3 OF THE TOP 10 MINERAL PRODUCTING COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD ARE SITUATED IN THE ARTIC
GLOBAL MINERAL POLICY STRATEGIES; MAPPING OUT TENDENCIES USA Major mineral producer Major consumer Looking to import and invest globally Sees recycling and substitute-materials as a future potential Is more preoccupied with the affairs of “mainland” America and consideres it´s arctic territories somewhat of a periphery. Has shown an increasing interest in the arctic lately. Canada: Major mineral producer Relatively self-sufficient on minerals, with some exceptions. Asia; Approximately 50% of the world mining production, with China and India as top producing countries. China; Major producer Major consumer Looking to invest, especially in Africa and now in the potential mining possibilities opening up in the Arctic. Signalised a signifigant reduction of exports of Rare Earth minerals in 2010, the same year as they reached a 95% near monopoly on the production of Rare Erth minerals. Understandably this gave the rest of the world a nasty suprise(Ref: http:// geology.com/articles/rare-earth-elements/). Definite interest in the Arctic; Mining in Greenland, access to the opeing shipping routes and applying for observer status in the Arctic council. India; Major producer, but in Chinas shadow. Japan: Is not a major mineral producer and is therefore interested in the artic, also because of the potential new shipping routes; has an independent arctic institute. Africa: Interest in investments from China and India (Asia) 95% of investment in Africa comes from mining, oil and gas
EU; Minor producer, except from Poland, which are one of the top 10 mineral producing countries in the world. Mineral strategy announced in 2008 Looking to import and invest globally 80% import dependant One of the major mineral-political strategies is recycling Also applying for observer status in the Arctic council Russia; Major mineral producer Norway: Major Petroleum Industry Minor Mineral producing and lacking in a broad competence
GLOBAL MINERAL SITUATION
USA
Canada
production
Russia
China
India
Australia
production
production
production
production
consumption
Africa
consumption
consumption
export
export
import
import
export
EU
export
export
export
import
import
export
export
import
The selection of countries in the diagram is based on the top 6 mineral producing countries in the world, including the EU as a major consumer (and prorelatively relatively relatively relatively ducer), and the whole of Africa, as a continent where there is a lot of mineral production.
insufficient
self sufficient
self sufficient
insufficient
self sufficient
self sufficient
insufficient
Sources: Production: Based on statistics about the 10 top most mineral producing countries (British Geological Survey 2009) Consumption: Based on statistics on the world consumption from 2007 (Crowson 2008)
Export/Import: Based on a comparative analysis of the world 7 top most countries exporting and importing minerals by Irene Crowo Nielsen.
Thus the whole scheme is not directly comparable, but displays a general tendency, shedding a clearer light on the various countries mineral strategies.
GLOBAL MINERAL POLITICAL STRATEGY
Canada
USA
Russia
?
China
India
Australia
Africa
EU
? Resulting Policy research
Legend
extrovert
introvert
open
Looking outside country boarders to invest and import
Protecting ceirtain resources for domestic use
Open to outside investments and exporting resources
closed
recycling
? Researching new possibilities and technologies
Closed to outside investments
Interested in using recycling as a source of future resources
Source: This diagram is based on extracts from and on the independent mineral strategies of the USA and EU, analysis of the import/export diagrams and conversations with the Norwegain Foregin Ministry, Polar department (26.01.2012), Andreas Østhagen from the Arctic Insitute (25.01.2012), Jack Ødegård from SINTEF (18.01.2012) and Christopher Eads from the Economist Intelligence Unit (1.02.2012), all in Oslo.
ARTIC MINERAL SITUATION AND POLITICAL STRATEGIES
USA
Canada
Russia
Greenland
Norway
major producer
major producer
major producer
future producer?
minor producer
export
export
export
export
export
import
import
import
import
import
?
?
Iceland
EU
producer
Source: This diagram is based on the same sources as the Global Mineral Strategy Diagram and the Global Mineral Situation Diagram.
