The origins of tequila, it is not w hat you think! Patricia Colunga-GarcíaMarín Daniel Zizumbo-Villarreal
Center of Scientific Research of Yucatan Ofelia Vargas-Ponce Guadalajara
former PhD student at CICY. Currently at University of
Fernando González-Zozaya et al History (INAH)
National Institute of Anthropology and
The origins of tequila Cultural
Agro-biological
Agave tequilana Weber var blue
Current genetic diversity
Agave tequilana Weber var blue
Future ecological and cultural sustainability of Agave spirits production
M ex ico: center of agricultural origin and dom estication of Agaves
Vavilov´s 1940 Centres of origin of domesticated plants. In: Smith, B.D. 1995. The emergence of agriculture. Scientific American Library. New York p: 231
“Here the great genetic diversity in a genus rich in use potential cam e in the hands of several peoples w ho developed the m ain agricultural center of the Am ericas� Gentry 1982
Agavaceae
Agave
Mexico: 75% (150 out of 200 spp ) 69% endemic (104 out of 150) (GarcĂa-Mendoza 2010)
Modified from GarcĂa-Mendoza
1995
Rosette perennials Sexual reproduction
Vegetative propagation: - Bulbils - Shoot roots
After 8-20 years
Mature rosette.
Longitudinal section
Stem
Leaf bases
Thick, abbreviated shoot
Spirally, imbricated
Inflorescence peduncle
“Head” or “Pineapple” Stem + leaf bases
Cutted leaves
Agave heads being pit-cooked
Stem Leaf bases
Cooked agave head
Nowadays almost all the species present in Mexico are traditionally used Fiber
Human food
Fermented beverages
Distilled beverages
Other important traditional uses: medicine, building, fuel, fences, and utensils
Morphological structures used Colunga-GM et al 1996
When did the human-agave symbiosis began 11,000 years in Mesoamerica?
Guilรก Naquitz Caves, Tlacolula Valley. Oax aca. M ex ico
Origins of tequila Agaves for food
Agaves for food “M ezcals” M ezcal = bak ed agave From the Nahuatl: “metl” = agave and “ixcalli” = cooked or baked
Agave heads being pit-cooked
Cooked agave head
Great M ezcal Cutural Region Agaves used for food probably were:
Modified from Bruman, H. 1940. Aboriginal Drink Areas of New Spain. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California, Berkeley.
The most widespread element in the native diet, before the development of agriculture.
The universal understory upon which the later cultivated food resources were superimposed.
Basic to all regions except the tropical lowlands.
Agave bak ing for ferm ented beverages “M ezcal w ine�
Crushing of baked heads Fermentation of juices
Agave bak ing for ferm ented beverages “M ezcal w ine” Cultural Region
Northern lim its of m ezcal baking
Did not ex tend as far
north as m ezcal baking for food I t w as w ide spread at
the tim e of the Spanish Conquest
Brum an , H. 2000. Alcohol in ancient M exico. The University of Utah P ress
The “M ezcal–Jocote” cultural area Whithin the “Mezcal wine”
area Bruman (1940) described five sub-cultural areas, well defined in terms of native alcoholic beverages In one of these, now West-Central Mexico, the alcoholic beverages were m ainly from agaves and hug plum (Spondias purpurea L.)
Brum an , H. 2000. Alcohol in ancient M exico. The University of Utah P ress
The “M ezcal–Jocote” cultural area
Tequila Valley
Brum an , H. 2000. Alcohol in ancient M exico. The University of Utah P ress
W ho W hen W here How
Did the distillation of agave began in W est-Central M ex ico?
Distilled beverages 
Distillation of the alcohol contained in a ferm ent is not a natural process

I t has not been invented by all hum an cultures
Agave spirits 
The invention of agave spirits in pre-contact M esoam erica rem ains controversial due to the lack of definitive evidences

I ts developm ent during the Spanish Colonial tim es has also been debated
Bruman (1940, 1944)
Tequila companies. Muriá (2003),
Valenzuela-Zapata y Nabhan (2003)
• Native people
• Spanish colonists
• Traditional use of agaves as food and
• Consumption of grape spirits
• Foothills of the Colima volcanoes
• Tequila Valley
• End of 16th Century
• 17th Century
• Adaptation of the Asian still introduced by
• Use of the Arab still introduced by
fermented beverages
Spaniards to produce sugarcane spirit Filipinos to produce coconut spirit (both coconut and Filipinos brought by Spaniards)
• Difussion N to the
Tequila Valley
Foothills of the Colima volcanoes
Tequila
Colima volcano
M ezcal
Food obtained
Plants = Mezcals
MEZCAL
Appellation of Origin “Tequila”
USA
Territory protected MEXICO
Mexican Official Norm Agave tequilana Weber var. azul (Blue agave)
20º N Lat
Possible biological origin of A. tequilana Weber Gentry (1982) defined that A. tequilana belongs clearly to the A. angustifolia complex, and that the only reason to keep it as a different taxonomic species is its economic importance.
