits of study abroad to

cent of later year students reported the same. This same

students and faculty in management and commerce.

disparity in early intention versus later realisation of that

As noted, study abroad participants are often reported

intent can be seen in the annual AUSSE survey findings

as more likely to be female.The AUIDF (2013) reported 59

back to 2008, when nearly 29 per cent first year students

per cent of the mobility in 2012 was by women. However,

planned to (27 per cent), or had already (two per cent)

this should be considered in the context that the Australian

studied abroad, while only 18 per cent of later year

base population of domestic higher education students

students still planned to (12 per cent), or had already (six

comprised 58 per cent women in 2012. Thus, at least in

per cent) studied abroad. These data suggest that many

recent years, the higher proportion of women in the study

Australian students failed to realise an initial intention to

abroad population does not suggest that Australian female

study abroad.

university students have a substantially higher propensity to study abroad than their male counterparts.

The propensity of Australian domestic students studying under different life circumstances was also investigated, by considering the variables of attendance

Data on student propensity for studying abroad

status, employment while studying and socioeconomic

The Australian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE)

students in 2012 had a lower propensity to have studied

was conducted across Australian universities from

abroad than full-time students and were less likely to be

2007 to 2012 (ACER (Australian Council of Educational

planning to study abroad.A noticeably higher proportion

Research), 2014) and included a question to assess

of part-time students also did not know about the

status. As shown in Table 2, it was clear that part-time

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Table 2: Survey responses for part-time and full-time students (2012)

Table 3: Survey responses for students from different socioeconomic backgrounds

Study abroad or student exchange

Attendance type Part time

Total

Full time

Socioeconomic status

Total

Low

Middle

High

Do not know about

22%

Have not decided

22%

21%

22%

42%

46%

Do not plan to do

49%

46%

43%

46%

Plan to do

17%

19%

22%

20%

Done

Total

100%

Do not know about

11%

Have not decided

15%

24%

Do not plan to do

59%

Plan to do

11%

22%

20%

Done

Total

100%

Source: ACER: unpublished data collected in the 2012 AUSSE from 17,585 domestic students.

Source: ACER: unpublished data collected in the 2012 AUSSE from 17,423 domestic students. Socioeconomic status was estimated from residential postcode.

opportunities available to them. It was also possible to independently sort study abroad responses by whether

2012, reporting not knowing of these opportunities.

or not students were in paid employment. No clear

This suggests a small, but somewhat intractable lack of

correlation between paid employment and study abroad

awareness of the opportunities available.

propensity was found. However, a clear correlation was found between

Conclusions

Australian students’ socioeconomic status (SES) and their propensity to study abroad. As shown in Table 3,

Australian study abroad has become a well-established

the AUSSE survey confirmed a common finding in other

feature of Australian higher education and looks set to

countries, such as the USA (Salisbury et al., 2009) and the

continue growing in parallel with increasing support

UK (Brooks and Waters, 2011) that socioeconomic status

and promotion by both education institutions and

positively influences student propensity to study abroad.

governments.Although the volume of activity may appear

From a cohort of Australian domestic students surveyed

modest, the proportion of Australian students studying

in the 2012 AUSSE, 20 per cent of the low SES cohort was

abroad has been found to be on par with nations such

planning to or had already studied abroad, compared with

as the US.

24 per cent of the middle SES and 29 per cent of the high

The AUIDF survey represents the most comprehensive

SES cohorts. Nonetheless, much like part-time study, low

and timely national information source on Australian

SES status was a negative influence, but not an absolute

university

barrier. There was only a weak correlation between

based data collection does not allow disaggregation

SES status and attendance type (full or part-time) and

of some potentially distinctive features of Australian

the calculated effect size was minor (ACER, 2014, pers.

undergraduate and postgraduate student mobility. It

comm.).This suggests that attendance type and SES status

is also difficult to differentiate trends with respect to

are largely independent influences on Australian domestic

different destination countries and regions. Nonetheless,

students’ propensity to study abroad.

the survey’s adherence to consistent measures across

students

studying

abroad. The

survey-

An important finding from this survey data is that more

sequential years is commendable and allows monitoring

than 7 per cent of domestic students surveyed in 2012

of some key trends over time. This data source may grow

reported they did not know about opportunities for

in detail and sophistication as outward student mobility

study abroad or student exchange, with slightly higher

attracts greater public interest in Australia.

proportions of around 9 per cent and 11 per cent for

The US has recognised that further increasing its

the low SES and part-time student cohorts respectively.

already substantial numbers of students studying abroad

The proportion of students reporting that they did not

requires further diversification of its current study abroad

know about opportunities for study abroad or student

population, a process referred to as democratisation

exchange has changed only marginally in previous years

(Salisbury et al., 2009). If Australia has similar aspirations,

of the AUSSE survey, with between 7 and 8 per cent of

there is a need for national-level data that will enable the

domestic students surveyed, in each year from 2007 to

monitoring of trends over time and provide a detailed

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demographic profile of those who study abroad and those who do not.

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Analysis of the AUSSE survey data also indicated a correlation between students’ socioeconomic status and

The results of the analysis outlined in this paper are

their propensity to study abroad, as has been reported

counter to some traditional assumptions about study

elsewhere (Doyle et al., 2010). However, neither low

abroad, particularly that female students are over-

socioeconomic status nor part-time attendance were found

represented in the study abroad population. In Australia,

to be absolute barriers. Again, the increasing availability

this seems only to be true to the extent that the

of short-term study abroad experiences may be making

predominance of women in the study abroad population

study abroad a more feasible option for students with

reflects their predominance in the general student

limited financial resources or limited time. It may be the

population.

growing availability of short-term study abroad options

The over-representation of women may have been true

that becomes the most important factor in enabling the

in the past in Australia and is still apparent in current US

democratisation of study abroad opportunities (Desoff,

study abroad data (Farrugia et al., 2012), perhaps arising

2006;Twombly et al., 2012).

from an over-representation of arts, humanities and social

For Australia, studying abroad for credit rather than for

sciences students in the study abroad population, who

a full award qualification has become the dominant form

are more often female, and the under-representation of

of outward student mobility in recent years. The global

students in the STEM disciplines, who are more often

significance of such non-award study is not apparent in

male. It is possible that the recent growth in short-term

traditional data sources on international student mobility,

study abroad opportunities has enabled more students to

such as UNESCO, which only collects and reports data on

bypass traditional problems with programme inflexibility

international students studying in courses of more than

in STEM courses, because students are now more able to

two years’ duration.

study abroad during semester or summer breaks.

An alternative source of data on global student mobility,

Another important source of historical data on

IIE’s Project Atlas, identified China as the third-most

Australian student mobility is the AUSSE, a national

popular destination for international students globally in

survey of Australian university students, which provides

2012 by virtue of counting all students, not just students

a valuable source of data on the demographic context of

in award courses (IEE, 2013). In 2012, UNESCO identified

students who chose to study abroad, as well as those who

China as only the eighth most popular destination for

do not. Comparison of the early intentions of first year

international students, by virtue of its narrower definition

students and the actual participation of later year students

of an international student. In 2013, only 41 per cent of

suggests that study abroad is an immediately attractive

the more than 350,000 international students studying in

proposition for Australian students, but as some students

China were award students (China Association of Hong

work through their degrees, they are unable to fulfil that

Kong, 2014) and it is likely that they are the only students

initial intent, perhaps due to barriers such as financial

being counted by UNESCO.

cost, opportunity cost or programme inflexibility.

To appreciate fully the extent of international student

These findings suggest that there remains a need to

mobility in the twenty-first century, it is important to

convince all Australian university students that there is

count as many different forms of mobility as is feasible.

a tangible return on investment in the cost of studying

This paper has sought to highlight the importance

abroad. Paus & Robinson (2008) have argued that

of collecting data on non-award and short-term study

academic staff are key to both establishing study abroad

experiences, which are both areas of high volume and

programmes and also encouraging students to participate

rapid growth. Currently, Australia collects and publishes

in them. Recognition of credit gained through study

data on all incoming students on student visas, regardless

abroad is likely to be a key issue, as is the awarding

of whether they are studying award courses or not and

institution’s acknowledgement that study abroad delivers

regardless of their course duration. Countries such as

valuable and relevant learning outcomes for graduates.

the US and China are doing much the same. Such public

AUIDF (2013) reported that 93 per cent of study abroad

reporting of student mobility data benefits all nations

experiences in 2012 gained credit. Pitman and Broomhall

that are engaged in international education. It highlights

(2009) reported that 71 per cent of Australian universities,

the value of international education and enhances

which reported providing graduate attributes statements

participation in it.

in 2009, listed intercultural awareness and international perspective as key competencies.

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Acknowledgements

Doyle, S., Gendall, P., Meyer, L. H., Hoek, J., Tait, C., McKenzie, L., & Loorparg, A. (2010). An investigation of factors associated with student participation in study abroad. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14(5), 471-490.

The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of

Farrugia, C.A., Bhandari, R & Chow, P. (2012). Open Doors 2012, Report on International Education Exchange. New York: Institute of International Education.

Alan Olsen and members of the Australian Universities International Directors’ Forum, as well as Alexandra Research, in the preparation of this paper.

Farrugia, C.A. & Bhandari, R. (2013). Open Doors 2013, Report on International Education Exchange. New York: Institute of International Education.

Steve Nerlich (steve.nerlich@anu.edu.au) is a PhD candidate

IEAC (2013). Australia – Educating Globally: Advice from the International Education Advisory Council. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.

Radloff and the Australian Council for Educational

at the Australian National University and also Director of the International Research and Analysis Unit in the Australian Government Department of Education, Canberra, Australia.

IIE (2014). Institute of International Education: Generation Study Abroad. Retrieved from: http://www.iie.org/Programs/Generation-Study-Abroad.

References ACER (Australian Council of Educational Research). (2014). Australasian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE). Retrieved from: http://www.acer.edu.au/ausse.

Kelo, M., Teichler, U. & Wächter, B. (2006). Toward improved data on student mobility in Europe: Findings and concepts of the Eurodata Study. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 194-223. Olsen, A. (2008). International mobility of Australian university students: 2005. Journal of Studies in International Education, 12(4), 364-374.

AUIDF (2008). Outgoing International Mobility of Australian University Students 2007. Retrieved from: http://www.spre.com.au/download/ AUIDFMobility2007AIECPaper.pdf. AUIDF (2010). Australian Universities International Directors Forum: Research agenda 2010. Retrieved from: http://aiec.idp.com/uploads/pdf/2010_Olsen_ Wed_1430_B104_Paper.pdf. AUIDF (2011). Australian Universities International Directors Forum: Research agenda 2011. Retrieved from: http://cunningham.acer.edu.au/inted/ AIEC2011AUIDFResearchPaper.pdf. AUIDF (2012). Australian Universities International Directors Forum: Research agenda 2012. Retrieved from: http://aiec.idp.com/uploads/pdf/2012_olsen_ fri_1235_217.pdf. AUIDF (2013). Australian Universities International Directors Forum: Research agenda 2013. Retrieved from: www.spre.com.au/download/ AIEC2013AUIDFResearchPaper.pdf. Australian Government. (2013). Study overseas: Money matters. Retrieved from: http://www.studyoverseas.gov.au/money_matters/Pages/default.aspx. Belyavina, R., & Bhandari, R. (2012). US students in overseas degree programs: key destinations and fields of study. Bell, J. E., & Watkins, R. A. (2006). Strategies in dealing with the Bologna Process. International Educator, Washington, 15(5). Brooks, R., & Waters, J. (2011). Fees, funding and overseas study: mobile UK students and educational inequalities. Sociological Research Online, 16(2), 1. Chieffo, L., & Griffiths, L. (2004). Large-Scale Assessment of Student Attitudes after a Short-Term Study Abroad Program. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 10, 165-177.

Paus, E., & Robinson, M. (2008). Increasing study abroad participation: The faculty makes the difference. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 17, 33--49. Pitman, T., & Broomhall, S. (2009). Australian universities, generic skills and lifelong learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 28(4), 439-458. Rowan-Kenyon, H. T. & Niehaus, E. K. (2011). One year later: The influence of short-term study abroad experiences on students. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 48(2), 207-222. Salisbury, M. H., Umbach, P. D., Paulsen, M. B., & Pascarella, E. T. (2009). Going global: Understanding the choice process of the intent to study abroad. Research in Higher Education, 50(2), 119-143. Souto-Otero, M.,l; Huisman, J., Beerkens, M., de Wit, H., & Vujic, S. (2013). Barriers to International Student Mobility Evidence From the Erasmus Program. Educational Researcher 42.2, 70-77. Stroud, A. H. (2010). Who plans (not) to study abroad? An examination of U.S. student intent. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14(5), 491–507. Twombly, S. B., Salisbury, M. H., Tumanut, S. D., & Klute, P. (Eds.) (2012). Study Abroad in a New Global Century: Renewing the Promise, Refining the Purpose, ASHE Higher Education Report, 38(4). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. UIS. (2014). International Standard Classification of Education (pages 48-49). Retrieved from: http://www.uis.unesco.org/Library/Documents/2011international-standard-classification-education-isced-2012-en.pdf. UK Higher Education International Unit. (2013). .UK Strategy for Outward Mobility. Retrieved from: http://www.international.ac.uk/media/2468186/uk-heinternational-unit-uk-strategy-for-outward-mobility.pdf.

China Association of Hong Kong. (2014). Tabulated data retrieved from: http:// www.cafsa.org.cn/index.php?mid=6. Daly, A. (2011). Determinants of participating in Australian university student exchange programs. Journal of Research in International Education, 10(1), 58-70. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2013). New Colombo Plan. Retrieved from: http://www.dfat.gov.au/new-colombo-plan.

IIE (2013). Institute of International Education: Project Atlas Trends and Global Data Fact Sheet. Retrieved from: http://www.iie.org/~/media/Files/Services/ ProjectAtlas/Project-Atlas-Trends-and-Global-Data-2013.ashx.

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Dessoff, A. (2006). Who’s not going abroad? International Educator, 15(2), 20-27.

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Time for a Western Australian ‘Group of Three’? A speculative essay Michael Turner & Alistair Brown Curtin University

This study analyses the theoretical cost-savings that might flow from a merger of three of Western Australia’s five universities. The results of the study show that an amalgamation would not only reduce costs of operation, but also improve non-current asset use and accountability. Combination reporting also allows the key stakeholders to appraise these universities’ main financial activities, which appear to be maintaining a relatively high level of non-salary expenditure as a percentage of revenue and preserving a very high percentage of land and buildings as mainstay assets. Keywords: mergers, efficiency and effectiveness, Western Australian universities

Introduction

Most of Australia’s first universities were founded in the 19th century in other states (although the University of

This paper explores the potential cost savings from

Queensland was founded in 1909), with the University of

a creation of a Western Australian Group of Three

Western Australia (UWA) founded in 1911 but opened in

university (WAGo3), via an amalgamation of three of the

1913. The other four WA universities are relatively young.

five universities in Western Australia. Western Australia is

Harkin and Healy (2013) note that Curtin University, a

Australia’s largest state by land area (over 2,500,000 km2)

former technical college, was established in 1986, Murdoch

occupying the western one-third of Australia. Sparsely

University was established in 1973 but opened in 1975, and

populated in the rural regions, Western Australia has a

Edith Cowan University (ECU), formerly a teachers’ college,

population of 2.53 million, with most living in the Perth

then a college of advanced education, was established in

metropolitan area (1.55 million). Using one million

1991. Notre Dame University was established in 1989, but

people as the criterion for a ‘city’, Perth is one of the most

it is a private university and outside the scope of this study

isolated cities in the world. The nearest Australian city to

which focuses on the potential merger of three public

Perth by air is Adelaide which is 2,100 km away. Moreover,

Western Australian universities. The University of Western

major cities more than 3,000 km away from Perth include

Australia is the only one in the state of Western Australia to

Jakarta, Indonesia (3,000 km), Melbourne (3,420 km) and

sit in the Top 100 Academic Ranking of World Universities

Sydney (3,290 km).

ranking (AWRU, 2014).