GLOBAL EXPORT AND IMPORT FLOW The selection of countries in the diagram is based on the top 6 mineral producing countries in the world, including the EU as a major consumer (and producer), and the whole of Africa, as a continent where there is a lot of mineral production that isn´t legal, and thus is partly unrepresented in the general statistics.
Canada
USA
In addition, Japan is included as a major consumer, and Norway as the country we will eventually zoom into later on in the process.
Russia
Norway Japan
EU
The statistics used does not focus solely on mineral exports and imports, but as it includes the countries where the theme is relevant it displays a clear tendency, though it must be read critically.
China
Africa
India
Main source (2005-2006): http://www.exportnation.com/research/ EU source (2010): http://ec.europa.eu/trade/creating-opportunities/ bilateral-relations/statistics/
Australia
Africa supplementation source (2010): http://www.economywatch.com/world_economy/africa/ export-import.html US supplementation source (2012): http://economics.about.com/cs/1/a/importexport.htm
EXPORT - IMPORT
USA EU NORWAY CANADA RUSSIA AUSTRALIA CHINA AFRICA INDIA JAPAN
-
EU USA EU USA EU CHINA USA JAPAN CHINA USA JAPAN EU JAPAN EU US US CHINA CHINA US
These countries are dependent on the other countries SUPPLY AND DEMAND
EXPORT
USA - CHINA JAPAN CANADA EU EU - CANADA RUSSIA AUSTRALIA - INDIA These countries are dependent on the other countries DEMAND
IMPORT
JAPAN USA NORWAY CHINA EU EU AUSTRALIA JAPAN
-
RUSSIA USA CANADA CHINA INDIA EU AUSTRALIA
These countries are dependent on the other countries SUPPLY Why is it not vice versa? Because the other countries do not have the same dependency on their supply and demand, with the exception of EU and USA, who are dually dependent on each other´s supply and demand.
Otherwise it is interesting to note that both China and Africa have the same dependency on Japan, EU and USA; India and Japan both have the same dependency on China and the US, whilst no one is dependent on Canada, Russia and Australia (even though they are major mineral producing countries)
ARCTIC REGION ARCTIC CIRCLE The Arctic Circle is the circle of latitude at 66 degrees 33 minutes N (2606 kilometers/1619 miles from the North Pole) that encloses a northern area about 8 percent of Earth s surface. The Arctic Circle is the southern limit of the midnight sun, where north of the circle there is at least one day each year when the sun does not set. ARCTIC REGION There is no fixed boundary for the arctic region. The definition of arctic determined by the specific aspects of the region. The most commonly refered boundary is AMAP Boundary. AMAP BOUNDARY The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) “area” essentially includes the terrestrial and marine areas north of the Arctic Circle (66°32´N), and north of 62°N in Asia and 60°N in North America, modified to include the marine areas north of the Aleutian chain, Hudson Bay, and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean including the Labrador Sea. Within the AMAP area, 10 “key areas” have been identified that are a special focus for coordinated and harmonized monitoring and research activities. AHDR BOUNDARY Some extent of the Arctic as a region was determined by the use of biophysical criteria. While some was determined by cultural, economic, or political terms. for instance the Arctic Human Development Report (AHDR). In the AHDR Arctic. It encompasses an area of over 40 million square kilometers or about 8% of the surface of the Earth, a sizable domain by any standards . But the human residents of this vast area number only about 4 million, of whom almost half are located within the Russian Federation 10oC and TREE LINES are determined by the use of biophysical criteria.
A
A
A source: - http://arcticportal.org/en/amap - Arctic Human Development Report (AHDR) Oran R. Young, University of California at Santa Barbara,U.S.A., and Níels Einarsson, Stefansson Arctic Institute, Iceland - Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), Arctic Pollution Issues: State of the Arctic Environment Report (AMAP, Oslo, 1997). - T. Armstrong, G. Rogers, G. Rowley, The Circumpolar North (Methuen, London, 1978).