TEQUILA
Agave angustifolia Haw.
Possible biological origin of A. tequilana Weber var blue Based on morphological similarities, he suggested that ithe var blue probably originated from the wild A. angustifolia populations that grow between Cocula and Tecolotlรกn Tequila
Colima Volcanoes
To undestand the cultural and agro-biological origins of Tequila, w e had :  To link the biological observations of Gentry with the Bruman
hypothesis of the cultural origin of the agave spirits in the foothills of the Colima volcanoes,
 To introduce a new hypothesis about the agro-biological origins of
the West-Central Mexico agave landraces selected to produce mezcals in general, not only Tequila
Foothills of the Colima volcanoes
West-Central Mexico
Theory of evolution of cultivated plants. ďƒ˜ Their areas of greater diversity are the best
candidates to be their areas of origin,
Foothills of the Colima volcanoes
HYPOTHESIS: • If the foothills of the Colima Volcanoes was the area where the Asian still was adapted to the elaboration of agave spirits in West-Central Mexico,
• Then, it is in this area where we can find: The greater diversity of landraces selected with this purpose The agroecosystems where they could have evolved
Modified from Bruman 1940, 2000
Ethnobotanical ex ploration
Richness and m orphological variation Wild populations Cultivated landraces
Used to produce Agave spirits (Mezcals)
Ixtero Amarillo R. C. Nieto Zapotitlan de Vadillo Jal .
Population analysis of the diversity, genetic structure and relationships of the wild and cultivated gene pools
Inter Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSRs)
RESULTS
Ethnobotanical ex ploration Pre-Hispanic technology to bake Agave “heads�
Colima Volcanoes
Fermentation in subterranean pits carved into the bedrock
Same Filipino still used in the 16th century for the production of coconut spirit
Filipino still described by Feliciano (1926) Reproduced by Bruman (1944)
LANDRACE RICHNESS Tequila Valley
5/44
Colima volcanoes
South Jalisco
More traditional landraces used for mezcal production 40/44 landraces
M acario Partida Zapotitlรกn
10 landraces
Juรกrez Brothers Tolim รกn
33 landraces
Agave cultivation in
complex agroecosystems
Maize
In association with cattle and traditional food crops: maize, beans and squash Squash
TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
WILD
LET STAND
ENCOURAGED
I n situ management Vegetative propagation
Let stand seedborn plants
Agave cultivation Seed nursery
in complex agroecosystems
LANDR ACES R I CHNESS Maintenance and enhancement of ancient landraces
Introduction of selected wild germplasm into cultivation
Continuous:
Introduction and improvement of landraces from other towns of the region
Let standing and in situ encouraging of selected wild plants
RI CHNESS OF LAN DRACES Traditionally favored and selected by farmers to provide:
Diversity of flavors
Resistance to predators and diseases Adaptation to multiespecific and multivarietal agroecosystems, including cattle
“Ixtlero verde ” selected also for fiber
“Ixtlero amarillo” selected also as living fence
Farmers are greatly concerned for the expansion of blue agave conducted by the tequila companies, through: Rent of farmers lands Pressure on growers to stop cultivating traditional varieties, to prevent their mix-up with blue agave Massive harvest of wild populations during blue agave scarcity times
Tequila (blue agave) landscape
Consequences: Soil erosion
Displacement food crops traditional landraces wild populations
Tequila is one of the industries w ith quick er grow th in M ex ico
280 000
1 125 000
Tons of blue agave used by tequila industry Source: Council for the Regulation of Tequila
WILD
Genetic diversity
LET STAND
TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ENCOURAGED
COMMERCIAL SYSTEM LANDRACES
37 populations 69 ISSR’s loci
TEQUILA
Genetic diversity