Time for a Western Australian ‘Group of Three’? Michael Turner & Alistair Brown

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We look at a merged WAGo3 comprising Curtin

form of merger (Murdoch University, 2014; Stanley &

University, Edith Cowan University and Murdoch

Reynolds, 1994). In 1988, at the time of the so-called

University.We did not include UWA in the merger because,

‘Dawkins

consistent with the recent findings of Turner and Brown

University of Western Australia opened up negotiations

(2013), there appears merit in merging UWA with other

for a proposed merger (Murdoch University, 2014). In

relatively older and more established universities. Each of

1989, Murdoch University requested the State Minister

the three suggested merging universities is successful in

for Education to prepare legislation to help amalgamate

its own right. Curtin University is renowned for its close

Murdoch University and the University of Western Australia

ties to the mining giants Alcoa, Chevron, Origin Energy

to take effect from 1990 (Murdoch, 2014). However,

and Woodside Petroleum (Curtin University, 2013a);

in the following year the proposed legislation for the

ECU has a fine nursing and midwifery research ranking

amalgamation was blocked by one vote on Christmas Eve

(ECU, 2013a); and Murdoch University has the only

in the Western Australian Legislative Council (Murdoch

internationally recognised veterinary course in Western

University 2013a), by the Nationals who were anxious

Australia (Murdoch University, 2011). Nevertheless,

to see an ‘independent’ Veterinary School maintained in

according to Ernst & Young (2012), there is potential

Western Australia. This was a time when the ‘Dawkins

for Australian universities to lower their operating costs

Reforms’ replaced the binary system of universities and

in order to become more competitive in the academic

colleges of advanced education with a unified national

market.

system, where former colleges of advanced education and

Reforms’, Murdoch

University

and

the

The aim of this paper is to analyse the theoretical

institutions of technology merged or were relabelled as

potential cost-savings in forming a WAGo3. This

universities (Meek, 1991). In 1986, Murdoch University

follows from the work of Turner & Brown (2013) that

and Edith Cowan University opened up talks for a possible

considered the case for a merged Australian ‘Group

merger, but again (a year later) the planned amalgamation

of Seven’ (Go7), which had the potential to boost the

was dropped (Murdoch University, 2013a). In 2005, merger

bottom line by cutting costs. Such a move could be

talks between Murdoch University and Curtin University

of interest to the current Federal Government, with

once again failed to develop an eventual amalgamation

its Commission of Audit examining ways to decrease

(Murdoch University 2013a). Moreover, in the same year

expenditure (Lane, 2013), and the Western Australian

there was speculation that a ‘super’ university consisting

State Government operating from an ‘Education City’ of

of the amalgamation of Curtin University, Edith Cowan

over 1.5 million people (AEN, 2013), looking to reduce

University and Murdoch University might take place

government expenditure after losing its AAA credit

(Weber, 2005).

rating (Burrell, 2013).

At the time, it was argued by the Vice-Chancellor of

In accordance with the assumptions and limitations of Turner and Brown’s (2013) study of the proposed ‘Go7’ merger of seven of Australia’s major research universities, this paper deals with a speculative possibility, limiting its comments about each of the WAGo3’s cultures, histories, and individual policy initiatives. The study makes no recommendation as to the legal and political means of achieving a joint WAGo3, and focuses on a monetary rather than a non-monetary valuation. It also does not look at the ramifications of a WAGo3 merger on other universities, although the results of this study could well be of interest to other universities, politicians, legislators, academic strategists and taxpayers looking for cost efficiencies on a

Edith Cowan University that such a merger would reduce costs to students and would give Perth the draw card of Australia’s biggest university. It would serve a massive number of students, at least 60,000, with some estimates at 75,000, and it would attract crucial research funding (Weber, 2005). Nevertheless, the Vice-Chancellor of Curtin University said that A three-way merger adds an awful lot of students to the complex. I mean, currently Curtin is 36-37,000 students. If you add Murdoch into that equation as well, we become the third largest university in the country anyway in regard to student numbers. I think that’s going to be hard work (Weber, 2005).

state or national scale. Turner and Brown (2013) considered the advantages for

Literature review

a merged Group of Seven. They found that combination reporting identifies potential cost-savings in a merger,

All four Western Australian public universities have

particularly in terms of salary and non-salary reductions,

expressed interest in the past about considering some

as well as reductions in land and property holdings.

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Table 1. Comprehensive Income of universities of Western Australia (Year Ended 2012) Curtin University $’000

(%)

Revenue

792,438

Salaries Academic Staff Salaries – Other Staff Non-salary expenditure

Edith Cowan University

Murdoch University

Total (WAGo3) $’000

UWA

$’000

(%)

$’000

(%)

$’000

(%)

(100.0)

378,674

100.0

328,921

100.0

1,500,033

100.0

923,771

100.0

239,249

30.2

101,867

26.9

84,955

25.8

426,071

28.4

276,355

29.9

195,636

24.7

112,676

29.8

85,272

26.0

393,584

26.2

237,904

25.8

36.5

125,699

38.2

541,403

36.1

307,468

33.3

93.2 295,926

90.0

1,361,058

90.7

821,727

89.0

102,044

11.0

102,044

11.0

277,177

35.0

138,527

712,062

89.9

353,070

80,376

10.1

25,604

6.8

32,995

10.0

138,975

9.3

Revaluation PPE*

23,308

3.0

(962)

(0.3)

66,319

20.2

88,665

5.9

Comprehensive Income

103,684

13.1

24,642

6.5

99,314

30.2

227,640

15.2

Total expenses Operating income Comprehensive income (other):

Source: Curtin University, 2013b; ECU, 2013b; Murdoch University, 2013b; UWA, 2013. *PPE stands for property, plant and equipment.

Methods

This study assumes that there were no significant inter- WAGo3 university transactions and that no WAGo3

Online annual reports of Curtin University, Edith Cowan

university-held assets or liabilities belonging to the other

University, Murdoch University and the University of

two WAGo3 universities.

Western Australia for the year ending 2012 were gathered to conduct a textual analysis of their annual reporting

Results

procedures. Consistent with the methodology of Turner and Brown (2013), textual analysis was facilitated by business

Table 1 shows expenditure, operating income and

combination reporting analysis, informed by auditing,

comprehensive income as a percentage of revenue for

accounting and investigative skills on the final accounts

the WAGo3 universities and UWA. Ranging from $328.9

and statements of four Western Australian universities in

million (Murdoch University) to $792.4 million (Curtin

terms of their performance.This allowed the analysis

University), the revenue from each of the WAGo3

…to express an opinion on the credibility of the accounts… based on evidence from the phenomena of final accounts to form opinions on the accounting and value of the accounts (Turner & Brown, 2013; p. 46).

Universities is lower than UWA’s revenue of $923.7 million. However, together, the WAGo3 generated some $1,500m, a considerable amount of revenue for a potential merger, exceeding UWA revenue by $576.3m. Each of the WAGo3 Universities has considerable total

The financial statements within the annual reports of

expenditure, ranging from $295.9 million (Murdoch

all four universities are examined annually by the Auditor

University) to $712 million (Curtin University), although

General of Western Australia, and in recent years have

they were each lower than UWA’s total expenditure of

secured unqualified audits.

$821m. Together, WAGo3 Universities total expenditure is

All four West[ern] Australian universities have been given a tick of approval for their financial viability despite static student demand in the resource-rich state. The Western Australian Auditor-General’s report tabled in state parliament yesterday noted that all four public universities were “generally low risk” in terms of financial performance with good liquidity, diverse revenue streams, and moderate reliance on international student fees (Hare, 2013).

$1,361 million and we argue that a considerable cut in total expenditure could be made with a potential merger, particularly through non-current asset sales. In

considering

the

individual

components

expenditure, UWA’s total academic salary bill ($276 million) is above each of the academic salary bills of the WAGo3 universities, but as a percentage of total revenue it is slightly lower (29.9 per cent) than Curtin University

Time for a Western Australian ‘Group of Three’? Michael Turner & Alistair Brown

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Table 2. Statement of Financial Position for the four public Western Australia Universities as at 31 December 2012 Curtin University Current assets:

Edith Cowan University

Murdoch University

Total (WAGo3)

UWA

$’000

Cash

79,619

51,429

121,019

252,067

121,397

Other financial assets

99,226

98,719

13,919

211,864

3,919

2,887

6,806

32,259

33,180

7,108

72,547

63,337

215,023

186,215

142,046

543,284

184,734

324,904

69,611

48,038

442,553

487,502

Deferred Government Grant Other Current Assets Total Current Assets Non-Current Assets: Financial Assets Deferred Government Grant

69,667

26,816

96,483

Land

84,333

134,126

219,005

437,464

267,569

577,658

648,130

568,245

1,794,033

740,315

PPE

28,677

12,340

29,030

70,047

67,399

Other Non-Current Assets

32,095

24,591

16,224

72,910

115,382

Total Non-Current Assets

1,117,334

915,614

880,542

2,913,490

1,678,167

Total Assets

1,332,357

1,101,829

1,022,588

3,456,774

1,862,901

154,758

77,967

231,888

464,613

162,350

Building including Work In Progress

Current Liabilities Deferred benefit obligations

73,586

29,703

103,289

Non-Current Liabilities

85,672

130,126

13,056

228,854

131,474

314,016

237,796

244,944

796,756

293,824

1,018,341

864,033

777,644

2,660,018

1,569,077

57,851

380,519

380,911

819,281

161,976

Total Liabilities Net Assets Equity: Capital and Reserves Retained Earnings Total Equity

960,490

483,514

396,733

1,840,737

1,407,101

1,018,341

864,033

777,644

2,660,018

1,569,077

Source: Curtin University, 2013b; ECU, 2013b; Murdoch University, 2013b; UWA, 2013.

(30.2 per cent).While UWA’s ‘other staff’ salary bill is lower

UWA’s non-salary expenditure as a percentage of

than its total academic salary expenditure, the total ‘other

revenue earned (33.3 per cent) is less than revenue earned

staff’ salary bill of Edith Cowan and Murdoch University

by the other WAGo3 universities. Well over one third of

exceed their respective total academic salary outlays.

revenue is spent on non-salary expenditure by WAGo3

However, it should be acknowledged that in the case of

universities. While it is useful to recognise that some

Murdoch University, ‘other staff’ salaries is only slightly

portion of the non-salary expenditure may be devoted

higher than academic salaries. Edith Cowan’s figure of

to assisting the remit of the university’s teaching and

29.8 per cent for ‘other staff’ salaries is significantly higher

research, it is also pertinent to acknowledge that for all

than the other three universities.

universities of Western Australian non-salary expenditure

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Land & Buildings to Total Assets (%)

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Table 4. Buildings and land with buildings to total assets (excluding deferred government grants from total assets) Buildings to Total Assets (%)

Land & Buildings to Total Assets (%)

Curtin University

43.4

49.7

Edith Cowan University

58.8

71.0

Curtin University

45.9

52.6

Murdoch University

55.6

77.0

Edith Cowan University

60.5

71.0

55.6

77.0

UWA

39.7

54.1

Murdoch University

Overall

47.6

60.9

UWA

39.7

54.1

Overall

48.6

62.1

Source: Curtin University, 2013b; ECU, 2013b; Murdoch University, 2013b; UWA, 2013.

is higher than academic staff salaries expenditure, with

has shown a provision of $8.4 million in the notes to

the latter expenditure directly assisting in the remit of

the accounts, but does not show a separate amount

teaching and research.

in receivables. Murdoch University has not included

Edith Cowan University had the lowest operating income ($25m) and comprehensive income ($24m). This

a liability or an asset for these benefits. It is debatable whether UWA has shown a sufficient asset and liability.

is due to their combined ‘other staff salaries’ and ‘non-salary

An analysis of land and buildings of the four universities

expenditure’ as a percentage of revenue (66.3 per cent)

shows that the percentage of land and buildings as a

being higher than the other Western Australian universities.

proportion of total assets is also significantly higher

Clearly, there are possible cost-savings in these areas.

for Murdoch University (77 per cent) and Edith Cowan

Murdoch University’s comprehensive income was three

University (71 per cent). A merger could significantly

times its operating income because of a large $66m gain

reduce the number of buildings needed to service the

due to an upward revaluation of land and buildings.

WAGo3.

Table 2 depicts aggregated and comparative figures

As shown in Table 4, the ‘buildings to total assets’ ratio

for the Statement of Financial Position which provides

(excluding deferred government grants from total assets)

a broad picture of the universities’ assets, liabilities and

for Edith Cowan University (60.5 per cent) and Murdoch

equity. Total current assets of Curtin University and Edith

University (55.6 per cent) are well above the ‘buildings

Cowan University are each larger than UWA, and when

to total assets’ ratio of the University of Western Australia

aggregated with Murdoch University, the WAGo3 total

(39.7 per cent) and Curtin University (43.4 per cent).

current assets are just under three times that of UWA.

Consistent with the ‘land and buildings to total assets’

UWA, however, has considerably more non-current

results from Table 3, the results of the ‘land and buildings

assets than any other university in the state of Western

to total assets ratio’ (excluding deferred government

Australia. A potential WAGo3 merger could see WAGo3

grants from total assets) for Murdoch University (77 per

holding

assets

cent) and Edith Cowan University (71 per cent) are much

than UWA. Most of the non-current assets held by

higher than the ratios secured by UWA (54.1 per cent) or

the four universities are in buildings. It is noticeable

Curtin University (52.6 per cent).

$1,050,589,000

non-current

that Edith Cowan University and Murdoch University have relatively few non-current financial assets. Even

Conclusion

a merged WAGo3 would have fewer financial assets in total than UWA.

If combination reporting analysis can be viewed as an

It is interesting to note that Curtin University and Edith

instrument of financial comparison and contrast, it can

Cowan University include an asset deferred government

also be regarded as a tool of expenditure and resource

grant in their receivables and a liability of deferred

allocation that exposes complex state organisations to a

benefit obligations in their provisions. These were for

rigorous financial probe. Part of its intricate dissemination

unfunded superannuation benefits, with reimbursement

of reality is that it represents the use of accounting and

guaranteed by the Federal Government and amounted

accountability techniques associated with university

to $73.6 million and $29.7 million respectively. UWA

financial calculations.

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Alistair Brown is currently working at the School of

and Murdoch University are much smaller than the

Accounting, Curtin University, and is a member of a number

other two public Western Australian universities and,

of professional accounting bodies. His higher education

and while revenue size should not define a university, it

interests include emerging areas within the Melanesian

is clear from the combination reporting analysis that a

accounting curriculum, and opportunity costs associated with

combined WAGo3 presents a set of joint revenue figures

the provision of student services.

that exceeds University of Western Australia’s standalone revenue by over 50 per cent. This paper makes no comment on how this pooled revenue should be spent, but it does give a joint WAGo3 a glimpse of the potential pull such income might have for either the research or teaching programmes. Moreover, the material presence of a revenue pool far in excess of UWA may attract highlyskilled academic and other staff as well as students to the super university. Combination reporting analysis makes visible the roles played by universities in the deployment of allocations

References AEN (2013). Universities in Perth List. Retrieved from http://www. australianuniversities.com.au/directory/perth-universities/. AWRU (2014). Academic Ranking of World Universities 2014 – Australia. Retrieved from http://www.shanghairanking.com/World-UniversityRankings-2014/Australia.html. Burrell, A. (2013). Western Australia loses triple-A credit rating, The Australian, September 18. Retrieved from http://www.theaustralian.com.au/nationalaffairs/state-politics/western-australia-loses-triple-a-credit-rating/storye6frgczx-1226722072799.

to human resources. For Murdoch University and Edith

Curtin University (2013a). Research partners. Retrieved from http://science. curtin.edu.au/research/partners.cfm.

Cowan University, the total ‘other staff’ salaries exceed

Curtin University (2013b). Annual Report 2012, Bentley, Western Australia.

that for academics. While it is true that many of these ‘other staff’ may contribute to the research and teaching

ECU (2013a). ERA ranking of 5. Retrieved from http://www.ecu.edu.au/schools/ nursing-and-midwifery/news-and-events/snm/2013/01/era-ranking-of-5.

activities, the analysis does show that academics of

ECU (2013b). Annual Report 2012, Joondalup, Western Australia.

Murdoch University and Edith Cowan University receive

Ernst & Young (2012). University of the future: A thousand year old industry on the cusp of profound change. Australia: Ernst & Young.

only a little over 25 per cent of revenue streams. In addition, the results of the study show that three WAGo3 universities spend at least 35 per cent of their respective revenues on non-salary expenditure. Combination reporting analysis reveals that commitment to spending on administration is at the forefront of the smaller Western Australian universities. The combination reporting analysis of this study exemplifies how buildings (and land held for buildings) by Edith Cowan University and Murdoch University are of importance. Here combination reporting analysis demonstrates how small Western Australian universities may be seen as property holders with at least 70 per cent of assets held as buildings.A merged WAGo3 might reconsider whether this proportion of property holding is sustainable

Hare, J. (2013). WA unis get thumbs up from Auditor-General, The Australian. Retrieved from http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/wa-unisget-thumbs-up-from-auditor-general/story-e6frgcjx-1226643287422#sthash. ycqQXRdt.dpuf. Lane, B. (2013). Accountants’ heaven: the G07, The Australian, Oct 29. Retrieved from http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/accountantsheaven-the-g07/story-e6frgcjx. Meek, V. L. (1991). The transformation of Australian higher education from binary to unitary system. Higher Education, 21(4), 461-494. Murdoch University (2013a). Research excellence recognised. Retrieved from http://media.murdoch.edu.au/research-excellence-recognised. Murdoch University (2013b) 2012 Annual Report, Murdoch, Western Australia. Murdoch University (2014). Murdoch University Timeline: A Chronology of the University’s Growth and Achievement. Retrieved from http://www.murdoch.edu. au/vco/secretariat/records/Timeline/TIMELINE%20as%20at%2010%20Nov%20 2011.pdf.

for the academic pursuits of a much larger university.

Stanley, G. & Reynolds, P. (1994). Similarity grouping of Australian universities, Higher Education, 27, 359-366.

Acknowledgements

Turner, M. & Brown, A. M. (2013). Hypothetical: The case for an Australian ‘Group of Seven’, Australian Universities’ Review, 55(2), 44-50.

The authors would like to thank the editor and two

UWA (2013). The University of Western Australia Annual Report 2012. The University of Western Australia, Crawley.

anonymous referees for their very helpful comments on the paper.

Weber, D. (2005). Curtin ends ‘super uni’ hopes, PM - Wednesday, 22 June. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2005/s1398317.htm.

