The Sustainable Water Resource Handbook Volume 4

The

Sustainable

Water Resource Handbook

South Africa Volume 4

The Essential Guide

www.alive2green.com/water

senter 360 Senter 360 is a privately owned South African company situated in Klerksdorp in the North West Province.

We have been in the irrigation industry for more than 20 years, specialising in surveying, system design, installation and the commissioning of irrigation systems, with centre pivot irrigation always being a major part of our business.

The Senter 360 centre pivot was born in 1994 from many years of practical field experience.

We now have growing business interests throughout South Africa, Africa and other countries.

We provide a complete service, which includes project development - from feasibility studies to implementing and project management.

The trust placed in our company and its product was recently illustrated by the awarding of a South African government tender to erect 55 pivots for the Taung irrigation project.

This includes upgrading the Taung’s current irrigation system.

Our Products Designed and built in South Africa since 1994, Senter 360 centre pivots are known for their superior quality of construction and strength that top industry standards. But it is not only about the strength of the structure, the detail counts.

Structural stability Senter 360 uses pipe trussing, which makes the structure much stronger and lighter. Our pivots therefore provide extremely strong resistance in stormy weather.

The standard 4.5 m long heavy-duty base beam (5.9m for the high profile models) ensures

stability over uneven terrain and during windy conditions. Drive unit legs are made from 100 x 75 x 6 angle iron and are reinforced with horizontal and diagonal braces.

The ball and socket joint between large diameter spans prevents operating loads from being transformed from one tower to the next.

All in all, the Senter 360 pivot was designed to last and is built with the same objective in mind.

Innovative control panel series South African designed and built mechanics control the system and electronic control panels using standard 230 Volt, control the circuit. All electronic panels are backed up by a mechanical system and are modular for easy upgrading.

Heavy duty motor-gearbox The 0,56kW 40:1 or 1,1kW 30:1 three-phase 400 Volt 50 Hz motor-gearbox unit has a fully enclosed irrigation duty motor, mounted at the centre of each base beam.

The 50:1 wheel gearboxes are fitted with 57,15mm output shafts. All shafts have double-lip oil seals with external seal savers. A full cycle expansion chamber with a bellowstype expansion diaphragm is standard on all gearboxes.

The self-aligning rubber insert used with the drive unit couplers, allows for softer starts and stops. This feature is critical in prolonging gearbox life.

Contact Details Tel no 018-469-133 info@senter360.co.za www.senter360.co.za

PROFILE: SIKA

Sika- helping to build for the future around the world Sika is a global company with a worldwide presence in 76 counries and some 15 300 employees. Sika is active in the field of specialty chemicals dividing its activities into two business areas; the Construction Division and the Industry Division.

The company has a strong innovative tradition, constantly striving for new levels of excellence. This means developing innovative technologies that will open up new opportunities for the company, its employees, and its partners in trade and industry.

Construction Sika develops solutions that optimize customers’ processes, make future-oriented, top-notch quality construction achievable, and lower costs. We work in close collaboration with architects, engineers and specialist contractors to achieve excellence in the areas of Roofing, Waterproofing, Sealing and bonding, Refurbishment, Flooring, Concrete.

Sika products have the ability to withstand the various elements such as wind, weathering and temperature fluctuations resulting in a solid, uncompromised product offering.

Sika Technology and Waterproofing Sika is committed to proven and economic water-tight solutions for even the most challenging requirements. Sika’s waterproofing technologies include: • Integrated “White Box” concept which is a water-tight concrete and joints waterproofing • High-quality flexible PVC and FPO membranes with unique compartment system • Polyurea, polyurethane and epoxy coatings • Complete injection systems • Mortars and renderings and more.

Sika supports each project with unique services: • • • • •

Wide range of tailor-made guarantee concepts Analysis of leaks in existing structures Concepts, specifications and detailing Site specific solutions, application training and on-site support Proven quality control systems

Sika solutions for saving water • Concrete produced with Sika ViscoCrete admixtures requires up to 15% less water than concrete mixed using standard procedures.