1 Arctic Circle AMAP Boundary AHDR Boundary 10C July line Tree line
T
THE ARCTIC COUNTRIES SAILING ROUTES
USA
SAILING ROUTES
RUSSIA
USA USA
RUSSIA
CANADA
CANADA CANADA
GREENLAND
GREENLAND GREENLAND FINLAND
Accoriding to the international legal instrument governing maritime jurisdiction and boundary delimitation United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) which entered into force in November 1994, a coastal state is entitled to a sovereign territorial sea extending up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from its coastal baseline. The normal baseline is the low200-mile line area water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts, but equidistance line straight baselines can also be drawn across the mouths of rivers and some bays, and along coastlines which are “deeply indentedagreed border 200-mile line area and cut into� or fringed with islands. claimed continental shelf equidistance line Beyond the territorial sea, the coastal state is entitled to 200-mile line area unclaimed agreed border claim an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) extending up to 200 nm equidistance line claimed continental shelf from its baselines. agreed border
unclaimed Where zones of jurisdictional entitlement overlap, the states in claimed continental shelf question need to agree a maritime boundary. unclaimed
source: http://www.lecerclepolaire.com/articles_archives/Pratt_maritime_Arctic. html
ICELAND NORWAY ICELAND
FINLAND NORWAY
ICELAND NORWAY
SAILING ROUTES
SAILING ROUTES
ASIA
In the summer 2011 the Arctic Sea Ice melt-down reached a new record low since the beginning of satellite data record ranging back to 1979 as well as other recorded data ranging back to the 50’s.The Northern Sea route is vastly free of ice. Russians are taking advantage of that, sending numerous vessles through the route, amongst them the largest ever tanker to go through the route.Shipping in the Arctic is becoming a reality and all the Arctic nations are getting ready. The shipping and sailing will only increase with less sea ice. source: http://www.arcticportal.org/arcticshipping-maps
AMERICA
ice surface 2010-30 EUROPE
ice surface 2040-60 ice surface 2070-90 north-west passage north-east passage northern sea route future central arctic shipping route
POPULATION
RUSSIA 1980 000
ALASKA (USA) 649 000
Almost half are located within the Russian Federation. Russia thus consider itself as the major country of arctic and takes aggressive approaches to the arctic policies.
CANADA 130 000 The biggest proportion of area lies in Canada terriotories. The arctic population however is comparatively low. Canadianarctic policy focus on ecosystema and resources.
GREENAND (DANMARK) 57 700 Majority of Greenland population are indigenous, the policy to indigenous people is in high priority in Danmark Arctic policy.
In the area of over 40 million square kilometers or about 8% of the surface of the Earth (AHDR Arctic). Human residents of this vast area number are about 4 million, which is about 0.057% of world population. source: Arctic Human Development Report (AHDR)
indigenous-people
ICELAND 290 000
FAROE ISLAND (DANMARK) 47 700
NORWAY 380 000 Norway has comparatively high arctic population and one of the most active countries to arctic policies.