69 ISSR’s loci
N Population
HE
HB
Wild
25
X SD
87.20 0.32 6.51 0.03
0.35 0.03
2
Let standing/ Encouraged Enhanced
19
X 87.04 0.32 SD 2.00 0.01
0.35 0.04
1 Tequila
pl
9
2425 Traditional landraces
Wild Let standing/ Landraces Encouraged
n/pop
Tequila
18
22
X SD
66.40 0.26 0.27 16.32 0.06 0.05 20.20
0.08
0.11
94.00 0.32 94.00 0.30
0.34 0.33
Outgroups 1 A. angustifolia Yuc 27 1 A. guadalajarana Jal 26
pl = percentage of polymorphic loci; HE expected heterocygosity (Lynch and Milligan, 1994); HB Bayesian genetic diversity (Holsinger and Lewis, 2003)
Genetic diversity
69 ISSR’s loci
N Population
HE
HB
Wild
25
X H 87.20 0.32 0.35 E =0.29-0.40 SD 6.51 0.03 0.03
2
Let standing/ Enhanced
19
X 87.04 0.32 SD 2.00 0.01
1 Tequila
pl
9
2425 Traditional landraces
Wild Let standing/ Landraces Encouraged
n/pop
Tequila
18
22
0.35 0.04
12/ H X 66.40 0.26 0.27 E =0.29-0.35 SD 16.32 0.06 0.05
20.20
0.08
0.11
94.00 0.32 94.00 0.30
0.34 0.33
Outgroups 1 A. angustifolia Yuc 27 1 A. guadalajarana Jal 26
pl = percentage of polymorphic loci; HE expected heterocygosity (Lynch and Milligan, 1994); HB Bayesian genetic diversity (Holsinger and Lewis, 2003)
Genetic diversity
69 ISSR’s loci
N Population
Wild Let standing Landraces Encouraged
Tequila
n/pop
pl
HE
HB
9
Wild
25
X SD
87.20 0.32 6.51 0.03
0.35 0.03
2
Let standing/ Enhanced
19
X 87.04 0.32 SD 2.00 0.01
0.35 0.04
25 Traditional landraces
18
1
22
Tequila
X SD
66.40 0.26 0.27 16.32 0.06 0.05 20.20
0.08
0.11
94.00 0.32 94.00 0.30
0.34 0.33
Outgroups 1 A. angustifolia Yuc 27 1 A. guadalajarana Jal 26
pl = percentage of polymorphic loci; HE expected heterocygosity (Lynch and Milligan, 1994); HB Bayesian genetic diversity (Holsinger and Lewis, 2003)
Genetic diversity
Traditional management 11 pop Zapotitlรกn 9 pop Tolimรกn
Zapotitlรกn
Tolimรกn
Parcel
Tequila
Commercial tequila management
Genetic structure
Gene pools managed by traditional farmers
Intensity of Management
θB
Population Gene pool
Np /Ni
FST (θ)
IC 95%
Wild
9/232
0.179
(0.147, 0.215) 0.19
(0.155, 0.222)
Let stand / Enhanced
2/39
0.333
(0.258, 0.408) 0.27
(0.213, 0.349)
Landraces
24/442
0.360
(0.332, 0.388) 0.33
(0.314, 0.350)
IC 95%
Np, number of populations; Ni, total number of individuals; FST (θ) coefficient of differentiation (Weir and Cookerman, 1984), θB, Bayesian estimation of FST (Holsinger and Lewis, 2003); IC 95%
A. angustifolia Ameca Most of the gene pools belong to the A. angustifolia Haw complex
A. rhodacantha Trel 1 wild population 2 landraces
Ameca Tequila
AT AT
Gentry 1982
A. angustifolia
Tecolotlรกn surroundings
Tequila Valley
Did agave spirits were invented in West-Central Mexico before the Spanish conquest? Pre-Hispanic technology to bake Agave “heads�
Fermentation in subterranean pits carved into the bedrock
Distillation in the Filipino-style still
ďƒ˜ If the native people of the foothills of the Colima volcanoes, so early
adapted the Asian still to elaborate mezcals, on the basis of their traditional use of agaves as food and fermeted beverages, ďƒź Then
this adaptation could also be based on a
preceding k now ledge of distillation techniques
The key is to find the pre-Hispanic still The other elements needed to produce mezcals certainly existed before the Spanish conquest
Capacha vessels (1500-1000 BCE). National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico.
We tested the hypothesis of
Found and characterized by Kelly (1974, 1980)
Needham et al. (1985) a team of Chinese culture researchers.
The gourd and the trifid vessels, which characterize the Capacha culture of the Early Formative period (15001000 BCE) of West-Central Mexico could have been used to produce spirits.
Tequila Valley
Colima
Beekman, Ch. S. 2009. Recent Research in Western Mexican Archaeology. J Archaeol Res
Sim ilarity w ith the pottery steam er (1600-1046 BCE) that they postulated as predecessor of the M ongol and Chinese stills .