• Waterproof concrete and interior coatings supplies by Sika for drinking-water reservoirs reduce water losses.

• Sika’s spray-applied waterproofing membranes for watertight structures and wastewater treatment plants reduce contamination.

For more information on Sika products and systems, visit zaf.sika.com

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

3

FOREWORD

Recently there have been quite a number of service delivery protests in various towns and cities around the country.

While some of the protests can be attributed to politicking for the upcoming elections, we acknowledge that delivery of essential services like potable water and sanitation is very essential.

The South African Government through the Department of Water Affairs has gone a long way in improving access to water services since 1994, both legislatively by declaring access to potable water as a human right, and physically by the implementation of service provision projects. In 1994 only 59% of the population had access to potable water. At this moment in time nineteen years later, the number of South Africans with access to potable water has increased to a massive 95.2%. Much as this is a notable achievement we are committed to wiping out the 4.8% backlog as we are aware that it is every citizen’s right to have access to water.

ILISO Consulting is a professional services company providing engineering, environmental and project management services. We have over 200 highly competent technical and support staff working together to deliver sustainable high quality assets that not only meet but also exceed the expectations of our clients. We have fulltime offices in all the major centers in South Africa, and undertake projects beyond our borders in collaboration with our strategic partners located in the various countries.

ILISO Consulting has established offices in Kampala (Uganda) as well as in Lusaka (Zambia). We have formal relationships with partners in Botswana, Namibia and Nigeria thus making ILISO Consulting a truly African Company.

With our strategically located offices and with the practical application of science and engineering principles that include the appropriate use of technology, ILISO Consulting continues to advance on its successes by building value for our clients through the successful planning, implementation and management of landmark and community based projects.

Access to water is indeed a right, but as every other right it comes with a responsibility. The recently released report, the State of Non Revenue Water in South Africa by the Water Research Commission paints a worrisome picture. Up to 36.8% of our water is unaccounted for. It is lost through leaking pipes, taps, illegally abstracted water etc. This amounts to 11 billion Rand per annum and equivalent to half the water in the Vaal dam. What makes this even more worrisome is that our region and country is water scarce. Every drop counts.

As the custodian of water resources in this country we have embarked on numerous projects and programmes to ensure availability of clean and safe drinking water not only for present use but for future generations as well. To sustainably implement these initiatives, active participation of the communities, public and private sector and civil society is required. In this light, the Department of Water Affairs endorses The Sustainable Water Resource Handbook as it serves to highlight the problems facing the water sector, the activities being implemented to address these problems and initiatives being undertaken by various sectors contributing to this teamwork of protecting South Africa’s scarce water resources.

Iliso House, 203 Witch-Hazel Avenue Highveld Techno Park, Centurion 0157 PO Box 68735, Highveld 0169 T: 012 685 0900 F: 012 665 1886 www.iliso.com THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

5

EDITOR’S NOTE

Soils & Aggregate Chemical Rock Mechanics Field Services Mobile Lab’s

Asphalt & Binders Concrete Geotechnical Equipment Hire Agricultural

SOILLAB Part of the SMEC Group

Engineering Materials Laboratory Since 1971 SANAS Acredited Laboratory VKE Centre, 230 Albertus Street, La Montagne 0184, Pretoria PO Box 72928, Lynnwood Ridge, 0040, South Africa Tel: +27 (0) 12 481 3801 • info@soillab.co.za • www.soillab.co.za

Samantha Braid, Aurecon South Africa

“Water water everywhere and not a drop to drink.”

In South Africa water is managed in two separate but related categories. Water resources relates to the water in rivers, dams, wetlands, groundwater etc., while water services refers to access to potable water and sanitation. This separation is espoused in the Constitution (Act 108 of 1996) where water resources are included in the “environment” in section 24 while water services are addressed in section 27. This separation is further contextualised in the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) that address management and utilisation of water resources and the Water Services Act (Act 108 of 1997) which addresses the rights to basic water supply and sanitation. However, water services can’t be provided without water resources.