FINLAND 201 000 non-indigenous people
RESOURCES IN THE ARCTIC
potential oil & gas
There is rich storage of resources in the arctic-oil/gas, fish, minerals. Thanks to the melting ice the resources is more accessible than before, the interests to the arctic from different nations and organization are therefore increase. source: http://arcticportal.org/en/amap
fishing area
<10%
very low
10%-30%
low
50%-100%
medium
100%
high
MINERAL ACTIVITIES
The diagram is showing the changes from 1992 to 2007. Because of the ice melting in arctic and Chinese decresing mineral export, there will be a new mineal arctivity trend in the coming decades in the arctic. source: Arctic Human Development Report (AHDR)
changes in mineral activities 1992-2007 200% or more increase
1-99%decrease
100-199% increase
no mining
1-49% increase
new production
ACTORS IN THE ARCTIC ACTORS IN THE ARCTIC
ARCTIC COUNCIL
BARENTS EURO ARCTIC COUNCIL
BARENTS REGIONAL COUNCIL
NORDIC COUNCIL
CAPITALS OF THE MEMBER COUNCTRIES
Norwegian Constitution Capitulation of Russia to Japan _ end of Tsarism _ Frirst Russian Revolution, democratisation
1814 1905
01/06/1990
1990
15/01/1988
1984
Single maritim boundary agreed
Geopolitic on the Kola Peninsula : strengthening of the national minorities and indigenous rights Nordic countries but also in Russia
Bilateral agreement on environmental protection
Nordic Council
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
10/12/1982
Islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) agreed Continental shelf boundary and joint zone agreed
Fisheries boundary following the
28/01/1980 22/01/1981
Continental Shelf boundary agreed 17/12/1973
strat of a Nordic economic cooperation, Finland didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t take part at the beguining
Continental Shelf boundary agreed
The Nordek plan :
joint the Nordic Council as members of, respectively,
Inauguration of the Nordic House in Reykjavik, design by Alvar Aalto
Agreement on a Nordic Cultural Fund Support cultural projects involving a minimum of three Nordic countries
Nordic Constitution, known as the Helsinki TreatyThe joint Nordic labour market
Nordic Passport Union : more clearly defined than the Passport-free travel
Maritime boundary partially delimited
Nordic Council Nordic Convention on Social Security
Passprt-free travel was introduce between the Nordic countries
Nordic Council ratified
The Danish Prime Minister Hans Hedtoft, at the Nordic Interparliamentary Association proposed the creation of The Nordic Council a consultaion body in which Nordic parliamentarians would meet on a regular basis
Failed negociation to a Nordic Defence Alliance => part of NATO
=> Northern war
Changes of the border Finland-Soviet Union, Norway occupied by Germany, Alliance Finland-Germany
Changes in the geopolitical situation
1971
1970
08/1968
30/01/1966
1955
15/02/1957
1955
1952
19/08/1951
1949
(Russia-Finland)
WWII + Winter War
Treaty of Svalbard/Spitsbergen
End of constant competition and warfare between Denmark, Sweden and Russia => New period of agricultural colonisation of the north. New Swedish constitution
1809
09/02/1920
Sea way to the white sea in northern of Russia by The English Compagny of Merchant Adventurers
Transformation from ethnic communities to states comunities.
Local autonomy : differents ethnics groups competed and cooperated, establishment of territorial states and Christiany
1553
16th century
9th century
TIMELINE OF ARCTIC GEOPOLITIC
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Creation of the Barents Region with the Barents Cooperation The Kirkenes declaration establish Barents Euro Arctic Council and Barents Regional Council United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in force Continental shelf and fisheries boundary agreed Arctic Council with the Ottawa Declaration Continental shelf and Fisheries boundary agreed Tripoint agreed
09/05/1992 11/01/1993
16/11/1994 18/12/1995 19/09/1996 11/11/1997
Commission Communication on the European Union and the Arctic Region
20/11/2008
Agreement on the maritim boundary in the Barents Sea Ocean signe but still not ratified Conference Statement of the Ninth Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region 15/09/2010
12/05/2011
Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR) agreement, Arctic environmental protection strategy
Nuuk Declaration by the Arctic Council
security prospects in the Arctic region, particularly the military aspects of the High North
Security
NATO's new Strategic Concept, approved by Heads of State and Government at the Lisbon Summit
Statement on Canada's Arctic Foreign Policy 28/08/2010
Environment
11/2010
Finland's strategy for the Arctic Region 04/06/2010