Tseng (steamer)
Li (boiler)
Capacha vessels (1500-1000 BCE). National Museum of Anthropology ,Mexico. Kelly (1974, 1980)
Hypothetical most ancient Mongolian and Chinese type still
Mongolian type still with the catch bowl held centrally in a variaty of ways
Chinese type still with catch bowl, side-tube and receiver
Experiments to test the hypothesis of Needham et al (1985) for the agave ferments
Capacha vessels (1500-1000 BCE).
National Museum of Anthropology Mexico.
Museum of Colima Regional History
Techniques and m aterials available in the region in 1500-1000 BCE
•“Bean pot” used as a cooking technical
reference.
• Beans pots have been used since the Capacha times to the present • Beans were domesticated in West-Central Mexico
Beans are cook with plenty of water. The pot is sealed with a bowl where fresh water is heated and use as needed.
The “bean pot� can be considered a proto-still Water colder than inside Water evaporation
Condensation can easily be observed and tasted
Vapor condensation
The key is to have a catch bowl to collect the condensed alcohol
Catch bowl
Based on the “bean pot� , the trifid stills could be designed
Their arrangement of two superimposed pots, joined by tubes, allows a recipient to be placed in the upper one
Trifid Capacha vessel (1500-1000 BCE) Regional Museum of Guadalajara, Mexico
Catch bowl?
Assembly of the Trifid Capacha-type still Agave ferment Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria L.) condenser and recipient
Ceramic condenser and recipient
The “Gourd Capacha -type still�
A simplified version of the trifid still would be a single tube connecting the two pots, although this would require to hang the receptacle
Assembly of the Gourd Capacha-type still Agave ferment Ceramic condenser and recipient
Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria L.) condenser and recipient
Possible evolution of the “Capacha-type M esoam erican still” (1500-1200 BCE) BEAN POT Archaeological Museum of Mascota Jalisco.
TRIFID VESSEL Regional Museum of Guadalajara Jalisco
GOURD VESSEL Caxitlán Archaeological Museum Colima
Experiments to test the hypothesis of Needham et al (1985) for the agave ferments  The
assembled stills successfully produced ethanolcontaining distillates
 The mean size of the vessels
found in the museums, their funerary contexts, and the ethanol yield obtained in the experiments, suggest that:
 If
used as stills, they were used to produce a prestige good for ceremonies highly culturally and socially relevant
Average distillate yield (20 replicates) = 49.5 mL/L Average ethanol concentration = 160.3 g/L Average ef!ciency = 7.8 g ethanol/liter ferment/2 h
More important findings and implications for the future sustainability of Tequila and mezcal production systems ďƒź Tequila,
and all mezcals from West-Central
Mexico, culturally originated as components of the Mesoamerican food culture
ďƒźFrom the agro-biological point of view, they evolved as elements of the Mesoamerican agricultural systems WILD
LET STAND
ENCOURAGED
In situ management Vegetative propagation
Let stand seed-born plants
Agave cultivation in Seed nursery
complex agroecosystems
At present, the most ancient procedures to
elaborate mezcals are:
Pre-Hispanic technology to bake Agave “heads”
Fermentation in subterranean pits carved into the bedrock
Filipino still introduced by the Asians brought into West-Central Mexico by Spaniards in the late 16th century
ďƒź Distillation
techniques could be known since pre-Hispanic times by native people, as there exist ceramic vessels that could be used as stills
These stills could have evolved from cook ing instrum ents
lik e the bean pots that belong to the M esoam erican food culture BEAN POT Archaeological Museum of Mascota Jalisco.
TRIFID VESSEL Regional Museum of Guadalajara Jalisco
GOURD VESSEL Caxitlán Archaeological Museum Colima
ďƒźThe foothills of the Colim a volcanoes is the area w ith greater A. angustifolia landrace diversity selected for the elaboration of
agave spirits (m ezcals) in W est-Central M ex ico (38/ 44)
Colima volcanoes
Modified from Bruman 1940, 2000
People from this area left plenty of evidences of the pre-Hispanic
importance of agave as food and probably as alcoholic beverages. Funerary offering with mezcal plants
“Shaft and chamber tombs” Culture. From Preclassic to Classic. From Ortices phase 500 BCE-500 ACE to Colima phase. 400-600 ACE
Baked agave head
Agave angustifolia Haw
Los Angeles County Museum, USA
Metropolitan Museum NY, USA
Zizumbo-Villarreal et al 2009
Funerary offerings M ezcal fleshy baked leaf bases and a ferm ented?/ alcoholic? beverage “Tumbas de Tiro� Culture. Classic. Comala phase 200-400 ACE.