Three topical aspects that reinforce the need for integrated water management include Acid Mine Drainage (AMD), effluent discharge (especially non-compliant Waste Water Treatment Works) and inefficient distribution systems. As South Africa is a water scarce country and facing further scarcity due to increasing demand and climate variability, a holistic approach is needed to prioritise the implementation of water resources management and efficient water services provision in the country.

In this edition of the Sustainable Water Resources Handbook the collection of papers look at the impacts of poor water resources management on water services. The papers include case examples of some of the recent water crises that have affected different parts of the country, aspects of regulation as well as public initiatives that are being researched or implemented to help identify and address issues related to water resources management and water service provision.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

7

The

Sustainable

Water Resource Handbook

South Africa Volume 4

The Essential Guide

SALES ADMINISTRATION Wadoeda Brenner PROJECT LEADER Louna Rae ADVERTISING EXECUTIVES Tichaona Meki Tendai Jani

EDITOR Sam Braid CONTRIBUTORS Jay Bhagwan, Willem Wegelin and Zama Siqalaba , Elma Pollard, Thanduxolo Stimela, Johann Temple-Hoff, Andrew Tanner, N Perring, K Turner, H Erwee , Inge van Aarde, Kim Hodgson, MC Dent, LB Hurry, T Reinhardt, Maggie Momba, Simon Bruton, Mauritz Lindeque PEER REVIEWER Sam Braid

CHIEF EXECUTIVE Gordon Brown DIRECTORS Gordon Brown Andrew Fehrsen Lloyd Macfarlane PRINCIPAL FOR AFRICA & MAURITIUS Gordon Brown

LAYOUT & DESIGN Kurt Daniels

PRINCIPAL FOR UNITED STATES James Smith

EDITORIAL & PRODUCTION Robyn Brown

PUBLISHER

ADMIN MANAGER Suraya Manuel DIGITAL MARKETING MANAGER Cara-Dee Carlstein

www.alive2green.com www.alive2green.com/water

The Sustainability Series Of Handbooks PHYSICAL ADDRESS: Alive2green Cape Media House 28 Main Road Rondebosch Cape Town South Africa 7700 TEL: 021 447 4733 FAX: 086 6947443 Company Registration Number: 2006/206388/23 Vat Number: 4130252432

SBN No: 978 0 620 45240 3. Volume 4 rst Published February 2012. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any way or in any form without the prior written consent of the publisher. The opinions expressed herein are not necessarily those of the Publisher or the Editor. All editorial contributions are accepted on the understanding that the contributor either owns or has obtained all necessary copyrights and permissions.

IMAGES AND DIAGRAMS: Space limitations and source format have a ected the size of certain published images and/or diagrams in this publication. For larger PDF versions of these images please contact the Publisher.

CHAPTER IMAGES www.encyclopedia-african-safari.blogspot.com, www.africanimpact.com, www.travelblog.org, www. luxlux.net, www.ugandahighcommission.org, www.southafrica.net, www. paradiseintheworld.com, www.vineyard.co.za Endorsers:

DISTRIBUTION AND COPY SALES ENQUIRIES distribution@alive2green.com INTERNATIONAL FRANCHISE ENQUIRIES info@alive2green.com PAPER PRINTER ADVERTISING ENQUIRIES sales@alive2green.com

One of these is safe enough to drink.

Would you know which one?

THE SUSAINABILITY SERIES HANDBOOKS More than fifty thousand people in South Africa will read at least one of the Handbooks in the ‘Sustainability Series’ this year!

The Sustainability Series Handbooks tackle the key areas within the broader context of sustainability and include contributions from among South Africa’s best academics and researchers. Each Volume is commissioned in collaboration with sector thought leaders and practitioners The Handbooks are designed for policy and business decision makers and practicing professionals, and make excellent reading for senior students about to enter the professions.