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) USA's Responsible Arctic Energy Development Act
Canadian Northern Strategy Canadian Act to amend the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act
08/2009
Economy
2010
Russian national security strategy until 2020 05/2009
American National Security Presidential Directive, Homeland Security Presidential Directive
Boundary
09/01/2009
USA's Arctic Oil Spill Research and Prevention Act USA's Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment Implementation Act
Basics of the state policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic for the period till 2020
12/09/2008
Minorities and Indigenous policies
2009
Ilulissat Declaration adopted at the Arctic Ocean Conference
28/05/2008
Joint Danish and Greenlandic strategy for the Arctic
Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples by the United Nations General Assembly
13/09/2007 05/2008
Extention of the Norway-Russia maritime boundary
11/07/2007
Norwegian Government's Strategy for the High North
Partnership Agreement
Continental shelf and fisheries boundary agreed
Policy of countries and different organisations
2007
20/02/2006
(Svalbard)
New Baltic Sea
09/04/1992
Nordic Sami Convention
EU membership
12/03/1992
2005
EU membership
01/06/1991
History EU relations
+
(R
1
INTERACTION BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT ACTORS IN THE ARCTIC
INTERACTION BETWEEN THE DIFFERENTS ACTORS IN THE ARCTIIC
Official inter-parliamentary body in the Nordic Region Globalisation , Climate, Freedom of movement, East of the baltic
ARCTIC COUNCIL
Denmark, Finland, Island, Norway, Sweden
Canada, Denmark (Greenland, Ilses Faroe), Finland, Island, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, United States
NORDIC COUNCIL
Global politic Arctic Contaminants Action Programme (ACAP) Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) Conservation of Arctic Flora end Fauna (CAFF) Emergency Prevention. Preparedness and Response (EPPR) Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) Sustenaible Development Working Group (SDWG)
BARENTS COOPERATION Day to day politic
BARENT REGIONAL COUNCIL Sweden, Norway, Finland, Russia, working Groop on Indigenous Poeples (Saami of norway) interregional cooperation on 6 frame sector programmes : Forestry, Mining and minerals, Oil and gas, Tourism, EastWest logistics, Higher education
BARENT EURO
CHINA
ARCTIC COUNCIL Denmark, Finland, Island, Norway, Russia, Sweden, European Commission intergovernmental cooperation on issues in the Barents Region : energy, environment, indigenous peoples, economy
EU EU
The “Arctic Five” and the Arctic Council
The 1996 Ottawa Declaration created the Arctic Council, which is comprised of eight states, six permanent indigenous organizations and several “observer states.” While China and EU apply for permanent observership to the Arctic Council, with particular reference to the governance of the northern sea routes, the five Arctic Ocean costal states have met as the “Arctic Five” to discuss issues like searchand rescue capabilities, oilspill cleanup capabilities and maritime shipping regulations.
Chinese research vessel Snow Dragon
The Five have agreed to be committed to existing Law of the Sea adjudication of competing sovereignty and resource claims and the coastal states see “no need to develop a new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean,”
“The Arctic belongs to all the people around the world, as no nation has sovereignty over it... China must play an indispensable role in Arctic exploration as we have one-fifth of the world’s population.” Foreign Ministers of the Coastal Arctic states meet in Chelsea, Canada. March 29, 2010.
Chinese rear admiral Yin Zhuo, March 2010
Norway Arctic Policy 2011 The High North, Visions and Strategies 100 most used words
Norwegian foreign policy is based on the respect for international law and cooperation. As one of the five Arctic littoral states, Norway has a strong position in the Arctic Council and the strategy of cooperation has been confirmed by the establishment of a permanent secretariat for the Arctic Council in Tromsø.
Murmansk, 15. Sept. 2010. Norway and Russia signing the treaty on maritime delimitation and cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean.
The main drivers for the Norwegian arctic policy are: Climate change - establishing northern Norway as a laboratory for climate change. A polar research hub Resources - partly a consequence of the first, access to and knowledge about new resources become available. The expectations of oil and gas and consequences for regional development are only rivalled by the environmental concerns. Relationship with Russia - “Norway’s policy with Russia is based on pragmatism, interests and cooperation.”