Michael Turner is an accounting academic who has just completed his contract at Curtin University. He has also worked at University of Western Australia and the University of Southampton. vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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OPINION

Monument to lack: The new university Andee Jones

We know less about the sexual life of little girls than boys. But we need not feel too ashamed of this distinction; after all, the sexual life of adult women is a dark continent for psychology.

pieces, but for my trouble I am merely smudged, not black listed. The present article is the fourth in an unintended series

Sigmund Freud (1932)

charting my experiences of academic censure via social

The Dark Continent is neither dark nor unexplorable. It is still unexplored only because we have been made to believe that it was too dark to be explored. Because they want to make us believe that what interests us is the white continent, with its monuments to Lack.

reprint has it (Jones, 2012, 2013, 2014). Here, in talking

Hélène Cixous (1996)

exclusion. Or ‘amicable exclusion,’ as the Vietnamese about academic censure, I touch on former psychoanalyst Jeffrey Masson’s (1990) excoriation by the psychoanalytic establishment for, among other things, criticising latetwentieth-century Freudian anti-feminism. As a former insider, Masson is famous for his warts-and-

‘You’ll have to be less critical of Freud!’

full-names exposé of the kind of psychoanalytic sexism

‘Oh?’

that would turn women’s stomachs and, more to the

On first hearing the comment, ‘You’ll have to be

point, turn them away from psychoanalysis per se. Masson

less critical of Freud,’ I was more than a year into post-

turned to writing about animals: ‘I’d written a whole

retirement postgraduate study, previously having worked

series of books about psychiatry, and nobody bought

as a psychologist and academic, retired into writing

them. Nobody liked them. Nobody. Psychiatrists hated

and, craving collaboration, returned to the academy to

them.’ In contrast, Dogs Never Lie about Love reportedly

undertake a second PhD. The department to which I

sold a million plus.

applied turned out not to be a good fit (Jones, 2014), and

But I digress.

I sought refuge in a related discipline. The admonition, ‘You’ll have to be less critical of Freud,’ comprised the bulk of the supervisory content of the first meeting proper with my new supervisor. I’ll call her Sue. Did I detect a note of fear in Sue’s voice, or am I reading too much into things, two years on? After all, how things stand now is . . . not well. Both Sue and my co-supervisor

‘You’ll have to be less critical of Freud,’ was the first of many proscriptions about my doctoral work: ‘You can’t refer to Masson; his criticism of Freud has been discredited.’ ‘But I’m citing his translation of the Freud/Fliess correspondence.’ ‘But can we take it seriously? Did he . . . ?’

were recently sacked and a supervisor who adopted me

Although Sue did not know (nor should she) of the

was sent home on stress leave. Don’t get me wrong; I

Masson (1985) translation (authorised by the Freud

make no claims of correlation (let alone causation) among

Archive), she did know that Masson’s name was not to

any of these events. Yes, I write mildly annoying opinion

darken any dissertation emanating from her department.

Monument to lack: The new university Andee Jones

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Masson’s was not the only verboten bibliographic entry;

Yet the presenter did not speak to it. The photographs

another was that of nonconformist commentator, Adam

bore witness to this upper echelon’s comprising, almost

Phillips. And as to the not-exactly-verboten but not-very-

without exception, post-middle-aged, middle-class men.

nice-either: ‘Our advice,’ said Sue, ‘is to omit Nussbaum’s

Mostly white. And, although the portraits did not divulge

critique of Butler. . . . Nussbaum is not a patch on Butler!’

these men’s hetero-normativity, their movies did.

Furthermore, from the academic symposium:

At the end of question time, neither presenter nor

‘Your work sounds exclusionary to me.’

audience having raised the issue, I enquired whether the

‘In what way, do you think?’

dissertation itself noted the bias. No, said the presenter,

‘You say your conceptual position is feminist and

‘[the field] is too fraught.’‘Fraught,’ she explained, referred

secular.That means you’re excluding religious feminism.’ ‘Surely,’ I wanted to say, ‘surely, scholars know the

to the risk of being shunned for academic naiveté: ‘You are universalising.’

difference between setting limits and policing borders.’

‘Surely,’ I wanted to say, ‘surely, scholars can distinguish

Was my interlocutor just point-scoring in the obligatory

a cautious generalisation from a universal claim.’ Yet

zero-sum game?

I know that is not the point. Of course we are capable

‘It’s not your place to question the lecturer (my next

of making such distinctions. The point is whether we

interlocutor was visibly upset at my visibly upsetting

prefer to belong or be exiled. Given its enormous clout,

his favourite teacher by questioning her endorsement

groupthink prevails and, wittingly or not, most of us pre-

of Freud’s theories about women) she’s spent decades

emptively hush our own mouths (Jones, 2014).

working in this field.’

The field was film studies,

One cannot help but notice that unacknowledged

specifically, film’s use of classical Freudian notions of

sexism underpins several of the abovementioned scenes.

femininity, hysteria and masochism. Despite apologist

But, then, I would say that; sexism is the topic of my

claims – ‘Well, Freud did say he didn’t understand them’

dissertation. And, despite the fact that Sue was currently

– the historical record shows that Freud clung to his

co-organising a germane conference that was short on

essentialist prescriptions for women until he died (Breger,

proposals, she went to ground. Only by accident did I hear

2000). As to another common apology – ‘Well, there are

about the conference, fortunately in time to submit a late

multiple Freuds’ – yes, and I’m writing about this one.

application that was accepted by the co-organiser. A little

Let me tell you something I know about Woman, says

later, my affiliation to the university was expunged from

Freud: When the female gives up her penis envy, ‘the

the program and I was billed as ‘independent scholar.’

appeased wish for a penis is destined to be converted

Smudged, not black-listed. After duly delivering my paper

into a wish for a baby and for a husband, who possesses a

to an audience of half a dozen, the chair remarked that

penis’ (1937, p. 251). Only by accomplishing her biological

I could have saved myself a lot of trouble had I read

destiny, says Freud, can women avoid falling prey to

so-and-so, who said it all in the 1970s. Sure.

hysteria. In a parallel universe, Barack Obama (2014), in

Speaking of the 1970s, ‘the personal is political’ still

a speech to the White House Correspondents’ Dinner,

goes. Personally, I’m fed up with being sent to Coventry

noted that any statement prefaced with, ‘Let me tell you

for pointing out the bleeding obvious. Politically, while

something I know about the Negro,’ is unlikely to turn out

academic censure by the mere threat of social exclusion

well:‘You don’t really need to hear the rest.’

has always been around, it is a hallmark of the neoliberal

At least in psychology departments, Freud’s theories on

university. The idea, in Australia at least, is to drive out all

women have been discredited to the point of annulment,

those annoying 1970s-entry, Jeffrey-Masson types who

but they still soldier on in some wind-swept corridors

should never have gained entry in the first place. And

in cultural studies. Not that I am choosing sides, mind. I

then raise the fees so high that the new ones will forego

lament the dearth of scepticism in all of their houses. As

Humanities for Accounting.

a psychologist and researcher, I don’t always agree with

In these neoliberal times, it may be a symptom of

Masson and I do cherish a few Freudian ideas, just not the

cognitive health – as well as bloody-mindedness – to be

ones about women. Or Oedipus.

censured and to resist self-censoring. But I take Raewyn

Take another example of academic self-censorship;

Connell’s (2014, p. 56) point that rattling the cage toward

the setting is a doctoral presentation on the elite players

the end of one’s career is one thing; it is quite another

in commercial film making. No clearer evidence of this

to contemplate years or decades ahead in the New

stellar group’s demographic bias could possibly be had

University – with its monuments to Lack.

than that depicted in the presentation’s portrait gallery. vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

Monument to lack: The new university Andee Jones

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Freud, S. (1937). Analysis Terminable and Interminable, in J. Strachey (ed and trans). The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol 3. London: Hogarth Press.

articles in scholarly, literary, and mainstream journals.

Janis, I. (1982). Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascos (2nd ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Jones’s latest books are The Gender Vendors: Sex and Lies

Jones, A. (2012). Uncapped University. Australian Universities Review, 54, 2.

from Abraham to Freud published by Lexington Books, and

Jones, A. (2013). Unhinged University. Australian Universities Review, 55, 1, 69-71.

Joining the Dots: Essays and Opinion, available via Amazon. Andee blogs at andeejones.wordpress.com.

References Breger, L. (2000). Freud: Darkness in The Midst of Vision. New York: John Wiley. Cixous, H. (1996). Sorties: Out and Out: Attacks/Ways Out/Forays, in H. Cixous, C. Clément and B. Wing (trans). The Newly Born Woman. London: I. B. Tauris and Co. Connell, R. W. (2014). Love, Fear and Learning in the Market University. Australian Universities’ Review, 56, 2, 56-63.

Jones, A. (2014). Neo-conned University. Australian Universities’ Review, 56, 1, 75-77. Reprinted as ‘Academic Censorship through Social Exclusion.’ University World News, 309, 28, (February, 2014). Masson, J. (ed and trans). (1985). The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess 1887-1904. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Masson, J. (1990). Final Analysis: The Making and Unmaking of a Psychoanalyst. Addison-Wesley. Obama, B. (2014). White House Correspondents’ Dinner Speech May 2014. Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2014/05/04/watch-presidentobama-2014-white-house-correspondents-dinner.

Freud, S. (1932). Femininity, in J. Strachey (ed and trans). New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 22. London: The Hogarth Press.

Monument to lack: The new university Andee Jones

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Discuss: If essays are dead, then where does that leave everything else? A response to: Shirley Alexander’s ‘Buying essays: how to make sure assessment is authentic’ Kelvin McQueen University of New England

Professor Shirley Alexander is the Deputy Vice-Chancellor

rooms; or conversely allowing students access in an exam

and Vice-President (Teaching, Learning & Equity) at the

room to everything they’d need to (dare I say it?) write an

University of Technology, Sydney. On 12 November 2014,

essay; hoping for ‘ghost writer’ whistle-blowers; and, in an

an article of hers appeared in The Conversation: ‘Buying

odd association,‘high-touch, face-to-face learning’.

essays: how to make sure assessment is authentic.’ That

Contrary to this intensified surveillance of students

article traverses, in an abbreviated way, three significant

(who obviously are guilty until proven otherwise), I

concerns about university assessment tasks. Those three

find that the electronic matching software used at my

concerns, in sum, apparently render essays ‘dead’ ‘as the

university works very well in detecting plagiarism in

primary form of assessment’.

extended-response assessment tasks, if indeed that degree

In what follows, I’d like to set out and respond to

of surveillance is deemed necessary.

Alexander’s objections to the essay form. Then I’ll make

When Shirley Alexander’s essay finishes dealing with

some observations about what essays are good for

the advantages of exterminating essays to prevent students

and why, perhaps, some people can’t understand that

from cheating, then interwoven in the paragraphs that

usefulness.

follow are the other two death-dealers to the essay form:

The first concern of Alexander’s that drives a nail

the need for ‘authentic’ (or ‘real-life’) assessment; and its

into the essay-form’s coffin is that there are, apparently,

companion, meeting employers’ demands for ‘real-life’

‘cheating factories’ pumping out plagiarised or ghost-

work skills.

written essays. A search is then undertaken to find ways

Here, concerns about types of ‘authentic’ assessment

and means to prevent students cheating; ways and means

and the vocational ‘value’ of university courses converge.

of which the US National Security Agency would be proud:

Alexander emphasises this relationship by asking, ‘When,

biometric scanning; hermetically sealing students in exam

for instance, in one’s real life [read: ‘in a job’] does one

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ever have to write an essay, unless you happen to be an

job.And it is further implied that in none of these ‘real life’

academic?’ But this begs the question: what is an essay

on-the-job situations would the essay form of deliberation

and in what ways might it connect with the ‘real world’?

find any place.

And in some contrast with the unalloyed virtues of

At least in the case of teacher education, Australian

vocationalism, these ‘real world’ essays may both conform

governments moved away from the teacher-apprentice

with but also challenge what employers may suggest are

system 100 years ago because the lash of imperialist

‘real-life’ skills.

competition meant that time-honoured (read: ‘outdated’)

Essays, even brief one’s like Alexander’s, are meant

knowledge and practices were not good enough for

to be sustained, focused and coherent arguments that

nations to survive. Experts were needed to generate

systematically and explicitly evaluate relevant evidence

expert knowledge and pass it onto the next generation

and arguments.They are in themselves a way for students

of teachers. That recently some politicians have

and others to show logically their assessment of evidence

become deeply suspicious of that expertise and its

and arguments either found independently or provided

transmission is less about favouring the virtues of on-the-

to them; usually evidence and arguments that are to

job apprenticeships and more about fears of an ‘over-

some degree vital to understanding (some part of) a

educated’ (read: ‘tenaciously enquiring and sceptical’)

field of knowledge and practice. That means, crucially,

workforce.

the essay form is used as a way of becoming engaged in

Essays, or similarly extended, coherent responses, are

however neophyte or limited a way an ongoing debate

precisely about allowing students to enquire at length

about evidence, arguments and practices in some field of

about both existing and new knowledge and practices

endeavour.

in a field and then provide a reasoned and critical

So Alexander’s rhetorical question that supposedly

judgement. It is what professionals do when taking a

administers the last rites to the essay form can be

participatory role in their professions and not just existing

rephrased in the following way: when, in one’s real life (or

as well-trained practitioners without a coherent, logical or

in a job), would one have to present a sustained, focused

evidence-based thought in their heads – and, even if they

and coherent argument about evidence arising from a field

have, being unable to convey it successfully.

of professional endeavour? The answer would be: as soon

Professor Alexander obviously can convey her thoughts

as a professional moves into a position of responsibility in

in essay form; she can provide relevant evidence and

their field. And the whole point of being a professional is

arguments; she can use this skill to participate in and even

precisely to gain that position of responsibility.

lead her field, yet apparently would deny this to fellow

The tolling of the death knell for the essay form

professionals.

becomes absurd if the question is put this way: when

These ‘authentically’ trained and assessed professionals,

would an economist have to provide a coherent essay-

for example, would suture a wound wonderfully, but have

like presentation to a board of bankers; a doctor an

no idea whether the health care system, or their part of

extended review of procedures for a panel; an architect

it, is up-to-date, is functioning optimally, is beneficial for

a focused proposal for a corporate client; a teacher a

patients and / or staff, can do things differently, and so

detailed explanation to staff or parents of curricular

on. Even if they had some inkling of these issues, they

and pedagogical choices; a head nurse a rationale for

couldn’t express their sentiments in any sort of extended,

procedural variation; a bureaucrat an elaborate plan for

logical, evidence-based, coherent and critical way. In

developing or reviewing a policy; and so on, ad infinitum.

other words, they could never participate effectively in,

Shirley Alexander’s contrasting view, presented in

let alone lead, their profession.

a series of dot points (a practice I tend to discourage

Even beyond this broad (but still vocational) value of

students from using in essays), is that first-year health care

learning and then practising the fine art of essay writing,

students should work in hospitals; architecture students

there’s the value of the essay as a public intervention

in architects’ offices; engineering students undertake ‘real’

providing readable (because logical) comment; practical

projects; and so on. As always with this extreme view of

(because evidence-based) investigation; and, at the

the value of on-the-job learning (and assessment) as a

pinnacle of this, for engaging in political debate. I have my

type of apprenticeship system (and thereby devaluing

suspicions that the institutionally approved atrophying of

the purposes of higher education), one wonders how

the essay form converges with the institutional approval

these students would learn anything new or different or

of the atrophying of a willingness to engage with the ‘real

challenge the ‘received’ wisdom provided by those on-the-

world’ politically.