The Green Building Handbook, now in its fifth year is the most established publication in the series, and will soon be augmented with the new Green Building Specifications Handbook.

Look out for the Sustainability Reporting Handbook launching within the next six months.

Does your company have an environmental, analytical or plant operations treatment challenge?

Identifying potential problems with water and wastewater is Talbot & Talbot’s area of expertise.

Our team of specialists are dedicated to creating and implementing scientifically engineered solutions, that reduce your environmental footprint and conform to legislation.

The team is also proactive in maintaining your water or wastewater treatment plant and identifying alternative energy resources that are key to driving down production costs.

So if you are looking for solutions, call Talbot & Talbot - it’s a simple choice.

+27 (0) 33 346 1444

•

talbot@talbot.co.za

•

www.talbot.co.za

In addition to leading edge peer reviewed content, the Handbooks also profile some of the top companies and organisations in that sector, and as such represent an excellent opportunity for suppliers to educate specifiers and buyers about the environmental benefits of their offerings.

The Handbooks in the series are published by alive2green in high quality A5 format and are available for purchase online at www.alive2green.com/purchase-handbooks/ The Green Building Handbook South Africa The Essential Guide The Energy Efficiency Handbook South Africa The Essential Guide

The Sustainable Water Resource Handbook South Africa The Essential Guide

The Renewable Energy Handbook South Africa The Essential Guide

The Responsible and Susatinable Tourism Handbook South Africa & East Africa The Essential Guide

www.alive2green.com

Peer Review Alive2green has introduced and is committed to a minimum of 10 chapters or half of the chapters whichever is greater to be peer reviewed in all the handbooks. The concept of Peer review is based in the objective of the publisher to provide professional, academic content.

“Peer review is a generic term that is used to describe a process of self-regulation by a profession or a process of evaluation involving qualified individuals with the related field. Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards, improve performance, and provide credibility” Wikipedia July 2010

Alive2green Peer Review Process The Editor will allocate a reviewer to the article and send it to the specified reviewer who will be well acquainted with the topic. Reviewers will remain anonymous to the contributors.

These reviewers will return an evaluation of the work to the Editor within 3 days, noting weaknesses or problems along with suggestions for improvement (in a word document with the changes tracked.) The outcome of the reviewer’s recommendation would be one, or a combination of the following: • to accept the article as is

• Water Management and Water Loss Detection • Comprehensive Cathodic Protection Services • ECDA: Surveys, Data Management, Software • Pipeline Rehabilitation • Specialised Pipeline Repairs • Corrosion and Metallurgical Services • AC Mitigation Services • Pipeline Inspection

Aubrey Nxumalo Tel: + 27 (0)11 234 5299 Fax: + 27 (0)11 234 5291 E-mail: info@ppt.co.za Website: www.ppt.co.za

Pinewood Office Park Building 14, 33 Riley Rd Woodmead, Johannesburg South Africa

•

to accept the article in the event that it’s contributors make certain changes

•

to reject the article but to encourage revision and invite resubmission,

The Editor then evaluates the reviewer’s submission and is under no formal obligation to accept the recommendations. The editor may then also add his/her opinion of the article and the context/ level of the publication before passing the decision back to the contributors.

The contributor will then be required to submit the amended /revised article within 3 days.

cont ents contents

SECTION 1: Service of Water 20

CHAPTER 1 Towards Benchmarking of NonRevenue Water – Experiences from South Africa

32

CHAPTER 2 Rain Water Harvesting and how to develop a building that uses a net zero amount of water?