Museum Alejandro Rangel Hidalgo.
Baked agave head
University of Colima. Comala, Mexico
Los Angeles County Museum, USA
Metropolitan Museum NY, USA
Funerary offerings M en carrying harvested agave heads with head bands (mecapales) made with agave fiber “Tumbas de Tiro� Culture. Classic. Comala phase 200-400 ACE.
Private Collection photo from Butterwick, K. 2000, p 106
Museum of the West Cultures Colima, Mexico
Funerary offerings Couples drinking alcoholic beverages? “Tumbas de Tiro� Culture. Classic. Comala phase 200-400 ACE
Private Collection, photo from Towsend, R. 2000 p 133
Archaeological circular subterranean stone structures
Archaeological structures were probably used to bake agaves
25 structures in residential and ceremonial contexts from the Classic and Post-classic periods (200-1500 CE)
38 stone ovens currently used to cook agaves for spirits
Archaeological structures Residential single family (6)
Residential, multifamily (6)
Ceremonial (13)
Ovens in use Single family (23)
Group (8)
Semi-industrial (7)
Zizumbo-Villarreal et al 2009
That the elaboration of agave spirits in the foothills of the Colima volcanoes, is predicated on a pre-Hispanic agri-food tradition that began thousands of years ago, is very important
ďƒ˜ It implies that the diversity of
landraces used today to elaborate agave spirits, is the result of thousands of years of native people selection
Traditional management
+ Human selection Diversity of flavors and agrobiological characters
High genetic diversity Landraces and farmers plots
Wild
Let standing Landraces Tequila Encouraged
In great contrast with the low diversity of
the tequila commercial system focused in just one clone, the blue agave
Zapotitlán Tolimán Tequila
Parcel
CONCLUSIONS
The high diversity of traditional mezcal
landraces in the foothills of Colima, is endangered by the expansion of the “blue agave” clone cultivation Displacing : wild populations traditional food crops Causing soil erosion
 The cultural and biological diversity of
mezcals needs to be protected ALTERNATIVES
ďƒźTo support and stimulate the
persistent interest of traditional farmers in conserving their landraces, agro-ecosystems and food culture
ďƒźSupporting the whole traditional
system, including the in situ management of wild populations, as it has proved to be essential to preserve high diversity
ALTERNATIVES
ďƒźThis encouragement should include legal protection of
its germplasm and products , in order to benefit the farmers and their communities
• At present, it is paradoxical that mezcal producers of
Jalisco are excluded from the Appelations of Origin Tequila and Mezcal.
The Appelation of Origin Mezcal only recognizes 6 species in 7 states
used to produce Mezcal We have recorded 39 species in 26 states (out of 32)
They receive 260 different common names that could represent different varieties or landraces. (Colunga et al. 2007)
Fortunately, there is an increasingly important movement of traditional producers of mezcals that needs to be supported. The richness of flavors of all these mezcals is waiting for you!
A. cupreata
ยกGR ACI AS !
Center of Scientific Research of Yucatan
Coconut and Filipinos
1569. Coconut seeds w ere introduced for the first tim e to the M ex ican Pacific coast by Spaniards
Colima Philippines
1569 Salomon Islands
1571. Began to traffic of “Chinese indians� from the Philipines to Colim a and Acapulco to w ork in the cacao and coconut groves.
1571 Colima Philippines
 By 1600, I N ONLY 30 YEARS, coconut cultivation and
the liquor elaborated from the distillation of the inflorescence sap, becam e the m ost im portant activity of the Bishopric of Colim a
Cutting of coconut inflorescence to colect the sap
Bishopric of Colima
Collection of the sap
1603. “Coconut wine” was prohibited due to its competition with the liquors imported from Spain
Punishment of violations included destruction of coconut plantations, tools, fines, and jail.
Colima Volcanoes
Mezcal-jocote fermented beverages cultural area
Some “Chinese-indians”
Evading the colonial laws,
thanks to isolation and the migrated upriver, to the ease to disassemble and hide foothills of the Colima the still volcanoes, with their stills and coconuts Spreading the technique
“The introduction of the process of distilation was so early, the product of the stills, once seen, so easily fashioned from native materials, that mezcal “wine” (the fermented beverage) soon came to be looked upon almost everywhere as merely an intermediate stage for obtaining mezcal liquor (the distilled drink)”. Bruman (1940: 18-19)