Discuss: If essays are dead, then where does that leave everything else? Kelvin McQueen

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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Thus, in the micro-politics of assessing academic

certain types of academic assessment with ‘real life’; and

learning with or without essays is encapsulated something

the ritual genuflection before ‘employer-needs’ as the only

of the largest issue confronting academia: the retreat from

legitimate justification for academic programs, with those

democratic governance in our institutions. The politics

‘needs’ usually consisting of lists of ‘outcomes’ cobbled

of retreat from promoting the skills of using sustained,

together, oddly enough, by non-employer technocrats.

logical, evidence-based argument often emanates from

Exposing, elaborating, and announcing publicly a

the same quarters that have a hankering for arbitrary

sustained and critical argument with logic and evidence

rule-making (and rule-ignoring) without reference to

is what essays are very good at; and that’s what the

logic, argument or a wish to engage in sustained debate.

essay form as academic assessment and professional and

From those same managerial quarters, the legitimate

political intervention should be all about.

and indeed crucial use of the essay form as a means of expression and therefore of assessment is disavowed with

Kelvin McQueen is a lecturer in the School of Education,

arguments that show an unconscious convergence with

University of New England, NSW.

this retreat from democracy: references to institutionallygenerated fears of cheating really being an expression of managerial exasperation at being unable to sweep away student (and staff) rights such as the right not to be placed under super-intrusive surveillance; technocrats

Reference Alexander, S. (2014). Buying essays: how to make sure assessment is authentic. The Conversation, 12 November. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/ buying-essays-how-to-make-sure-assessment-is-authentic-34125.

confusing narrow and constraining vocational skills and

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REVIEWS

The real Forsyth Saga? A History of the Modern Australian University by Hannah Forsyth. ISBN 9781742234120, NewSouth Publishing, 279 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Paul Rodan

Historian Hannah Forsyth has written a substantial

university-related consequences, as ASIO (Australia’s

account of Australian universities from colonial times

spook agency) files have demonstrated.

to the present day, dealing with the major issues and

Robert Menzies is a mostly unpopular figure with

controversies, and challenging several myths in the

Australian progressives, but only a blinkered partisan

process. Moreover, she has done so in a readable and

could fail to acknowledge his contribution to the

entertaining fashion, which had me pondering how one

university sector. His support was not all pro-humanities

with such writing skills had crept into the academy. Even

sentimentalism, as Forsyth makes clear, but he did seem

her chapter on digital technology (a topic normally sleep-

at home with the university doing more than training

inducing for this reviewer) was survivable.

for employment, perhaps reflecting his own interest in

It is refreshing to encounter a realistic appreciation of

the world of ideas. Amongst his successors, only Gough

the role of power, revealed in lines such as ‘[T]he story

Whitlam seemed to share this positive, non-instrumentalist

of universities is the story of knowledge in Australia and

view of the university.

who controlled it – and for whose benefit’ (p. 2).The early

Another myth challenged by Forsyth concerns fees

colonial institutions were clearly elite, although Forsyth

pre-Whitlam. She reminds the reader that by the 1960s, a

highlights some subtle differences between Melbourne

majority of university students received financial support

and Sydney, and the tuition-free University of Western

for their tuition fees through Commonwealth Scholarships

Australia stands as a curious anomaly. The early Australian

(and, she might have added, state government teaching

university was dual-purpose: civilising, but also about

bursaries). That a good proportion of baby-boomers had

practical knowledge – ‘gatekeeper to the professions’.

their fees paid by Menzies (and his Liberal successors) –

In the aftermath of World War I, there seemed some

not Whitlam – is an inconvenient truth for both left and

potential for a less elite student base, but Forsyth sees

right, but more so for the latter: Christopher Pyne is no

the Great Depression as killing this off; the real action

child of Menzies.

would come after World War II. Wisely, she cautions

On the Whitlam era, Forsyth suggests that the fees-

against neat ‘cause and effect’ explanations as in ‘here

related cost of his free tertiary education policy was less

is the policy, there is the effect’, arguing that ‘there are

than is believed: the big difference from the scholarship

many things going on when universities change’ (p. 21).

era was not fee abolition, but the level of student income

The development of a Commonwealth Government

support. She also sees his reforms as taking the fight out

role during and after the WWII is outlined, with Forsyth

of student radicalism, while noting that this did not deter

highlighting the emergence of research as a university-

emerging conservative student activists (such as Peter

connected activity around this time. This affords her

Costello and Tony Abbott) from tilting at imaginary radical

the opportunity to critique the ahistorical view that

windmills. The consequences seem to be still with us, as

universities ‘should look a certain way: that they always

evidenced by the endless and tedious voluntary student

have and always should look like this’ (p. 26). For those

unionism (VSU) debates (an issue not addressed by the

who came in late: the PhD was introduced at Melbourne

author).

in 1945, ANU in 1946 and Sydney in 1947. The role of

Malcolm Fraser sought to link university funding to

the Cold War in enhancing the emphasis on research is

economic goals and rein in the budget, but by the time he

skilfully covered. Of course, the Cold War also had other

moved to reintroduce fees, he had lost his Senate majority

The real Forsyth Saga? Reviewed by Paul Rodan

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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and free education remained apparently sacrosanct – for

intention ‘to use higher education to facilitate economic

the moment. ‘[F]ew of Fraser’s reforms were actually

change’ (p. 124) clearly apparent. A chapter entitled ‘The

implemented’, Forsyth observes (p. 100), although a round

DVC Epidemic’ discusses that and more, including the

of College of Advanced Education mergers provided a hint

casualisation crisis (possibly another epidemic).There are

to the more perceptive of what might lie ahead.

also thoughtful reflections on tensions between academic

The section on the Dawkins ‘reformation’ (as the author

and general staff, in which the author’s personal history

calls it) will include material familiar to many readers, but

as first general and then academic staff member helps

Forsyth goes further in setting the scene: it should be

provide a balance and perspective often missing from

remembered that the Hawke Government had been in

such discussions.

power for over four years, and had won three elections,

While Forsyth concedes that much is wrong with

before Dawkins released his Green Paper in 1987. Several

universities, she is no Jeremiah, and retains a guarded

egos are at risk of being bruised with Forsyth’s contention

optimism about the future. Her study of history tells her

that Dawkins’ much-vaunted ‘purple circle’ (the name

that there is no point seeking a return to a golden era

bestowed on the group of senior academics, administrators

that never was, and she is pleased that ‘[U]niversities are

and bureaucrats who met regularly with the Minister to

no longer the small, narrow, elitist male and unerringly

discuss higher education reform) played a ‘less central’

white British spaces they once were’ (p. 228). On that

role (p. 114) than the participants have assigned to

theme, she is unsympathetic to academic colleagues who

themselves, but it served Dawkins’ purposes for them to

respond to expanding student numbers by demanding

believe that they were important. Mischievously, Forsyth

that ‘schools make their students middle class (with the

identifies red wine as a key player in this part of the story.

associated ‘knower code’) before releasing them into

Forsyth sees more at play here than rampant

scholarly classrooms’ (p. 229). This is provocative stuff,

neoliberalism. There were free market advocates like

and not all will concur, but it’s surely good to have the

Don Watts and Helen Hughes in the ‘purple circle’, but

discussion.

there were ‘others with rich and complex ideas’, although

A History of the Modern Australian University is a

the description of Mal Logan as ‘the working-class Vice-

splendid book – informative, stimulating and written in

Chancellor of Monash’ (p. 115) draws a long bow. Logan

a wonderfully readable style. If there were a compulsory

was sympathetic to working class aspiration, but his

reading list for people in the sector, this volume would be

father had been a school teacher in rural New South Wales

near the top of it.

– the epitome of middle-class respectability in the era in question. Institutional mergers, the higher education contribution

Paul Rodan is an adjunct professor in the Swinburne Institute for Social Research, Swinburne University of Technology, and

scheme (HECS), research policy and related aspects of the

a member of the Australian Universities’ Review editorial

Dawkins era are capably covered, with the Government’s

board.

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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‘I’m counting on you…’ (J O’Keefe, 1961) Using Data to Improve Higher Education: Research, Policy and Practice by Maria E. Menon, Dawn G. Terkla & Paul Gibbs (Eds). ISBN: 978-94-6209-792-6 (paperback); 978-94-6209-793-3 (hardback); 978-94-6209-794-0 (e-book), Sense Publishers, vi + 263 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Dennis Bryant Thirteen papers explore data utilisation, and these are grouped into four parts: Part A:The Use of Data in the Planning and Management of Higher Education (three papers on this theme)

A second paper that captured my attention was a case study entitled ‘Using Data to Inform Institutional Decision Making at Tufts University [USA]’ by Terkla, Sharkness, Conoscenti & Butler (pp. 39-63), also from

Part B: Marketing/Stakeholder Data (three papers)

Part A. From the time you begin reading this paper,

Part C: Economics/Policy Data (four papers)

you are struck by its lack of pretence, and its direct

Part D: Ethical/Correct use of Data in Higher Education

targeting of data exploitation for the benefit of students

(three papers).

and for institutional managers. While readers would be

Based on the naming of the four parts, I felt an urgent

impressed by the huge variety of surveys that are used at

need to buy this book, mainly because the empirical

Tufts, also impressive is their use of integrated models to

researcher inside me suggested that this book was

predict student actions in enrolment, and the likelihood

immediately relevant to understanding higher education

of student success, both of which were claimed as

issues (as perplexing as they can be). The book is also

helpful to admissions offices. Realising these data were

focused, which helps the clarity of thinking that is

insufficient, Tufts also relies on benchmarking their

needed to resolve successfully otherwise intractable

performance against neighbouring peer institutions.

issues.

However, although the study’s toolset is impressive,

One such issue is institutional data readiness, a topic

I felt that they missed a logical opportunity by not

discussed from multiple perspectives in relation to

benchmarking student learning outcomes – after all, they

achieving student learning success, ensuring cultures

have surveyed the other side of the ledger, that is, student

of institutional enquiry and evidence, and helping

learning perceptions and these could be combined into

institutions help their students’ learning. This was done

a more complete picture of student success.

in Part A by Voorhees & Cooper in ‘Opportunities and

Speaking of missed opportunities, I felt that there was

Barriers to Effective Planning in Higher Education’ (pp.

unrealised potential in ‘Evaluating Students’ Quality of

25-38). I rate this paper as well-balanced, informative

Academic Life’ by Pedro, Alves and Leitão (pp. 93-118),

and highly useful to the academy. To borrow from the

from Part B.There was a great chance missed to place their

paper’s own terminology, I would say that the authors

main focus on their ‘Satisfaction of educational supply’

have provided an ‘actionable data’ crux as opposed to

variable and this would entail individually researching

‘wallpaper data’ fade. This is a must-read paper, one

each part of this multifaceted variable, starting with

which reminds me of earlier, but nevertheless informed,

teaching staff, and moving through to teaching methods,

writings by Craig McInnis (2001, p. 112; 2004, p. 391)

then onto student workload and finally onto the five other

in which he urged institutional data readiness through

facets that were combined into a super variable.

building databases such as those held by American and

The second must-read paper is undoubtedly ‘Using

European institutions. By the way, databases would

Data to Make the Wrong Decisions: The Rise and Fall of

contain all sorts of qualitative data as well as empirical

Journal Ranking in Australia’ by Dobson (pp. 229-242), in

data, but there is no question of empirical data being the

Part D. This paper begins by describing the current data-

end-all in data.

driven quest for quality (which of itself is interesting) as

‘I’m counting on you…’ (J O’Keefe, 1961) Reviewed by Dennis Bryant

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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a precursor to examining journal ranking as a claimed

As you can appreciate, there are other papers in this

measure of research output. If you were ever puzzled

volume for which space prohibits a review. In my selection,

(I am assuming you are a capable and insightful writer)

I hoped to choose those papers which somehow excelled

when one or more of your papers was rejected by an A*,A,

over their neighbours.That is not to say that the excluded

B or C journal, you will find this paper an informative read.

papers were deficient. You may have found positives, and

There were two papers in Part C which caught my attention because of their common theme of questioning whether higher education has a clear understanding of

inspiration, in a different selection. I would rate this book as a worthwhile addition to the actual or virtual bookshelf.

Human Capital Theory. For example, in ‘Investigating Students’ Expectations of the Economic Returns to

Dennis Bryant is concerned with identifying literature that can

Higher Education’, (pp. 149-163), Menon argues that

help expand student learning success. In this regard, he has

findings may be unreliable because economists reject the

an abiding interest in teaching, teaching qualifications and

use of student opinions about their own (the students’)

vision statements that fire staff aspirations towards increased

motivations in attending higher education, assuming

student learning outcome success.

economic reasons, only. The common theme of questioning underlying premises continues in ‘Higher Education and Equality of Opportunity’, (pp. 181-193), by Andreou & Koutsampelas who refer to students’ intrinsic reasons, such as idealism and altruism, as drivers of motivation.

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

References McInnis, C. (2001). Researching the First Year Experience: where to from here? Higher Education Research & Development, 20(2), 105-114. McInnis, C. (2004). Studies of student life: an overview. European Journal of Education, 39(4), 383-394.

‘I’m counting on you…’ (J O’Keefe, 1961) Reviewed by Dennis Bryant

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Can’t see the trees for the ideological wood? Education, Privatisation and Social Justice: case studies from Africa, South Asia and South East Asia by Ian Macpherson, Susan Robertson & Geoffrey Walford (Eds). ISBN 9781873927, Symposium Books, 310 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Arthur O’Neill As the fly leaf has it, the Privatisation in Education

a flexible timetable and a convenient location. In sum, its

Research Initiative ‘is a global research and networking

instruction is near-at-hand, practical and concentrated on

initiative seeking to animate an accessible and informed

an occupational end.

public debate on alternative education provision’. You

Research is one thing. Teaching is quite another. Look

can find out more at www.periglobal.org and you can

at the smugness of a nearby public institution that boasts

read the 14 chapters in this book to find out what the

about its high place in world university rankings, but

27 contributors to it have to say about the significance

sits uncomfortably low, according to survey results, in

of an ever more abundant growth in numbers of and

graduate appreciations of their courses of study. If students

enrolments in private education institutions.

enrolled in the aforementioned psychology college had

‘Private’ gains its meaning in contrast with varieties

an approaching level of dissatisfaction, it would risk going

of state-legislated and -supported forms of education

out of business: which only goes to demonstrate that the

provision – what is called the public sector.The distinction

guiding hand of self-interest helps keep the college afloat

is breaking down. Many private schools, colleges and

by way of serving up instruction that is considered by its

universities are either owned by public companies (that

students to satisfy their interests.

is, businesses that are listed on stock exchanges) or by

Though concerned with primary and secondary

religious or secular not-for-profit entities falling under

schooling in selected African and Asian countries, the

the title of charity. They are subject to varieties of course

book well serves to uncover wider contests. According to

accreditation and institutional oversight by government

the editors in their introductory chapter, it will not do ‘to

standards agencies; and they obtain state funding, either

start from the premise that a priori, the idea of the private

directly in the case of primary and secondary schools

– as in private providers, private provision, private-sector

or by way of the direct transfer to them of government-

logics and so on, in the education sector – were always

advanced fees income. As the latter means of financial

and forever bad’. Instead, they say:

support to after-school providers of private education increases, government subventions to cover running costs of state-endowed tertiary institutions gets limited to the same pot. Politicians are wont to say, and economists consider fitting, that the education game is to be set on a level playing field. Lest this begins to sound like complaint about a government-promoted

downwards

slide

higher

… our view has been, and continues to be, that any research with claims to it being “critical inquiry” does not begin with its conclusion already in place. … we need to be open to what the evidence might tell us, and that the evidence must be contextualised. But we were also clear that any assessment of the outcomes of different manifestations of the private would need to be judged against a robust theory of social justice. (p. 10)

education, estimable people think well of many privately-

That amounts to allowing a slant by way of what is to

run courses, for they are directed to the provision of

count as robust theory; and using it to find, a posteriori,

training and qualifications that meet immediate purposes.

that the private is wanting.

You want to be a psychologist? Here is a college (one of

Happily, only a few authors of succeeding chapters

a diverse bag owned by a company) that does nothing

seem to have ideal worlds of social justice hidden in their

but offer such a product. It is certified to do the job, has

closets. Most look through glass frosted with qualification:

Can’t see the trees for the ideological wood? Reviewed by Arthur O’Neill

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their evidence-based research takes them to ‘on-the-one-

empirical research leads to messy conclusions about

hand-but-on-the-other’ reflections; which is no bad thing.

private education. Even when the three authors of chapter

Take this example from a chapter on the privatisation of

12 (pp. 239-257) stick the boot into the World Bank for

basic education in Ghana and Nigeria:

abandoning principle by favouring the offer of primary

Moreover, part of the conventional economic justification for state provision of basic schooling consists of the extensive social benefits that arise from public education and the consequent failure of markets to make socially optimal provision, while it is clear that the shift towards private basic schooling in both Ghana and Nigeria is in part a response to perceptions of poor quality in public provision. Accordingly, ‘government failure’ in public-education delivery further complicates the issue of equity and efficiency, since universal access to free provision is not a marker of equity in education where that provision is of inadequate quality. Accordingly, the implications of expanding private provision for social justice are unclear. Where access to private schooling brings wider access to higher levels of learning at affordable cost, it may be argued that the trend is indeed pro-equity overall by comparison with a low-quality exclusively public system. (p. 26)

and secondary school education by private operators, they allow that: … our study exposed a large gap between the Bank’s above-described knowledge products and formal policy statements and its actual project portfolio. Most notably, according to our analysis, surprisingly few Bank operations contain private-sector provision as an objective or component, despite a decade of rhetorical emphasis and research promoting private provision of K-12 educational services in developing countries. Our portfolio review found that only 17% of project documents analysed included any support of private provision, and all such projects were seen to be in contexts where a very large and ingrained tradition of private-sector provision has existed for many years with government support. (p. 241) The policy/practice disjunction, it seems, has less to do with the abandonment of formal principle than with

Based on their interviews, authors of this chapter

the fact, drawn to the attention of the authors in their

report that ‘Parents considered that learning progress to

interviews with World Bank staff, that ‘financing decisions

be better in LFPS [a low-fee private school] and perceived

are shaped at the country level by governments who

these schools to provide for better opportunities for

often have limited interest in borrowing to support

progression in the higher levels of the public system.’ (p.

private provision, and are led by World Bank country-

40). While this suggests the wisdom of choosing horses

level staff frustrated in their efforts to pitch private

for courses, the authors go on to say: ‘But the emergence

provision or doubting its efficacy.’ (p. 244). So there

of LFPSs as an alternative may add inequality to inequity,

you have it: principle, leading in this case to ‘the Bank’s

especially if the benefits of enrolment in private basic

forceful advocacy of public-private partnerships’ yields to

schools serve to allow some students to progress more

circumstance.

readily beyond that stage, with the result that initial

The papers in this book demonstrate that principles

advantage is compounded through the rest of a child’s

of social justice do not stand alone on the high

educational career and beyond.’ (p. 41). Besides,‘LFPS may

ground. Rather, policy needs must be also informed by

also introduce a stronger link between education quality

comparative measures of efficiency, cost effectiveness,

and ability to pay, potentially worsening the relative

academic performance and investigation of reasons

outcomes of the poorest for whom such schools are

leading to selection of courses of education. While this

beyond reach’; and ‘to the extent that parents’ resource-

sounds rather wishy-washy when set against the clean

constrained decisions concerning whom to send to LFPSs

righteousness of espoused principle, a forest of ‘buts’ (as

favour more able children, weaker pupils may also be

you find in the book) is preferable to being given one

further disadvantaged in relative terms by the expansion

pathway signposted to educational salvation.

of LFPSs, while the extent of selection by ability makes

This is a good book to expand the horizons of students

it complex to disentangle the real effect on learning of

and for commentators who can’t see the trees for the

private schools’. (p. 41)

ideological wood.