SECTION 2: Water Crisis and Solutions 50

CHAPTER 3 North West Water Crisis

60

CHAPTER 4 Case of the Stellenbosch Waste Water Treatment Works

66

CHAPTER 5 Carolina’s 2012 crisis of acid mine drainage (AMD) in the municipal water supply

80

CHAPTER 6 AMD on the Witwatersrand

cont ents contents SECTION 3: Regulation 96

CHAPTER 7 Sedgefield water augmentation case study

114 CHAPTER 8 Muncipal Water By-Laws in South Africa 122 CHAPTER 9 Implementation of Regulation for Water Services Works and Process Controlling Personnel

SECTION 4: Initiatives

• Specialised Pipeline Repairs • Corrosion and Metallurgical Services • AC Mitigation Services • Pipeline Inspection Aubrey Nxumalo Tel: + 27 (0)11 234 5299 Fax: + 27 (0)11 234 5291 E-mail: info@ppt.co.za Website: www.ppt.co.za

• Water Management and Water Loss Detection • Comprehensive Cathodic Protection Services • ECDA: Surveys, Data Management, Software • Pipeline Rehabilitation Pinewood Office Park Building 14, 33 Riley Rd Woodmead, Johannesburg South Africa

132 CHAPTER 10 Mathuba Schools and Citizens River Health Program:- towards a learning architecture for sustainability 142 CHAPTER 11 Silver lined clay pot 162 CHAPTER 12 Citizen Monitoring or Water Resources 183 index of advertisers

SUSTAINABLE MINING, ON TAP

A MINE MAKES A GOOD

WATER MANAGEMENT CRUCIAL TO SECURING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

NEIGHBOUR. TO US, THAT MEANS SHARING COMMON RESOURCES. IN EMALAHLENI, OUR THERMAL COAL BUSINESS PARTNERED WITH THE MUNICIPALITY TO BUILD A STATE-OF-THE-ART WATER RECLAMATION PLANT IN 2007. WE NOW PURIFY 30 MILLION LITRES OF WATER EVERY DAY FROM FOUR COAL MINES, WHICH CAN SUPPLY 80 000 PEOPLE IN THE COMMUNITY. IT IS A SOLUTION THAT DOES BOTH PARTIES PROUD. AND SINCE WE KEEP GROWING, AS A COMPANY AND A COUNTRY, WE PLAN TO EXPAND THE FACILITY TO CLEAN 50 MILLION LITRES EVERY DAY BY 2013.

IT IS ANOTHER PARTNERSHIP DEFINITELY WORTH DRINKING TO. THEMBILE XINWA Miner and eMalahleni Community Member

FIND OUT MORE AT GETTHEFULLSTORY.CO.ZA

Water security and effective water management have been identified as two of the key issues currently facing the mining industry. Richard Garner, water manager for Anglo American, elaborates on the importance of these issues to mining sustainability.

Undoubtedly, water is the world’s most critical resource, sustaining life and enabling economic and social development. The importance of water to human development is highlighted in the fact that vast quantities of fresh water are used on a daily basis in agricultural practices, and in order to manufacture consumables, generate power, process and extract minerals, and process food and beverages.

However, despite the fact that water is integral to the lives of people, it continues to be an undervalued resource. In fact, it is estimated that by 2030, the earth’s projected 8 billion people will require 25% more fresh water.

Further, from a local perspective, South Africa predicted to have a gap of 17% in water supply and demand, estimated to a water shortage of 2.7 billion cubic meters in 2030.

Considering its importance and value, companies must be aware of the serious business implications or risks that can emanate from low confidence levels in the assurance of water supply.

For the mining sector, the risks associated with insufficient or low quality water supply is even more apparent, and includes uncertain availability in water-stressed regions, higher costs, and regulatory caps on usage. Other potential risks may involve increased pretreatment and wastewater treatment costs, and increased demand to implement community water infrastructure and watershed restoration projects.

As such, it is essential that local mining companies pay particular attention to water issues, and institute measures which will result in more effective water management.

Anglo American already has impeccable water policies and strategies in place, owing to its complete commitment to making a real difference in terms of environmental sustainability. Implementation of this strategy is being realised through our initiatives in three focus areas: improving operational excellence, investing in technology, and engaging and partnering with our stakeholders.