Denmark Arctic Policy 2011 Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020 100 most used words
Greenland achieved self-rule status in June 2009. This gave the Greenlanders recognition as a distinct people with the right to self-determination and more control over its gas, gold and diamond reserves, while security and foreign policy remain the competence of Denmark. In view of the self-rule, the policy paper is using the term Kingdom of Denmark, referring to Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. Like the Norwegian policy, cooperation is high on the agenda, as is climate and research. Among the main words are also oil, exploitation, gas, industry and mineral. EU and Canada are the only partners that make it on the list.
USA Arctic Policy 2009 National Security Presidential Directive-66 on Arctic Region Policy 100 most used words
The United States is a major Arctic player through the state of Alaska. But as the Senate has failed to ratify the UN convention on the Law of the Sea, the US has not been able to join in as other countries have sent in territorial claims in the region. Nuuk, 11. May 2011 Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton arrives at the 7th Ministerial Meeting of the Arctic Council,
The Arctic policy calls for a more active and influential presence to protect US interest and to secure free passage through the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route.
Canadian and US research vessels on joint programme in the Arctic ocean
Canada Arctic Policy 2009 Our North, our Heritage, our Future 100 most used words
Russia Arctic Policy 2008 The Fundamentals of state policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic in the period up to 2020 and beyond 100 most used words
Russia’s Arctic strategy emphasizes the region’s importance to Russia’s economy as a major source of revenue, mainly from energy production and profitable maritime transport. Defining the limits of the country’s continental shelf by 2015 is listed as a top priority. Among other strategic goals the document points at developing the transport and communication infrastructure in the region, particularly connected to the Northern Sea Route as a national, integrated transportationcommunication system
President Putin at Franz Josef Land to tag a polar bear in April 2010
The European Union has three memberstates in the Arctic sone, Finland, Sweeden and Denmark. But as Greenland opted out, the Union has no Arctic coastline. The Parliament resolution of 2011 argues that a future accession of Iceland to the EU would transform the Union into an Arctic coastal entity and that this represents a strategic opportunity. Iceland is however not concidered one of the Arctic littoral states among the Arctic Five. The EU seeks a closer cooperation with, and status as permanent observer in the Arctic Council. There is no dispute as to the soveregnity of the Arctic states, but the prospect of northern shipping routes makes the northern dimension increasingly important.
European Union policy 2006 The Northern Dimension 100 most used words
European Parliament in Session
EU Parliament 2011 Resolution on a sustainable EU policy for the High North 100 most used words
THE BIG PICTURE New technology China increases manufacturing
Increased demand for ICT
Call for environmentally sustainable solutions Strict environmental regulations
Climate change
Increased demand for REE and other minerals
China reduces export quotas
China h 95% o olds f REE! !
Green mining New shipping lanes across the arctic Ocean
Arctic Ice cap is melting
New N orwegian mineral law 2009 New Arctic harbours
Access to new Visibility of Need for delineation recources climate change of borders and attracts political responsibilities attention
Financially viable to explore deposits and (re-)open mines Norwegian mineral strategy in Norway and Barents in 2012
Norway Arctic strategy International cooperation and legal order
Value creation Tromsø as Polar and employment resarch hub and Sustainable use Arctic capital of resources UN law of the seas UiT - AHO cooperation
Foster sustainable supply of raw materials from European sources achieve globally diverse supplies Barents Euro Arctic Council Infrastructure development in Barents area
UNCLOS 1994 AC-Secretariat Research and development of new knowledge and technology
Arctic Council 88 member states
6 permanent indigeneous organisations
USA mineral strategy
EU raw materials initiative
Access to markets
Norway-Russia border treaty 2010
Mineral prices sky rocket
Global scare on mineral supply chain disruption
Norwegian Sametinget Saami Council
Exploring the Arctic for new mineral sources
identify substitute minerals
Improve capacity for recycling, reuse and more efficient use of materials
Investment in and development cooperation with African mining countries