The chapter is quoted at length because it conveys a realisation shared by many another contributor to this

Arthur O’Neill is both a bon vivant and a regular contributor

book: though informed by principles of social benefit,

to Australian Universities’ Review.

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Assessing students: do it like this… Improving Assessment in Higher Education: A Wholeof-Institutional Approach by Richard Henry, Stephen Marshall & Prem Ramburuth (Eds). ISBN 978-1-742-23400-7, NewSouth Publishing, xvi + 368 pp., 2013. Reviewed by Dennis Bryant The phrase ‘Whole-of-Institution’ in the title of this

in performing assessment and providing feedback to

print book caught my attention. This phrase seemed to

students is still seen to create an increase in the quality of

be a statement of intent, impressive in its daring, which

student outcomes, and this is two-edged efficiency. I read

in turn inferred meaningful action across at least one

on into the Faculty case studies.

higher education arena, the University of New South

The case studies were written by up to four authors,

Wales’ (UNSW) Faculties. Perhaps they even presaged an

each as specialists in one of the nine faculties. While

injection of inspiration into the long flow of published

some faculties were better prepared for change than

articles on assessment. I read on.

others, faculty responses were positive, and this positive

This book is structured in the usual way of having a Part

reaction to growth opportunities was captured in the

1 (with three introductory chapters which are effectively

concepts that they used. Some commonly found concepts

literature review chapters, and which flow rather well,

were: Lecturer workload reduction across courses

meaning that they should be appreciable to all, and were

and programs; TESTA (Transforming the Experience

written by the editors in collaboration); a Part 2 (with

of Students Through Assessment); AOL (Assurance Of

nine case studies, one for each of UNSW’s Faculties, each

Learning); QI (Quality Improvement); Curriculum review

revealing the implementation of this project); and, a Part 3

and redesign; Efficiency outcomes – to mention a few.

(containing three concluding chapters).

In summary, I found this UNSW initiative to be ground-

Normally, you could expect to skim Part 1, fly on to Part

breaking, in the same sense that institutional initiatives at

3 where you again skim but this time for confirmation,

Sydney University propelled forward lecturer certification

and finally settle into the heart of the project’s case

in higher education teaching (Brew & Ginns, 2008). Is

studies in Part 2. However, this approach would miss

there a better accommodation than the areas of student

two critical items. In the Foreword, Professor Frederick

assessment and assessment costs? This book is not merely

Hilmer equates current assessment to a ‘cottage industry’

a good read, but it would function also as a good guide to

and confirms a need for change. The second point of

universal academic reinvigoration.

note is the tone, which is carried from the Foreword on into Parts 1 and beyond. Unlike previous higher

Dennis Bryant is at home designing modest but realistic

education publications, the tone in this book is coming

metrics on student learning success, and failure. In

from the strength of a vantage point, and it is no surprise

this regard, he has an abiding interest in the success of

to find therein that UNSW has taken responsibility

institutional initiatives that assist students, and staff.

for assessment by setting up internal standards, in preference to the plethora of new governmental quality assurance agencies’ directives. The implication in taking responsibility, as admirable as it is, was not entirely altruistic, nor does it seem driven in the main by long-standing research by authors such as Biggs (1999, 2001) whose comments on the role of assessment in a university’s vision are well-known. However, the objective of driving down lecturer costs

Assessing students: do it like this… Reviewed by Dennis Bryant

References Biggs, J. (1999). What the Student Does: teaching for enhanced learning. Higher Education Research & Development, 18(1), 57-75. Biggs, J. (2001). The reflective institution: Assuring and enhancing the quality of teaching and learning. Higher Education, 41(3), 221-238. Brew, A., & Ginns, P., (2008). The Relationship between Engagement in the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning and Students Course Experiences. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 33(5), 535-45.

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Are all postgrads the same? Intercultural Postgraduate Supervision: Reimagining time, place and knowledge by Catherine Manathunga. ISBN 978-0-415-53599-1, Routledge, 199 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Helen Song-Turner This book takes issue with features of the aggressive

internationalisation of higher education. This book is

internationalisation of Australian higher education in the

written from a theoretical perspective that taps into an

past two decades, and the development of supervision

increasingly prominent and controversial niche, to make

and training paradigms that have been progressing slowly

visible and to offer transformative understandings and

worldwide (Sue & Sue, 2008). It questions whether it

ideas on supervision across, between and within cultural

makes any sense that supervisors in higher education

differences.

strive to treat each doctoral student the same, especially

The book is profound and compelling for with her Irish-

in a global economy replete with various cultural

Australian background as a researcher and writer, her style

experiences. Some of us may answer ‘yes’, and might

is sharp and even-handed in tone. She critically assesses

agree that we should treat each doctoral student the same,

and evaluates Western presumptions (labelled generally

yet a number of researchers have pointed out that current

as Northern theories and knowledge) and exposes the

supervision models are based on European and American

limitations and blind spots of taken-for-granted theories.

traditions, with traditional supervision theories being

The book provides insights to remind readers of the loss

monocultural and ethnocentric in nature (Chakrabarty,

of traditional ways of being, thinking and knowing, set

2007; Daniels, D’Andrea & Kim, 1999; Smith, 1999).

alongside the creative possibilities inherent in coming

This book examines what emerges with an increased

into contact with other cultures. Through critical review

emphasis on intercultural supervision with further

of theoretical implications of a range of postcolonial,

internalisation and widening of postgraduate education

indigenous, social feminist and cultural geography theories

(Grant & McKinley, 2011) in universities across the globe,

(labelled as Southern theories and systems), Manathunga

suggesting that current supervision theories have not

argues that time, place and knowledge play significant

sufficiently addressed issues of intercultural supervision.

roles in shaping intercultural supervision. By juxtaposing

The suggestion is that there is a need to study issues and

understandings of theoretical implications with silences

experiences involved in intercultural supervision when

and gaps in understanding, the author uses theory as a

applying traditional supervision approaches.

thinking resource to provide a deeper, more carefully

Manathunga raises a number of questions for

considered view of the complexity and possibilities of

consideration: Why is the ‘contact zone’ important in

what may be achieved in working across, between and

intercultural supervision? How could we harness all

within cultures in supervision.

possible knowledge resources facing global challenges

Of value is the author’s identification and clarification

and problems in supervision? How do we encourage

of three key pedagogical assumptions and positions of

the supervision to work towards creating significant and

assimilation, transculturation and unhomeliness that

original knowledge? And how do we locate and identify/

supervisors may consciously or unconsciously adopt in

label ourselves as supervisors or supervisees in this

their supervision processes. Eschewing assimilationist

contact zone?

supervision in the face of absence of place and other

Manathunga, a historian and passionate cross-cultural

cultural knowledge and a present-time focus in the

researcher and educator, shares her interests and personal

cultural interface of supervision, the author argues

insightful explorations of intercultural postgraduate

for a transculturation approach to situate place, time

supervision in her book. It is an area sorely in need of

and diverse cultural knowledge at the centre of the

enrichment and deepening of our understanding in

supervision process. The author stresses the supervisory

relation to current developments in globalisation and

relationship is an important factor. The insights on ways

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in which assimilation, transculturation and unhomeliness

you would ponder, for example, where is the author

operate in intercultural supervision provide supervisors,

leading you to? Given that studies have shown that men

researchers and students with a nuanced and critical

have a greater tendency to be antisocial and women have

understanding of their roles and their possibilities in

more anxiety, one might wish that the author had further

influencing dynamic relationship building.

discussion about the unhomely and that such gender-

Manathunga represents supervision as being designed to enhance the supervisee’s professional development

related issues may well interfere with the supervision relationship in intercultural supervision.

and she demonstrates that it often brings personal issues

Nevertheless, the book shows that amazing strides

to the surface, and that often those issues are culturally

have been made in understanding the ‘inter’ feature of the

based. She uses the term unhomeliness to refer broadly

contact zone of intercultural postgraduate supervision.

to all the cultural alienation, sense of uncertainty and

Indeed, the book honours research traditions regarding

discomfort that people experience as they adjust to

the need to explore and create new knowledge. It provides

new cultural practices. And that unhomeliness has to be

a valuable source both for supervisors and postgraduate

made visible and addressed in supervision, for because

students to expand their awareness of diverse cultures,

of it, intercultural supervision can be a complicated and

knowledge systems and stress control in building a

powerful process, leading to negative as well as positive

strong, healthy and productive supervision relationship.

outcomes.

The concept of unhomeliness itself could apply to the

The various aspects of unhomeliness, as characterised by the author, occur on a daily basis on different scales

general management of cultural diverse employees and workplace stress assessment and management as well.

between most students and their supervisors who are

As the author has envisaged, to wrestle effectively with

culturally different to themselves. As the author points

serious global problems, we would do well to draw on the

out, unhomeliness is inherent in efforts to work across

vast array of knowledge systems that all of our cultures

cultures. It hits on real issues facing people in their

have produced. It puts the reader in mind of Ghandi’s

suggested contact zone. Reading through the emotionally-

view on western civilisation; he said ‘It would be a good

charged experiences of both supervisees and supervisors

idea’. Marathunga’s book would suggest that it is time for

presented in the book, the reader is faced with heart-

educators and researchers to rethink what intercultural

rending stories, and might wish that they had read this

supervision can do make it happen.

book earlier, before taking on the role of a supervisor or a student. Several themes and concerns discerned in the

Dr. Helen Song-Turner is a lecturer in the Federation

unhomeliness such as ethnocentric attitudes, ignorance,

Business School, Federation University Australia.

cultural misunderstanding, and power distance and imbalance are similar to other concerns raised in the supervision literature. However, the identification and exposition of the concept of unhomeliness relates both to the students and supervisors are expressed and organised as convincing and effective. They are centred on time, place and knowledge perspectives, the underlying framework in guiding the investigation of the experiences and dynamics of performance in the supervisory process. As indicated by the author, this book is not a work of theory nor is it intended as a practical guidebook for effective supervision. Even so it is difficult not to be impressed with the author’s theoretical engagement and deeply personal approach in interrogating the ‘inter’ of intercultural supervision. To be sure, there are moments

Are all postgrads the same? Reviewed by Helen Song-Turner

References Chakrabarty, D. (2007). Provincialising Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference, 2nd ed. Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press. Daniels, J., D’Andrea, M. & Kim, B. (1999). Assessing the barriers and changes of crosscultural supervision: A case study. Counselor Education & Supervision, 38(3), pp.191–205. Grant, B.M. & McKinley, E. (2011). Colouring the pedagogy of doctoral supervision: Considering supervisor, student and knowledge through the lens of indigeneity. Innovations in Education and Teaching Interntional, 48(4), pp. 365-374. Smith, L.T. (1999). Decolonising Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples, London: Zed Books. Sue, D.W. & Sue. D. (2008). Counselling the culturally different: Theory and practice, 5th Edn. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

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Student engagement: A marriage made in heaven? Understanding and Developing Student Engagement by Colin Bryson (Ed.), The Staff and Educational Development Series, James Wisdom (series Ed.). ISBN 978-0-415-84339-3, Routledge, 286 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Carroll Graham Improving the student experience, especially student

parts, written by three distinct categories of authors.

engagement, has become a hot topic in higher education.

Three chapters, ‘Students engaging: perspectives from

This topic, along with how universities can provide

researchers’ are based on three different longitudinal

value to students, is especially significant at this time

studies of students in three different institutions. Part II,

in the context of increasingly burdensome student

‘Students engaging: perspectives from students’, contains

fees. Student engagement is often seen as a panacea,

eight chapters, which have significant input from

underpinning success in priority areas such as student

students themselves, with five chapters written solely by

retention, widening participation and improving student

students.The third section,‘Engaging students’, comprises

outcomes. Yet there is a plethora of confusing and, at

five chapters written by student engagement staff, both

times, contradictory conceptualisations of what student

academic and professional. Finally, Bryson reflects on the

engagement entails.

earlier chapters, and projects a way forward for student

Understanding and Developing Student Engagement

engagement.

seeks to clarify the concept of student engagement, and to

Although the students in the three research studies

provide illustrations of student engagement in action.The

in Part I were diverse – in age, background and field

first chapter critiques a diverse range of interpretations

of study – one evident common theme is that social

of the nature of student engagement. Bryson comments

networks and peer support are crucial to persistence and

that ideas presented in this introductory chapter have

success. The networks revealed in these studies were not

been chosen for their insightfulness, not because they ‘fit

formal, institution-supported networks but rather those

neatly into a coherent framework’ (2014, p. 1). Through

that students developed for themselves. In contrast, two

a discussion of the literature, Bryson acknowledges that

student-written chapters in Part II focus on the benefits the

the concept of student engagement is complex and

authors gained from leadership roles in networks or peer

multifaceted. Indeed, it is the compound-dualistic nature

support programs that were initiated and/or supported

of student engagement – it encompasses what both

by their institution. Another student focuses almost

students and institutions do, and it is both a process

entirely on the importance of informal social networks in

and an outcome – which makes the concept of student

a poignantly entitled chapter ‘People can make or break

engagement inherently complex.

student engagement’. A subsequent chapter also focuses

Despite this complexity, Bryson (2014, p. 17) presents a relatively succinct definition:

on the importance of people to student engagement; in this case, tutors, using data from a student survey for

Student engagement is about what a student brings to higher education in terms of goals, aspirations, values and beliefs and how these are shaped and mediated by their experience whilst a student. SE [student engagement] is constructed and reconstructed through the lenses of the perceptions and identities held by students and the meaning and sense a student makes of their experiences and interactions.

teaching awards. Presenting an eclectic mix of accounts,

Following the introduction, the core of Understanding

theme of the importance of the transition from secondary

and Developing Student Engagement is split into three

education to first-year university, and the transformations

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students reflect on their personal transformations using methods as diverse as video, auto-ethnographic writing, and reflections on involvement in a research project. In Part III, student engagement practitioner staff present their experiences and views on student engagement. Emerging from these practitioner accounts is a common

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that take place in the students during their first year of

into a mature adult’ (Chadwick 2014, p. 118). As tertiary

higher education. First-year university is more about

education staff we can have significant impact – positive

learning how to learn than learning new knowledge;

or negative – on the students who pass through the doors

however, academic staff tend to view an engaged student

of our institutions. While there are many challenges to

as someone who shares ‘their own intense interest in and

practising partnership, by working in partnership with

passion for the subject’ (Sambell & Graham 2014, p. 216).

students the impact of staff can be increasingly positive.

The last chapter in this section explores the challenge of engaging both students and staff in the student

Carroll Graham is a Third Space professional who, until

experience, highlighting, as did the first chapter of Part

recently, worked at the Institute for Sustainable Futures at

I, the importance of student–staff interactions. This leads

the University of Technology Sydney (UTS), Australia. She now

into Bryson’s proposal that the way forward for student

has an honorary appointment in the Faculty of Arts and Social

engagement is through partnerships between students

Sciences at UTS.

and staff. One partnership model is the co-production knowledge through undergraduate research, while others are based on inquiry-based learning or student involvement in curriculum design. Although based on research and experiences in the UK, Understanding and Developing Student Engagement has much to offer readers of the Australian Universities’ Review. Student engagement ‘is much more than just about doing. Being and becoming are critical’ (Bryson 2014, p. 17). In the words of one student author ‘I feel

References Bryson, C. (Ed.). (2014). Understanding and Developing Student Engagement. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Chadwick, E. (2014). People can make or break student engagement, in Bryson, C. (ed), Understanding and Developing Student Engagement, Routledge, Abingdon, UK. Sambell, K. & Graham, L. (2014). Engaging experienced students as academic mentors in support of the first-year experience, in Bryson, C. (ed), Understanding and Developing Student Engagement, Routledge, Abingdon, UK.

that I changed and developed dramatically from a student

Student engagement: A marriage made in heaven? Reviewed by Carroll Graham

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Fight the good fight! Bridging the Divide between Faculty and Administration: A Guide to Understanding Conflict in the Academy by James L Bess & Jay R Dee. ISBN 978-0-415-84273-0 Routledge, xx + 185 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Dennis Bryant The phrase ‘Understanding Conflict’ in the title of this

1960s and 1970s and 1980s references was overdone. In a

print book caught my attention. Inspired to come to grips

full reading done later, I felt that the authors were trying

with conflict, I wondered where the authors’ data would

to resurrect old theories, or else pad out their research.

be sourced from. As it transpired, I was intrigued but also

Either way, my inspiration to enquire further was ebbing.

slightly alarmed that they had amalgamated data from

I looked very hard to find a positive in these chapters,

four unnamed US universities, calling the new conceptual

but alas could not succeed. I blamed myself for not having

entity Discordia State University (DSU).

a strong grasp of psychology. This might seem a strange

My alarm was not allayed when two further unnamed

thing to say, but the book seemed to be very much about

data sources emerged (both US community colleges) and

the psychology of winning, and less about the chasing of

were likewise amalgamated into a second but different

a corporate vision. In fact, it was difficult to find a mention

conceptual entity, the Appreciative Community College

of vision.