Central to this approach is the Integrated Water Management Service (IWMS), which was recently launched by the Anglo American Technical Solutions department, one of the in-house technical resources housed within the company’s multidisciplinary Mining and Technology function.

IWMS presents a step-by-step approach to water management within a mining company. A critical aspect of this service is the provision of hands-on assistance to mine managers and all other designated onsite people to implement best practice.

The intention is to sift through the extensive data and issues identified in both external and internal reviews and audits, select priority issues, and implement best practice solutions.

Technical Solutions works closely in-house and partner with various company functions, drawing on the combined expertise of the company’s in-house technical, scientific and engineering skills, and furthering Anglo American’s vision to be leaders in mine water management.

The IWMS is the next logical step in Anglo American’s comprehensive water strategic journey phased over ten years. The initial phase of the IWMS, earmarked to identify key priorities at two sites, is expected to be completed by the end of 2013. This simplified approach to a potentially overwhelming problem will help offer a definitive solution to the practical implementation of water management, realise potential opportunities, and assure investors of the short and long term results and benefits.

The IWMS team is headed up by Technical Solutions’ principal hydro geologist Johanita Kotze, who is one of only a few hydrogeologists worldwide who possesses her qualifications and experience.

Further, Anglo American has some major water projects in progress, such as a desalination plant at Mantoverde mine, in Chile’s Atacama Desert. This plant is expected to meet the mine’s total water needs and eliminate any need to compete for water resources in one of the world’s driest deserts. Start-up is scheduled for 2013 and, in addition to achieving sustainability, the 20 month planned construction project will provide an estimated 150 jobs.

In conclusion, it is essential that comprehensive and intelligent water management is implemented on a wide scale by mining companies, in order to achieve sustainable mining and create a significant economic offset. Committing wholeheartedly to these principles will ensure that these objectives are swiftly achieved, and a real difference is inculcated in the establishment of water security for the mining industry.

CHAPTER 1: Towards Benchmarking of Non-Revenue Water – Experiences from South Africa

Towards Benchmarking of NonRevenue Water – Experiences from South Africa

By J Bhagwan, *Willem Wegelin and *Zama Siqalaba *WRP Pty Ltd, PO Box 1522, Brooklyn Square, South Africa 0075

Jay Bhagwan Executive Manager Water Use and Waste Management Water Research Commission

INTRODUCTION The South African Water Research Commission (WRC) has been providing support to municipalities throughout South Africa to address leakage and wastage from their potable reticulation systems since the early 1990’s. South Africa was one of the first countries outside of the UK to fully recognise the benefits of adopting the Burst and Background Estimate methodology which was initially developed by the UK Water Industry when the major water suppliers in England and Wales were privatised in the early 1990’s. The aspect of Non-Revenue Water (NRW) measurement and benchmarking has been one of those important interventions which the WRC has being pursuing and developing over the years. Complementing this the WRC has supported the development of various Models to assist water suppliers in understanding and ultimately reducing their leakage.

These included the Night-Flow Analysis Model Sanflow (WRC, 1999), The Pressure Management Model Presmac (WRC, 2001), the Economics of Active Leakage Control Model Econoleak (WRC, 2002) and finally a model to assess the levels of Non-Revenue Water based on the IWA Water Balance.

All these initiatives has resulted to date in one of the largest and most comprehensive NRW assessments, which provides the state of NRW and benchmarks progress over the past five years.

DEVELOPEMENTS OF NRW ASSESSMENTS The initial NRW assessment undertaken in 1999 eventually used only 20 data sets which were considered to be of an acceptable quality from a potential set of approximately 600 water suppliers.

The assessment suggested that the average NRW for the 20 water suppliers was in the order of 25% with an average Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI) value of 6.0. Most of the acceptable data sets were provided from the larger Municipalities which were the only water suppliers at this time who collected the appropriate base data and meter readings. As a result of this initial assessment, the WRC commissioned a follow-up assessment in 2005.

In the 2005 assessment (WRC, 2005) information from 60 water suppliers was obtained from which 30 acceptable data sets were identified representing just under 50% of the total municipal water supplied throughout South Africa. In this assessment, the percentage NRW was not calculated in line with the IWA recommendations on avoiding the use of percentages when dealing with NRW. The ILI which provides an indication of the physical leakage was however calculated for the 30 Municipalities and an average value of 6.3 was derived. Once again, the value of the assessment was clear to the Water Research Commission as well as the Government which commissioned a third assessment to be undertaken.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

21

CHAPTER 1: Towards Benchmarking of Non-Revenue Water – Experiences from South Africa

The third assessment was undertaken in 2007 (WRC, 2007) and involved 100 data sets from which 62 were included in the final assessment representing almost 60% of the total municipal water use in South Africa. In this assessment many of the smaller municipalities were included and the NRW was estimated to be 36% with an average ILI of 7.6. The percentage NRW was again included in the assessment despite the fact that it was accepted that percentages can be very misleading. Some of the high level committees were uncomfortable with the use of the ILI and other recommended performance indicators with the result that percentages were used albeit with a “health warning” to highlight that they can be misleading in certain cases.

CHAPTER 1: Towards Benchmarking of Non-Revenue Water – Experiences from South Africa

It should be noted that in South Africa, every water supplier is categorised according to the size of the population supplied and whether the area is urban or rural. The results from the breakdown into the different categories are provided in Table 1.

The 2012 NRW ASSESSMENT Following the success of the 2007 assessment in raising the issue of Non-Revenue Water to a national platform where it was discussed at length by Government, a 4th assessment was undertaken between 2010 and 2012, the results of which were officially released in March of 2013 (WRC, 2012). This assessment is the most comprehensive and detailed assessment of NRW undertaken in South Africa and involved water balance information from more than 130 Municipalities. The project was supported not only by the Water Research Commission but also the Department of Water Affairs.

The data gathered from 132 of the possible 237 municipalities supplying water to more than 40 million residents throughout South Africa represents over 75% of the total volume of Municipal water supply. The results indicate that the current level of Non-Revenue Water estimated for the country as a whole is almost 37% with an average ILI of 6.8.

The NRW figure for South Africa is similar to the estimated world average of 36.6% but is considered high in comparison to other developed countries and low when compared to other developing countries. Once again, it must be stressed that percentages can be misleading and the values provided in Figure 1 should therefore be used with caution. The ILI of 6.8, is considered to provide a realistic indicator of physical leakage for the South African systems and it is interesting to note that the various estimates of ILI over the past 12 years have all been between 6 and 8.

Again, this would be considered high for most developed countries but low for most developing countries and highlights the fact that levels of physical leakage are generally high in South Africa.

Figure 1: National Water Balance for SA from WRC Report (WRC,2012)

22

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

Table 1: NRW figures per Municipal Category For the purposes of this study, an estimated total urban and rural consumption of approximately 4 300 million m3/annum was considered more realistic and was used in the calculations as shown by the extrapolated values in the last row of Table 1.

Based on the evaluation, the following findings were drawn: • With each new assessment, more information and base data are available and the levels of extrapolation therefore decrease with the reliability of the overall assessment improving.

• However, care must be taken when comparing percentage levels of losses or non-revenue water from one year to another. There is a potential problem when using percentages especially in cases where the total legitimate water use declines due to changing behaviour.

In such cases, a drop in the legitimate water use due to more efficient water use practices will result in an increase in the percentage non-revenue water which suggests that the situation has deteriorated when in fact it has improved. To overcome this potential problem, it is recommended that two or three water loss indicators are used when expressing water losses rather than simply referring to a single percentage value.

• Additionally, in many municipalities throughout South Africa there is a dedicated effort to provide safe potable water to outlying communities that have previously had no access to a formal water supply indicating a shift in focus from improving efficiency to the installation of new pipelines and supplies in line with government policy. Such measures can inadvertently lead to an increase in the levels of non-revenue water when in fact significant improvements are often being made.