(ACC).

In a flashback moment, I recalled, from page x of the

Now I understood that the book was attempting to deal

Foreword (written by Mari Koerner), two injunctions.

with four-way university data against two-way college

First, higher education institutions must have a sense

data, against a two-way organisational division – faculty

of purpose, but I was not finding purpose in this book.

(meaning teaching academics) and the rest (former

Second, a sense of purpose must override self-interests,

teaching academics, relocated to roles like Dean and

but the strong implication that came through to me

so on, and support staff) who were collectively called

was that faculty self-interests were being let down by

administration.

administrative self-interests.

I like ambition, but was this a bridge too far?

In summary, this book has seven chapters, and the first

On a theme of readers expecting consistency, the two

four chapters present the one thousand and one ways in

chosen names (DSU and ACC) evoked opposing images.

which faculty can disagree with administration. It is only

One suggested conflict, whereas the other suggested

after enduring these chapters that a positive emerges,

absence of conflict. I reflected on this difference but

when Time is suggested as a construct of relevance to

could not come to a conclusion, apart from a rising fear

Conflict.

of embedded inconsistency. Would life, as a reader of this

I would rate this book as a difficult read.

book, be difficult (I asked myself)? No time to stop and wait, I scanned on. In scanning the first four chapters, it was disconcerting

Dennis Bryant is concerned with identifying institutional impediments to student Learning success. In this regard,

to note the inclusion of a high number of figures and

he has an abiding interest in the success of institutional

tables, which was not consistent with a book of this size.

processes (such as teaching, curriculum renewal) that fire

A second disconcerting observation concerned dated

student minds to success (to borrow the centuries-old

references. It seemed clear that the number of 1950s and

brilliance of Plutarch).

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The politics of victimhood Knowing Victims: Feminism, agency, and victim politics in neoliberal times by Rebecca Stringer. ISBN 978-0-415-64333-7, Routledge, 186 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Andee Jones

Note: Unless otherwise specified, references are to the eBook.

psychological, and pathological, or in the relatively

Nineteen eighty-nine was the end of history. So said Francis

atypical sense of the genuine victim of incomprehensible

Fukuyama in The End of History and the Last Man. The

crime. The former notion is profoundly depoliticising;

book read the collapse of Stalinism as signifying the global

it delegitimises the idea that victimhood can be social,

triumph of neoliberalism (free-market capitalism and

political, and collective (loc. 378).

liberal democracy), the end of history, the end point of the

Under neoliberal victim theory, says Stringer, the

evolution of humanity, and the final form of government.

ideal neoliberal citizen is one who avoids so-called

And this triumph of Western-style freedom, democracy,

‘victim mentality’ by assuming ‘personal responsibility

and free-market capitalism, so the story went, meant that

for guarding against the risk of victimisation, instead

structural oppression and victimhood no longer existed

of focusing on their right not to be victimised’ (loc.

in the post-socialist West (loc. 262).

209). Hence, the increasing economic inequality typical

‘Structural oppression,’ as distinct from the tyranny of

of neoliberalism is accompanied by discourses that

a ruler over the ruled, is embedded in everyday social

pathologise complaints against that very inequality

structures. It comprises, for example, disadvantage and

(Gurria, 2011).There are serious political consequences,

injustice suffered through ‘everyday practices of a well-

says Stringer: the majority of victim claims are

intentioned liberal society,’ including structural features

suppressed, negated, or erased. Even radical and

such as cultural stereotyping, bureaucratic hierarchies,

progressive political projects, she says, participate in

market mechanisms, and ‘unconscious assumptions and

antivictim talk (loc. 218).

reactions of well-meaning people in ordinary interactions’

What does it mean when many victims of structural

(loc. 945). Under this description, the claim that structural

injustice, together with their advocates, shun the very

oppression disappeared along with Stalinism is less than

notion of victimhood? How did the renunciation of

convincing.

victimhood become a moral virtue? The virtues of

What has the neoliberal turn in politics meant for

renouncing victimhood are extolled not only in the

prevailing notions of victimhood? How has the academy,

popular press, says Stringer, but also in progressive

or more specifically, academic feminism, dealt with the

venues in academia and social justice movements. Three

question? In Knowing Victims: Feminism, Agency, and

major features are prominent: the ‘victim-bad/agent-good’

Victim Politics in Neoliberal Times, Rebecca Stringer

formulation, the pattern of reverse victimology, and the

turns a critical eye on antivictim talk in contemporary

motif of resentment. Under the ‘victim-bad/agent-good’

feminisms, both popular and scholarly.

formulation, victims are categorised as the authors of their

As Stringer’s work exemplifies, there are various

own suffering, as having fallen victim to nothing more

feminisms, some of which overlap and others that are at

than their own subjective states of self-pity, passivity, and

odds.Throughout this review, I refer to specific feminisms

resentment (loc. 419).

(e.g., ‘second-wave’) whenever the category is what

The impression that victimhood is self-made, says

matters (e.g. to distinguish 1960s feminism from those

Stringer, is achieved by privileging ‘agency’ as the

that came later).

site of promise and implicitly making victimhood its

The rise and consolidation of neoliberal hegemony,

polar opposite (loc. 386). The ‘victim-bad/agent-good’

argues Stringer, has brought with it widespread criticism

formulation says, for example, that to regard women as

of the idea of structurally imposed victimhood. Neoliberal

agents is ‘enabling, progressive, and liberating,’ while

victim theory, as Stringer refers to it, constructs victimhood

to regard them as victims is ‘disabling, regressive and

either in a victim-blaming sense, that is, as subjective,

harmful’ (loc. 1672). Given its concerns about structural

The politics of victimhood Reviewed by Andee Jones

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injustice, second-wave feminism has been re-signified as

victimology emanates from right-wing think-tanks, such as

‘victim feminism’ by neoliberal victim theory.

London’s Civitas, and authors such as Roiphe and Sommers,

According to neoliberalism, the ideal citizen either

who define victim feminism as constructing women

develops the strength of character to rise above their

as passive victims of male domination (loc. 235, 584).

circumstances or admits to being a less-than-competent

According to reverse victimology, it is feminists who are

constituent:‘Victimhood becomes a quality of the sufferer,

victimising men (though, interestingly, this claim escapes

rather than something that happens to them’ (loc. 1177,

prosecution for constructing men as passive victims).

emphasis in text). And Stringer notes the strikingly

Unsurprisingly, reverse victimology constructs second-

derisive tone of the efforts to psychologise this so-called

wave feminism as false, destructive, and obsolete,

quality as a ‘form of mental frailty’ (loc. 226).

particularly when applied to the West in the 1990s, where the feminist work of ending male domination was nigh

The myth of a feminist victory

complete (loc. 677). The theory, however, produces no concrete examples of feminists who espouse (or ever

With the global victory of the free market came the

espoused) a theory of passive victimhood. Reverse

achievement

agenda;

victimology, says Stringer, rather than providing evidence,

consequently, today’s ‘power feminists’ and ‘equity

elaborates particular examples of excess into stories

feminists’ resist feminist victim identity and align

about feminism in general (the ‘zoom lens effect’) (loc.

themselves with postfeminist agency and empowerment.

845). The authors who promulgate the theory ‘generalise

Thus goes the neoliberal narrative. The critiques of

on the basis of unrepresentative example’ and strategically

so-called victim feminism, says Stringer, promulgate a

omit ‘the discourses of agency within feminist accounts

pernicious contradiction: they stigmatise victim subjects

of victimisation’ (loc. 862). They provide no evidence of

and victim politics on behalf of a philosophic-economic

bridged pay gaps, decreases in reported rapes, and so

program that has been, for many, profoundly victimising

forth (loc. 831).

second-wave

feminism’s

(loc. 1486).

Furthermore, says Stringer, these authors participate in

On one side, popular-press authors such as Katie

the very theoretical position they are criticising. That is,

Roiphe, Christina Hoff Sommers, and, more equivocally,

they treat women as if they are passive victims – not of

Naomi Wolf, proclaim that, in the West, feminism has

men but of feminism (loc. 820). In other words, the ‘victim

basically achieved its goals. On the other side is abundant

feminism’ construct is sustained through legerdemain, ‘a

evidence that, even if feminism looked no further than

tailored telling’ of feminist theory and politics that elides

the interests of white, middle-class, gender-normative

feminist concepts of agency (loc. 846).

women, its goals are far from being met (OECD, 2014).

Contrary to this tailored telling, says Stringer, second-

Across the globe, says Stringer, neoliberalism’s ‘inequality-

wave feminists were ‘critically concerned with the forms

generating programmes of structural adjustment’ have

of agency available to those who experience victimisation

hit women hardest. The feminisation of poverty and the

in any of its forms’ (loc. 927). ‘The victim subject in

overrepresentation of women in low-paid, minimum-

feminist theory is more likely to be conceptualised as an

condition employment and as welfare beneficiaries have

agent in the sense of being an active subject – a resistant

intensified (loc. 1477).

subject engaged in a power struggle – than as a victim

Given that the claims of authors such as Roiphe and

who is perfectly dispossessed of agency’ (loc. 935). ‘Being

Sommers blatantly contravene existing evidence, how

a victim did not mean being incapacitated and powerless.

have they achieved such prominence? Setting aside the

It meant being a determined and angry (although not

marketing mechanisms of ‘media-courted blockbusters,’

pathologically resentful) agent of change’ (loc. 935,

Stringer’s answer lies in what she identifies as a second

quoting Mardorossian, 2002, p. 767).

major feature of neoliberal victim theory: the pattern of reverse victimology.

Hence, while acknowledging women’s structural victimisation, second-wave feminism sought to garner women’s agency and solidarity into a potent liberatory

Reverse victimology

force. Insofar as that was the case, second-wave feminism constituted a threat to neoliberal hegemony.

Neoliberalism accuses second-wave feminism of crying

Of course the second wave had its faults. Western

victim and, in so doing, of victimising innocent others (loc.

feminism was critiqued by antiracist and postcolonial

403). According to Stringer, the majority of this reverse

groups for its cultural essentialising, its assertion of

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the primacy of gender versus intersectionalism, and its

including the way in which negative notions of victimhood

notion of the emancipated/emaciated binary. However,

produce unjust social responses to victims (loc. 250).

neoliberal antivictim rhetoric, far from interrogating

Stringer analyses this second-order vulnerability – to

intersecting forms of suffering, says Stringer, has in fact

being wounded and then having that wounding effaced

faithfully revived second-wave feminism’s least edifying

by others and by the law – in relation to Jean-François

ideas, while resignifying its worthiest critiques, for

Lyotard’s notion of the ‘differend’ (loc. 1629).

example, of economism and androcentrism (loc. 638).

In a telling paradox, says Stringer, rather than affirming

Together with the idea of feminism itself, she says, these

women’s agency, critiques of victim feminism suggest

‘best ideas’ have undergone a discursive resignification

that women are peculiarly at risk of ‘forfeiting personal

into what Nancy Fraser refers to as ‘uncanny doubles’

responsibility in favour of passive victimhood.’ And

under neoliberal feminism.

with this Stringer shows us we have been here before: the notion ‘updates a timeworn liberal construction

Academic feminism

of Woman as of questionable fitness for the rigours of citizenship, in this case, the market individualism of

As well as critiquing popular-press renditions such

the neoliberal polis’ (loc. 663). And, of course, we find

as Roiphe’s and Sommers’s, Stringer also examines

the notion of Woman as, by nature, unfit for citizenship

postmodernist and poststructuralist feminist critiques of

embedded in the ancient Western natural-philosophical

victimhood. Academic feminism, says Stringer, occupies

canon as Aristotelian ‘science.’

a conflicted position, not only as target and critic of

Unlike second-wave feminist critique, which agitated

antivictim discourse, but also as proponent (loc. 254).

against the politico-economic status quo, contemporary

Needless to say, academic-feminist analyses, compared to

critiques of so-called victim feminism, says Stringer,

the popular-press versions, are more complex, nuanced,

‘vigorously reassert the status quo, often passionately

and heterogeneous. Yet typically, says Stringer, they

defending it against further feminist incursion’ (loc. 585).

leave largely uninterrogated neoliberal constructions

They demonstrate what has been called ‘vulnerability to

of victimhood’s alleged problematic identifications,

incorporation into the neoliberal fold’ (loc. 333). Neoliberal

attachments, and practices. Hence, feminist objections

feminism’s pathologising of resentment, says Stringer,

to the notion of the victim serve to support neoliberal

continues ‘a long heritage of counter-revolutionary

values, wittingly or unwittingly (loc. 301).

Nietzscheanism,’ which situates the source of resentment antivictimism,

in individual character rather than in external power

scholarly antivictimism, says Stringer, is no more

Compared

conservative-populist

relations (loc. 516). This motif of resentment constitutes,

progressive. ‘Even feminists who in other moments

under Stringer’s analysis, the third major feature of

are interested in polysemy and resignification,’ she

neoliberal victim theory.

says, construct words such as ‘victim’ and ‘victimhood’ as ‘incurably connotative of passivity, helplessness,

The motif of resentment

dependence, and innocence.’ By the 1990s, this message had gained enough traction for the popular press to mark

According to Stringer, Nietzsche’s condemnation of

the 1990s as ‘the decade of women’s liberation from

ressentiment (not precisely synonymous with resentment)

victim feminism’ (loc. 271, 585).

is a key resource for current antivictimism. Nietzsche’s

According to Stringer, as a result of academic feminism’s

emphasis on character and psychology in the question

‘lapse in theoretical caution’ and largely uncritical

of morality, she says, ‘dovetails with the individualising,

acceptance of the ‘victim-bad/agent-good’ formulation,

psychologising, and pathologising discourses that have

there is substantial overlap between feminist and

redefined and reframed “victimhood,” “resentment,” and

neoliberal depictions of ‘the victim problem,’ including

“feminism” in the neoliberal era’ (loc. 3521). Stringer’s

a diverse intrafeminist corpus that seeks to move

critical exegesis of Nietzsche’s elitist project not only

feminism ‘beyond victimhood.’ Judith Butler, for example,

provides a method for reading neoliberal feminism, but

from a position critical of feminism (yet ‘still “in” and

also foregrounds a way of locating its fault lines.

“of” feminism’), advised feminists to move beyond ‘the paradigm of victimisation’ (loc. 295).

Nietzsche, says Stringer, identifies two strategies by which the powerful diffuse the creative ressentiment

In particular, says Stringer, scholarly antivictimism does

among slaves (i.e. anarchy). While the first strategy, the

not recognise the problem of secondary victimisation,

institution of law, works to contain ressentiment, the

The politics of victimhood Reviewed by Andee Jones

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second, priestly asceticism, is, in Nietzsche’s view, ‘far

of a complex mixture of feelings produced by external

more thoroughly successful’ (loc. 3970, citing Nietzsche,

invalidation.These may include unconscious combinations

2006, II, p. 11). The priest achieves ‘dominion over the

of anger, anxiety, despair, envy, shame, and self-loathing.

suffering’ and ‘alters the direction of ressentiment,’

Needless to say, neoliberal victim theory exploits, rather

inducing the slaves to self-blame, ‘by which the slaves are

than interrogates, this complex dialectics by amplifying

perfectly disarmed.’ Hence, the slaves are ‘self-disciplining,

victims’ sense of self-doubt and shame.

self-surveilling, self-blaming subjects who, in the active

Third, there is something about individual responsibility

practice of self-government, return themselves to docility.’

– namely, that every person is convinced of their own

They interpret their suffering as punishment and are

free will and of their responsibility for their choices

transformed into sinners (loc. 4053, citing Nietzsche,

and actions – that may enable subjects to accept what

2006, III, pp. 15, 20).

is otherwise a misrepresentation. And, setting aside the

Stringer analogises asceticism (as Nietzsche describes

largely academic debate about determinism and free-will,

it) with the ‘anti-sociological heuristics’ of neoliberal

this inner conviction is eminently reasonable. Even if the

victim theory. Neoliberal victim-blaming discourses, says

belief turns out to be based on a massive illusion, the fact

Stringer, are doing the work of the priest today,‘rebaptising’

is that people behave in accordance with this conviction

structural inequality, disadvantage, and discrimination as

in the same way as they behave as if they are convinced

personal failure (loc. 4091). Asceticism, says Stringer:

the sun will reappear each day.

requires the active participation of subjects in their own resignification as responsible, resilient agents and the recognition of its norms at the level of . . . everyday practice, speech, and writing, its values reverberating in established gestures for professing disapproval of the egoistic, complaining sufferer and for signifying one’s own or others’ status as self-coerced ‘good sufferers’ – uncomplaining, self-blaming and actively directing victim-blame towards ‘bad sufferers.’ (loc. 4106)

An egregious example from experimental psychology might serve to highlight the incoherence of the ‘victimbad/agent-good’ formulation. It is true that victims react to chronic victimisation in a variety of complicated, often unconscious ways, but these cannot properly be described as ‘choosing,’ or behaving passively in the face of, victimhood.Yet labels such as ‘learned helplessness’ are applied even in the case of animal victims, for example, to the behaviour of the dogs that psychologist Martin Seligman

According to Stringer, neoliberal victim theory is ‘a

and colleagues exposed experimentally to inescapable

machine for stopping complaint,’ a form of asceticism

electric shocks – eventually the dogs ceased struggling and

that, to borrow Nietzsche’s phrase, is characteristically

simply endured the pain (Peterson & Seligman, 1993).With

‘brazen and false’ (loc. 534, 4122).

its connotation of individual pathology, the nomenclature

What is it about this brazen and false ‘victim-bad/agent-

‘learned helplessness’ is implicated in the contemporary

good’ formulation that appeals to the contemporary

misuse of terms such as ‘passivity’ rather than ‘endurance’

mindset? In asking this question, I wish to put a

to describe victims’ adaptive, self-preserving responses to

biocultural-dialectical slant on Stringer’s sociological

inescapable victimisation.

analysis. Not to be confused with genetically deterministic ‘biosocial’

perspectives,

biocultural-dialectics

Of course this is not to deny that victims can be broken

holds

by their victimisers; in fact, Seligman’s findings, among

that neither biologically deterministic nor culturally

others, reportedly informed the US military’s updating

deterministic models are capable of adequately theorising

of its so-called ‘enhanced interrogation techniques’

the complexities of human behaviour (e.g. Leatherman &

(McCoy, 2014; United States Senate, 2014).Arguably, this is

Goodman, 2011, p. 5).

structural victimisation at its extreme.

Biocultural frameworks, in addition to embracing

Apropos politico-economic injustice, the 2008 global

Stringer’s analysis, would theorise the phenomenon

financial crisis, for example, in which tens of millions

of victim blaming as including unconscious defence

of people lost their jobs, homes, and savings, the act of

mechanisms: for example, blaming a specific something

seeking assistance (or, indeed, of occupying Wall Street),

or someone for damage done is less psychologically

far from signifying passivity, can be read as an active

destabilising than confronting the idea that some events

pursuit of preservation of self and community. Stringer

are beyond our control. Another contributing element

argues that in the moment of slave revolt the slaves do

to the phenomenon of victim blaming is that, while

not construct themselves as virtuous victims; rather, they

victimisation is an objective experience (e.g. being

take up political agency and contest the conditions of

discriminated against), it is also a subjective experience

their existence (loc. 3565).

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Feminism, says Stringer, must separate itself from the

In ending on an optimistic note, Stringer’s analysis

invidious position of vulnerability to incorporation into

properly engenders a whole new set of questions, not

the neoliberal fold and instead become a site of counter-

least among them: What might it mean for victims in and

hegemonic victim talk (loc. 350). Reclaiming victimhood,

of the twenty-first century to reclaim their right not to be

she says, will involve visibly using and revaluing the term

victimised rather than continuing to be sacrificed for the

‘victim’ and consulting the anti-ascetic heritage hidden

neoliberal cause?

behind the construction ‘victim feminism.’ In Stringer’s view, this heritage includes critiquing and politicising

Andee Jones is a writer, scholar, and psychologist. Jones’s

victim-blame, critiquing the intersections of gender, race-

latest book is The Gender Vendors: Sex and Lies from

ethnicity, colonialism, imperialism, and class in the politics

Abraham to Freud.

and social construction of victimhood, and refusing the victim/agent dichotomy (loc. 4282). Reclaiming victimhood also means reconnecting feminist critique with that of capitalism and repositioning feminism squarely on the left, setting it apart from, and avoiding resignification by, neoliberalism (loc. 4299). Stringer welcomes an intersectional-feminist approach to theorising and politicising victimhood, that is, a ‘critical victimology.’ She calls for recognition and amplification of already existing feminist critiques (e.g. the SlutWalk movement) of neoliberalism (loc. 4313). Stringer’s Knowing Victims is a cogent, engaging, carefully crafted, and meticulously researched critique of the rise and consolidation of neoliberal victim theory in popular-press and academic feminism. Stringer argues – against the current tide in those institutions – that victims of structural injustice, as agentic bearers of knowledge, can use the power of legitimate resentment as a ‘generative force for social change’ by advancing a collective political agenda. Key sites of resistance to the victim-blaming logic of neoliberalism, she says, include feminist politicisation of rape, interpersonal violence, economic inequality, and welfare reform (loc. 11).

The politics of victimhood Reviewed by Andee Jones

References Gurria, A. (2011). Divided We Stand: Why Inequality Keeps Rising. OECD Speech, December 5, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/social/ dividedwestandwhyinequalitykeepsrisingspeech.htm. Leatherman, T. & Goodman, A. (2011). Critical Biocultural Approaches in Medical Anthropology, in M. Singer & P. Erickson (eds), A Companion to Medical Anthropology. Chichester, West Sussex: Blackwell. Mardorossian, C. M. (2002). Towards a New Feminist Theory of Rape. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 27, 3. McCoy, T. (2014). ‘Learned helplessness’: The chilling psychological concept behind the CIA’s interrogation methods. The Washington Post (December 11). Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/ wp/2014/12/11/the-chilling-psychological-principle-behind-the-ciasinterrogation-methods/. Nietzsche, F. (2006 [1887]). On the Genealogy of Morality: A Polemic. K. Ansell-Pearson (Ed.). C. Diethe (Trans.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. OECD. (2014). Women, Government, and Policy Making in OECD Countries. OECD, doi: 10.1787/9789264210745-en. Peterson, C. & Seligman, M. (1993). Learned Helplessness: A Theory for the Age of Personal Control. New York: Oxford University Press. United States Senate. (2014). Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency’s Detention and Interrogation Program Executive Summary. Retrieved from http://www. intelligence.senate.gov/study2014/sscistudy1.pdf.

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Managerialism? Managerialism: a critique of an ideology by Thomas Klikauer. ISBN 9781137334268, Palgrave Macmillan, x+353 pp., 2013. Reviewed by Christopher Sheil

‘Managerialism’, wrote Don Watson ‘came to universities as

Klikauer is also correct to insist that the consequences

the German army came to Poland.’Thomas Klikauer quotes

can be diabolical. My favourite example is the case of

Watson with approval (p. 8). Managerialism went on to

the Queensland surgeon associated with the deaths of

conquer the world, says Klikauer, and is bent on destruction.

87 patients about ten years ago. The subsequent Royal

The roots go way back, but at some point in the late

Commission found that the surgeon was ‘a considerable

20th century, the idea of management morphed from

asset’. He was very industrious and maintained a high

the factory into an ideology with global ambition. The

output, ‘partly because of his careless surgery, and lack of

fate of anything that stands in managerialism’s way

proper after care’.‘Without him,’ wrote the Commissioner,

is ‘asphyxiation’ – one of Klikauer’s favourite words.

‘the hospital would not have been able to achieve its

We’re living through a period of ‘mass-asphyxiation’ (p.

elective surgery target.’ And then there was the period

276). Managerialism, the author says, ‘means the total

when trains suddenly started running off the tracks in

destruction of nearly all formerly known values and

New South Wales. Curious, I looked up the authority’s

institutions’ (p. 74).

annual report to find that none of the executive managers

Managerialism is anti-democratic, anti-environment,

were engineers.

anti-ethics, anti-thinking, anti-human. Humanity’s very

Do any managers really know what they’re talking

survival is at stake. The apocalypse is looming – ‘a violent

about these days? The problem is not so much what

and barbaric end of the empire of Managerialism followed

managerialism recognises, which is anything that can be

by a society and global breakdown’ (p. 277). So grave are

measured, but what it can’t see, which is pretty much

the present circumstances, they render ‘inactions against

everything else, including the context that determines

Managerialism a crime against humanity’ (p. 277).

whether the measures are meaningful. It’s impossible, for

Isn’t this rather over-excited? Managerialism: a

example, to quantify whether the justice system achieves

critique of an ideology could be described as a long

its purpose, i.e. fair outcomes for citizens using fair

book on managerialism, or a short book on the world and

procedures. The only means of gauging judicial fairness

the whole catastrophe, and the author certainly goes way

is by appealing to qualitative assessment by other judges.

over the top sometimes.

Similar problems are obvious in health, education, the arts,

Klikauer is correct when he says that the defining

and many areas of academic research, particularly in the

feature of managerialism is the assumption that the

humanities and social sciences. Klikauer quotes Einstein’s

differences between institutions ‘are less important than

succinct indictment: ‘not everything that counts can be

the similarities and that the purpose of all organisations

counted, and not everything that can be counted counts’

can be optimised by the application of generic

(p. 167).

management skills and knowledge’ (p. 5). By now, surely

Klikauer principally draws on philosophers and

we’re all familiar with outcome and output frameworks,

social and political theorists to make his argument.

performance indicators, benchmarking and all the rest,

Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Kant, Hegel, Hobbes, Rousseau,

upon which resource allocation, remuneration and

Descartes, Nietzsche, Adorno, Marcuse, Husserl, Arendt,

job security are forced to turn. Surely we’re also now

Orwell, Fromm, Foucault, and Habermas populate these

familiar with the complaints. Method overrides content.

pages, along with many lesser lights. The book has 936

Quantitative measurement trumps qualitative assessment.

heavily packed endnotes. Given the quality of Klikauer’s

Simplicity refutes complexity. The rationality in each of

philosophers and the limited categories and relations

managerialism’s parts turns irrational when the system is

described by managerialism, the critique is something of a

viewed as a whole.

turkey shoot.Yet this is also a difficult book to read and is

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unlikely to be appreciated by non-specialists. It’s neither a

could probably spend a week or more on every other

book on philosophy nor a book on management, but will

page before I was really sure that I understood what

probably defeat readers not well versed in both.

was being said. I should also mention that those hoping

The

difficulties

are

compounded

Klikauer’s

for straightforward guidance on the concepts and

interpretation of his material, for this is often glib and

practices that characterise real-life managerialism will be

contestable, resting chiefly on the authority of the

disappointed, for it turns out that Klikauer’s real objection

endnotes. In describing managerialism as an ideology,

is to corporate capitalism at large. In the author’s view,

for example, the author follows Chomsky (according

managerialism operates as a kind of social stabiliser

to the endnote) in defining ‘ideology’ as ‘knowledge in

for corporate capitalism. In sum, this is a relentless

the service of power’, the aims of which are ‘covering

philosophically-based polemical work, aimed at rubbishing

up, eclipsing, and distorting’ (p. 7). This definition not

managerial-type ideas broadly conceived, written from

only strikes this reviewer as difficult to distinguish from

the perspective of an author with a commitment to ethics,

propaganda or public relations; it also effectively convicts

humanism, and the natural environment.

the accused before we’ve heard the charges, let alone

‘At the heart of our problem lies the belief in the idea

tested the evidence. And anyway, don’t even the least

of single, all-purpose elites using a single. all-purpose

powerful have characteristic values and beliefs about the

methodology.’ So wrote the Canadian philosopher, John

world that could be described as an ‘ideology’?

Ralston Saul, in his contemporary classic, Voltaire’s

I don’t mean to suggest that the author’s usage is in

bastards: the dictatorship of reason in the West (1992:

error, only to stress that this work is pitched at such a high

135). Saul’s work doesn’t appear in the endnotes, which is

level of theory and generality that a full exposition and

surprising, for Klikauer is basically working on the same

evaluation would require inordinate parsing. To explain a

issues. ‘Managerialism alters the relationship between the

little further, Klikauer says that members of a dominant

rational and the irrational’, writes Klikauer (p. 267).‘It took

social class or group ‘receive the ideology in order to

us four and a half centuries to break the power of divine

create a false consciousness’, and he endorses Jaeggi’s

revelation’, wrote Saul, ‘only to replace it with the divine

proposition that ‘ideologies are the means by which the

revelations of reason’ (p. 36). The Holocaust was ‘only

predominant situation is instilled in the hearts and minds

possible through the application of modern management

of the individual’ (p. 3). Many will baulk at the concept of

techniques’, writes Klikauer (p. 110). It’s hard not to avoid

‘false consciousness’.

noticing, wrote Saul, ‘that the murder of six million Jews

Again, I’m not suggesting error, and to be sure, the

was a perfectly rational act’ (p. 16).

world is overcrowded with people trying to instil a false

Tenuously, Klikauer ends on a hopeful note, quoting

consciousness. The question is whether the process

Walter Benjamin: ‘It is only for the sake of those without

can ever be complete. At the end of this discussion,

hope that hope is given to us’ (p. 277). The issues raised

an endnote sends us to the brilliant Italian theorist of

by this book are of course important. Managerialism is,

ideological hegemony, Antonio Gramsci, who would have

by definition, based on partial rationality, which provides

never agreed that the dominant class could instil a false

no safeguard against irrationality by virtue of that very

consciousness in the subordinate. Ideological hegemony

incompleteness. But whereas Klikauer is demanding,

depends on a complex apparatus of justification and

compact and academic, Saul is entertaining, well-paced

repression, and as a matter of human respect, we would

and lucid. For those unfamiliar but interested in the

anticipate a more or less explicit ongoing reply in some

pathologies of today’s management, I’d recommend a

form from the subordinated, depending on the actual

stroll through Voltaire’s bastards before setting out to

circumstances of people’s lives, their resources and the

tackle Managerialism: a critique of an ideology.

balance of social relations. So maybe I’m comfortable with the definition after all, if I read into the concept an understanding I can accept.

Christopher Sheil is a Fellow in the School of Humanities and Languages at the University of NSW, Australia.

Overall, I’m sympathetic with Klikauer’s argument, but

Managerialism? Reviewed by Christopher Sheil

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Navigating your way through a professional staff career Managing Your Career in Higher Education Administration by Michelle Gander, Heather Moyes & Emma Sabzalieva. The Universities into the 21st Century series, Noel Entwistle & Roger King (series Eds). ISBN 978-1-137-32832-8, Palgrave Macmillan, 160 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Carroll Graham Reading the title caused me some anticipation. Here

readers’ comments to the Times Higher Education spoof,

finally, I hoped, was a book that addressed the issues

The Poppletonian newsletter (p. 23).While a number of

facing professional staff in managing their careers in

Australian authors have suggested that we need to move

higher education. However, the word ‘administration’

beyond this divide (see for example, Sharafizad et al.,

caused me some concern: was this a book so firmly rooted

2011; Conway, 2012; Graham, 2014), recent commentary

in the UK experience that it would be of little relevance

suggests, unfortunately, that the divide is alive and thriving

in the Australian context? Happily, I found there is much

(Thornton, 2014).

of interest and relevance for the Australian reader – for

The third and fourth chapters suggest practical activities

those working as a professional staff in higher education,

for career enhancement, through developing skills and

those considering such a career, and those (including

experience (Chapter 3) and using the opportunities

academics) managing these staff.

of networking (Chapter 4). Suggestions for skill and

As the authors comment, this book ‘is structured in such

knowledge development include gaining relevant formal

a way that you can read it from start to finish, or you can

qualifications, and undertaking continuing professional

dip into it at various times to help you with a particular

development in both ‘hard’ skills and leadership. Options

question’ (p. 8). While based on the authors’ experiences,

for gaining experience cover secondments, international

it is underpinned, where needed, by ‘research-based

experience, relevant external experience and participating

conceptual analysis’ (Entwistle & King, 2014, p. xiv). The

in professional associations. Use of existing networks – real-

book also includes several case studies that illustrate key

life and virtual – and creating your own, are discussed.Also

points, enriching the material presented.Thus, this book is

provided are useful techniques for mapping your networks,

an interesting, easy-to-read, practical guide, which is based

suggestions for moving outside your comfort zone, and for

on sound research.

managing your personal brand. While not guaranteeing

Of particular relevance to those new to working in

that the reader of these chapters will progress to becoming

higher education is the chapter on‘Working in a University’.

a registrar or deputy vice-chancellor, developing your

As mentioned above, this does have a UK perspective;

knowledge, skills, experience and networks can ‘enhance

nevertheless, there are home truths in this chapter for

your ability to do any job with a deeper understanding,

those of us working in Australian universities. For example,

enjoyment and motivation’ (p. 74).

the tension between the Humboltian research-focus

The Good Manager (Chapter 5) considers a range of

imperative and the teaching-focused tradition established

management structures as they apply to professional staff

in medieval times is still clearly evident, both in Australia

– an academic as line manager, ‘dotted line’ managers,

and in the UK. It is important ‘for those seeking to pursue

locally embedded roles with central managers, and

or develop a career in higher education administration...

matrix management – and how to make the most of any

to be aware that this fundamental tension around what

management relationship. Love it or hate it, management

universities should be doing persist[s] to this day’ (p. 14).

is a significant proportion of the work undertaken in

This chapter also touches on the tension of the ‘academic-

universities; however, many people find themselves

administrative divide’, which is clearly evidenced by

thrust into management roles without prior training. In

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this context, this chapter is important for its analysis of

being brave plays a large part in the development of any

what it takes to be a good manager of professional staff

career. Finally, if you want to get straight into developing

– and is essential reading for both prospective managers

your career (or someone else’s), useful action lists are

and current managers, be they professional or academic

provided for staff at junior, middle and senior levels.

staff. The following chapter focuses on the less formal relationships of mentor and coach, and explores the key

Carroll Graham is a Third Space professional who, until

features of these different roles and the benefits that each

recently, was Executive Manager at the Institute for

can bring at different stages in your career. This chapter

Sustainable Futures at the University of Technology Sydney

discusses effective mentors and mentoring, noting that it’s

(UTS), Australia. Carroll now has an honorary appointment

optimal to have different mentors for different purposes

in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at UTS to further

and at different times in your career. Mentors can also

explore issues in higher education, particularly those relating

use tips from this chapter to enhance their mentoring

to staff matters.

skills. The discussion of coaching includes coaching by line managers and how to make coaching work for you. Again, coaches will benefit from the advice provided here; however, importantly – as coaching puts the coachee in the driver’s seat – there is a section on how to be a good coachee. The final chapter considers how to define a successful career as a professional staff member, commenting on both intrinsic and extrinsic success. To illustrate possible career paths, the three authors provide their own career maps. As I have found, these examples highlight the need for consistent changing of roles, combined with significant levels of professional development, for career progression.

References Conway, M. (2012). Using causal layered analysis to explore the relationship between academics and administrators in universities. Journal of Futures Studies, 17(2), 37–57. Entwistle, N. & King, R. (2014). Series Editors’ Preface, in M. Gander, H. Moyes, & E.Sabzalieva. (2014). Managing Your Career in Higher Education Administration, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Graham, C. (2014). Another matrix revolution? The overlap of university work. Australian Universities’ Review, 56(1), 67–69. Sharafizad, F., Paull, M. & Omari, M. (2011). Flexible work arrangements. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(2), 43–49. Thornton, M. (Ed.). (2014). Through a glass darkly: The social sciences look at the neoliberal university. Canberra: ANU Press.

Likewise, I agree with the authors that serendipity and

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Education: A ghost story Capitalism: A Ghost Story by Arundhati Roy. ISBN: 978-1608464-385-5 (pb), 125 pp., Haymarket Books, 2014. Reviewed by Thomas Klikauer

After The God of Small Things and winning the Man

than twenty Indian rupees a day’.Arundahti Roy’s ‘making

Booker Prize (1997) and the Sydney Peace Prize (2004),

way for us’ indicates valid self-criticism because he

Haymarket Books has published Arundahti Roy’s latest

belongs to the 300 million middle-class that ‘buys things

book Capitalism: a Ghost Story. This work is on a par

it doesn’t need with money it doesn’t have to impress

with Michael Moore’s Capitalism: a Love Story (2009),

people most don’t even like’. All this is engineered under

Achbar & Abbott’s The Corporation: The Pathological

the hallucinogenic and ideological self-deception of ‘one

Pursuit of Profit and Power (2003), Benson & Kirsch’s

plasma-screen makes you happy – two plasma-screens

seminal article on ‘Capitalism and the Politics of

make you twice as happy’.

Resignation’ (2010), Freyenhagen’s illuminating critique

Elsewhere as in India the petit-bourgeois middle class

of capitalism (on: ‘Adorno’s practical philosophy’ 2013 p.

has also been hit by the twin ideologies of managerialism

26-52), John Pilger’s A Secret Country (2010), Klein’s This

(Klikauer, 2013) and neoliberalism when ‘after twenty-

Changes Everything (2014) and probably most of what

years of growth, 60 per cent of India’s workforce is self-

Noam Chomsky wrote during the last ten or so years.

employed, and 90 per cent of India’s labour force works

Arundahti Roy’s book also explains the background to

in the unorganised sector’. The global casualisation of

the recent visit to Australia of Indian Prime Minister, the

the workforce marches on increasingly unhindered

BJP party’s Narendra Modi (www.theguardian.com 17th

by disturbances such as those of trade unions, social

Nov. 2014). It also explains the role of The BJP party and

movements, and radical political parties set against

the government of India and gives some pretty clear

von Hayek’s political catechism of neoliberalism, as

indication how the affluence and opulence of some

well as managerialism. When scanning publications for

exists in the face of massive poverty by others. The steel

‘managerialism’ one gets the distinct impression that

magnate Lakshmi Mittal’s niece’s wedding reportedly

universities are areas of prime infestation. Meanwhile

‘cost

million’ (www.forbes.com, 12/17/2013).

protest against neoliberalism is framed as a form of

Meanwhile, the World Food Programme (wfp.org/

madness just as Marcuse had outlined so brilliantly in his

countries/india) reports ‘the country is home to a

The One-Dimensional Society (1966).

$82

quarter of all undernourished people worldwide’. While

Meanwhile in India, one of the government’s fights

Roy’s book explains what is done so that the rich stay

against a most prevalent anti-government protest is framed

rich and the poor stay poor, it also makes an insightful

as ‘operation green hunt’ designed ‘to flush the rebels out

contribution to education under capitalism ideologically

of the forest … in India we don’t call this war. We call

flanked by neoliberalism and capitalism.

it ‘Creating a Good Investment Climate’ [and for that the

To undertake this, Arundahti Roy’s starts with a short

state gave] the army legal impunity and the right to kill

discussion of the 2010 Commonwealth Games held

on suspicion’. To some, this might carry connotations to

in India on which Arundahti Roy notes, ‘in the drive to

a police state or military dictatorship – something rather

beautify Delhi for the Commonwealth Games, laws were

unexpected for a country that prides itself to be ‘the

passed making the poor vanish like laundry stains…

world’s greatest democracy’. But in the wake of keeping

the slums that remained were screened off, with vinyl

the poor in their place, ‘recently, Soni Sori, an Adivasi

billboards that said ‘DELHIciously Yours’ … the games were

schoolteacher from Bastar, was arrested and tortured in

a success’. But ‘the ghost story’ really begins with India’s

police custody’. The gruesome details are in Roy’s book.

300 million strong middle-class flanked by ‘the ghosts of

In the end ‘Soni Sori remains in jail, while Ankit Garg,

250,000 debt-ridden farmers who have killed themselves,

the superintendent of the police who conducted the

and of the 800 million who have been impoverished and

interrogation, was conferred the President’s Police Medal

dispossessed to make way for us, and who survive on less

for Gallantry on Republic Day’, perhaps under the motto:

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‘torture-equals-gallantry’. But incidents like these explain

workers – formerly known as lecturers and professors.

the huge public outcry when women in India are violated,

Many of them operate strict ‘Mushroom Management’ –

raped, and murdered – even by the state.

keep them in the dark and feed them sh***! But there

In order to keep the oppressed subjugated, the Indian

is also a horizontal task-based and highly standardised

state very early on relied on US help. According to Roy,

division when, for example, the reading syllabus

its choice was the RAND Corporation that invented the

became nothing more than ‘SOS’ – a standard operation

infamous prisoner dilemma. It is one of the prime fighting

sheet used in the car industry to organise the average

agencies of the USA ‘to thwart the persistent communist

55-second cycle time of a car worker.All this is organised

effort to penetrate and disrupt the free nation’. But

as a seamless flow where – just as Ford says – the product

coercive measures (the stick) have always been paralleled

(student) moves down the assembly line with a quality

by the carrot as well when more elaborate measures

check at the end called final examination. It is just as

appeared. This came when ‘the department store owner

General Motors’ boss once said ‘the point is that General

Edward Filene’ supported mass-consumerism through

Motors is not in business to make cars, but to make

‘affordable credits – a radical idea at the time’. Capitalism

money’. Perhaps the ‘point of the neoliberal-managerial

quickly seized on this by giving ‘affordable loans of tens

university is not to educate students, but to make money

of millions of dollars to working people, turning the US

through the sale of degrees’.

working class into people who are permanently in debt,

Roy continues with ‘those who could not afford the

running to catch up with lifestyle. Many years later, this

fees were given scholarships.Today in countries like India

idea has trickled down to the impoverished countryside

and Pakistan there is scarcely a family among the upper-

of Bangladesh when Mohammed Yunus and the Grameen

middle class that does not have a child who has studied

Bank brought micro-credits to starving peasants with

in the US [and Great Britain, Australia, etc. TK]. From their

disastrous consequences’. Micro-credits are ‘responsible

ranks have come good scholars and academics but also the

for hundreds of suicides – a suicide note by an eighteen-

prime ministers, finance ministers, economists, corporate

year-old girl [said] ‘work hard and earn money. Do not

lawyers, bankers, and bureaucrats who helped to open up

make loans’. Perhaps one not only gets the Nobel Peace

the economies of their countries to global corporations.

Prize for drone killings but also for something like that.

Scholars of the foundation-friendly version of economics

Roy continues with ‘like all good imperialists, the

and political science were rewarded with fellowships,

Philanthropoids set themselves the task of creating and

research funds, grants, endowments, and jobs. Those with

training an international cadre that believes that capitalism,

foundation-unfriendly views found themselves unfunded,

and by extension, the hegemony of the US, was in their

marginalised, and ghettoised, their courses discontinued.

own interest [and] the CIA and US State Department

Gradually, one particular imagination – a brittle, superficial

continue to work with students and professors in US

pretence of tolerance and multiculturalism (that morphs

universities, raising serious questions about the ethics of

into racism, rapid nationalism, ethnic chauvinism or

scholarship’. Perhaps it is not scholarship but ‘knowledge

warmongering Islamophobia at a moment’s notice) under

in the service of power’ more commonly known as

the roof of a single, overarching, very unplural economic

ideology (e.g. Therborn’s ‘ideology of power’, 1988). But

ideology – began to dominate the discourse. It did so

Roy also notes that

to such an extent that it ceases to be perceived as an

... corporate-endowed foundations are the biggest founders of the social science and the arts, endowing courses and student scholarships in development studies, community studies, cultural studies, behavioural science, and human rights. As US universities opened their doors to international students, hundreds of thousands of students, children of the Third World elite, poured in. But the children of developing nations’ elites not

ideology at all. It became the default position, the natural way to be. It infiltrated normality, colonised ordinariness, and challenging it began to seem as absurd or as esoteric as challenging reality itself. From here it was a quick, easy step to ‘There Is No Alternative’ popularised by Apartheidand

Pinochet-loving

Margaret Thatcher

(news.bbc.

co.uk/2/hi/304516). But

neoliberalism’s

political

ideology

‘the

only poured into US universities, they also make up a

privatisation of everything’ has also meant the NGO-

substantial part of Australia’s ‘educational industry’. An

isation of Everything. As jobs and livelihoods disappeared,

industry it is indeed, with the mass-manufacturing of

NGOs have become an important source of employment.

degrees based on a vertical Tayloristic division of labour

They work like transmitters, receivers, shock absorbers,

setting university management against educational

alert to the very impulse, careful never to annoy the

Education: A ghost story Reviewed by Thomas Klikauer

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government of their host country … Armed with their

But ‘David Busamian is not the first person to be

billions, these NGOs have waded into the world, turning

deported over the Indian Government’s sensitivities over

potential revolutionaries into salaried activists, funding

Kashmir. Professor Richard Shapiro, an anthropologist

artists, intellectuals, and filmmakers, gently luring them

from San Francisco, was deported from Delhi airport in

away from radical confrontation, ushering them in the

November 2010 without being given any reason. Most

direction of multiculturalism, gender equity, community

of us believe it was the Government’s way of punishing

development – the discourse couched in the language of

his partner Angana Chatterji, a co-convenor of the

identity politics and human rights’.

International People’s Tribunal on Human Rights and

Meanwhile, ‘Indian poverty, after a brief period in the

Justice, which first brought international attention to the

wilderness while India ‘shone’, has made a comeback as

existence of unmarked mass graves in Kashmir … while

an exotic identity in the arts, from the front by films like

the government goes about trying to silence the living,

Slumdog Millionaire. These stories about the poor, their

the dead have begun speaking’.To stop that,‘all resistance,

amazing spirit and resilience, have no villains – except

armed as well as unarmed, has been branded ‘Maoist.’

the small ones who provide narrative tensions and local

In Kashmir the preferred phrase is ‘jihadi elements’.

colour. The authors of these works are the contemporary

Roy concludes with ‘the idea of dreaming of equality

world’s equivalent of the early anthropologists, lauded

became blasphemous. ‘We are not fighting to tinker with

and honoured for working ‘on the ground’, for their

reforming a system that needs to be replaced’. Just as the

brave journeys into the unknown. You rarely see the

German philosopher Adorno once said ‘there can be no

rich being examined in these ways’. ‘Having worked out

way of living a false life correctly’ – not in India, not in

how to manage governments, political parties, elections,

Australia, and certainly not in education.

courts, the media, and liberal opinions, the neoliberal establishment faces one more challenge:

Thomas Klikauer teaches postgraduate students in

• How to deal with growing unrest, the threat of ‘peoples’

‘Contemporary People Management’(HRM) at the University of

power.’ • How do you domesticate it?

Western Sydney and has published a book, Managerialism: a critique of an ideology, reviewed in this issue of AUR.

• How do you turn protesters into pets? • How do you vacuum up peoples’ fury and redirect it into blind alleys?’ Perhaps one way of achieving this is by simply removing critics from the scene. A more recent case in Roy’s book is that of US radio journalist David Barsamian working for public radio and ‘publishing book length interviews with Edward Said, Noam Chomsky, Howard Zinn, Ejaz Ahmed, and Tariq Ali’. In Barsamian’s case, the Indian state sought to silence knowledge about its occupation of Kashmir. To achieve that the state did the following:‘taking over under the shabby old banner of the War on Terror, the Home Ministry has decreed that scholars and academics invited for conferences or seminars require security clearance

References Achbar, M. & Abbott, J. (2003). The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power (DVD 145 min), Toronto: Big Picture Media Corporation. Benson, P. & Kirsch, S. (2010). Capitalism and the Politics of Resignation, Current Anthropology, 51, 4, pp. 459-486. Freyenhagen, F. (2013). Adorno’s practical philosophy: living less wrongly, New York: Cambridge University Press. Klein, N. (2014). This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs. the Climate, London: Penguin. Klikauer, T. (2013). Managerialism – Critique of an Ideology, Basingstoke: Palgrave. Marcuse, H. (1966). One-dimensional man: studies in the ideology of advanced industrial society, Boston: Beacon Press.

before they will be given visas. Corporate executives and

Moore, M. (2009). Capitalism – A Love Story, New York: The Weinstein Film Company.

businessmen do not. So somebody who wants to invest

Pilger, J. (2010). A Secret Country, London: Random House.

in a dam or build a steel plant or buy a bauxite mine is not considered a security hazard, whereas a scholar

Therborn, G. (1988). The ideology of power and the power of ideology, London: Verso.

who might wish to participate in a seminar about, say, displacement or communalism, or rising malnutrition in a globalised economy, is’.

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Veni, vidi, vici The Wit of Whitlam by James Carleton (Ed.). ISBN 9780522868081 (paperback), 9780522868098 (eBook), Melbourne University Publishing, 224 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Paul Rodan

This collection, compiled by James Carleton (son of the

As Whitlam’s genius speech-writer Graham Freudenberg

late political journalist Richard) is the second book with

points out in the preface to the book, the great man took

this title, the first having been assembled by Deane Wells

seriously his obligation to make Australians laugh: it was ‘a

in 1976. Gough Whitlam himself was keen to distinguish

duty which came with political office’ (p. vii). And, while

between being ‘witty’ and ‘funny’. He was adamant that

it was often lost on the obtuse, sending himself up was

he was the former (or ‘epigrammatic’); being ‘funny’ was

an intrinsic part of the Whitlam routine: the tall poppy

for clowns, and no-one could ever accuse the great man

pricking his own pretensions.

of that.

On receiving then Governor-General Quentin Bryce

Many of the quotations will be well-known; others less

into his Sydney office,Whitlam (then in his 90s) could quip

so. Gough could be vulgar, as in responding to a rustic

‘I always get nervous when I’m meeting with a Governor-

MP’s ‘I’m a Country member’ with ‘We remember’ (p. 32),

General’ (p. 166), and who could top his backhanded

but there was never vulgarity for its own sake. Wit can be

compliment when asked for a positive comment about

vulgar, but not all vulgarity is wit – a point which seems

Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who had been reported

lost on many plying the comedic trade today.

as holding less than flattering views on Whitlam: ‘He

Whitlam’s classical education afforded him a vast

married well’ (p. 106).

treasure trove from which to select individuals or events to

The book is a very enjoyable read and demonstrates

make a contemporary point. Nor was his history restricted

just what a class act Whitlam was. Among other Australian

to the ancient, as he demonstrated when Coalition Prime

prime ministers, only the conservative Robert Menzies

Minister Billy McMahon announced 2 December as the

has enjoyed a comparable reputation for mastery of the

date for the 1972 federal election. Noting that this was the

spoken word, and a similar volume to the one under

anniversary of the Battle of Austerlitz, and anticipating his

review (albeit slimmer) – The Wit of Menzies – appeared

own election victory, Whitlam observed that the date was

in 1966. While political predictions are notoriously risky,

one on which a crushing defeat had been administered to

this reviewer can assert with reasonable confidence that

‘a ramshackle, reactionary coalition’ (p. 30).

neither The Wit of Abbott nor The Wit of Shorten will ever

Whitlam’s love of language lead to an enduring

grace the shelves of any bookshop.

friendship with Liberal MP Jim Killen, with each taking the parliamentary piss out of the other in erudite and

Paul Rodan is an adjunct professor in the Swinburne Institute

witty style, some of which is captured in this collection.

for Social Research at Swinburne University of Technology,

The two men would exchange notes (often in Latin) on

Melbourne, and a member of the Australian Universities’

the floor of the House, a practice utterly unimaginable

Review editorial board.

today for two reasons: the apparent lack of mutual respect and affection between opponents and the inability of many to write in witty English, let alone Latin!

Veni, vidi, vici Reviewed by Paul Rodan

vol. 57, no. 1, 2015

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