• Finally, when comparing the unit water use per capita, South Africa has a relatively high per capita water use which suggests that consumers waste water, and there is significant scope to reduce the unit consumption. If consumption is reduced without also reducing the leakage, the percentage of non-revenue water will increase; again highlighting one of the problems when using percentages to quantify water losses.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

23

CHAPTER 1: Towards Benchmarking of Non-Revenue Water – Experiences from South Africa

Monash South Africa – Preparing water leaders for the Future Monash South Africa is a campus of Monash University Australia; a leading global, research intensive university, which has been ranked in the Top 100 of the world’s universities by the Times Higher Education – World University Rankings, 2012.

Monash South Africa’s vision is to be an institution making a difference and to address issues of concern to Africa, through research, education and community engagement.

The Water Research Node at Monash South Africa was established with the vision to build water leadership and research capacity for a sustainable African future, by providing innovative water leadership and governance education and training in a research-intensive and collaborative environment.

The Master of Philosophy in Integrated Water Management is research-based degree designed to prepare the next generation of research leaders to address complex and interlinked water leadership and governance issues.

To address the growing need for skilled and experienced water professionals in South Africa and Africa, the Water Research Node in collaboration with the Monash Africa Centre offers a Short Course in water leadership and governance. The course introduces participants to the basic concepts and practice of water governance and leadership, and is designed for current and future water leaders, policy makers, and water managers.

More information Contact the Water Research Node Tel: 011 950 4130/4453 E-mail: linda.downsborough@monash.edu Web: http://www.monash.ac.za/research/water-research-node

CHAPTER 1: Towards Benchmarking of Non-Revenue Water – Experiences from South Africa

Key problem areas Non-revenue water remains the product of many factors including poor planning, limited financial resources to implement the necessary programmes, poor infrastructure asset maintenance and lack of capacity. Additionally, several other key problem areas need to be addressed: At a national level there are often joint responsibilities, with insufficient capacity to monitor, regulate, enforce and support the WDM measures throughout the whole country. Additional capacity is required to facilitate an enabling environment, with a clear mandate to “make it happen” within all municipalities; Within municipalities there are also joint responsibilities with the most common issue being the water services division where both Technical and Financial departments have certain responsibilities. This leads to problems especially when trying to formulate the overall water balance for the municipality and the associated estimate of non-revenue water.

There is a general lack of human resources at the operational level to perform basic functions such as proactive maintenance, leak repairs and community awareness.

Very few municipalities can provide a comprehensive WC/WDM strategy that set targets, intervention programmes and budget requirements. The lack of information from 55% of the municipalities indicates that more than half of the country’s municipalities are not even aware they have a problem. As part of the National Water Audit, support should be given to municipalities on the development of WC/WDM strategies, which can then be incorporated into provincial and national strategies. The WRC has just released its WDM Strategy Scorecard Model which is an ideal tool for assisting water suppliers in developing a simple and pragmatic WDM strategy.

Funding for asset management, operation and maintenance and water loss was not prioritised whereas most metropolitan and major municipalities agree they can improve WDM by better prioritising their budgets. There are success stories of municipalities that do not have specific WC/WDM budgets but their water distribution systems were well managed and their losses were under control all within the existing O&M budgets.

Metering, billing and cost recovery, which is a finance function within municipalities, is a major problem area that requires attention. In addition, training of councillors as well as the financial and technical personnel is greatly needed.

The potential savings which can be achieved through WDM measures are often overly optimistic with particular emphasis on the time needed to achieve the savings and the associated costs. WDM is rarely a “quick-fix’ and should rather be implemented properly through a 5 to 10 year programme after which continuous maintenance for the various interventions is needed. The maintenance issue is rarely included in the original project budget and is essential if the savings achieved are not to be lost within a year or two after project completion. However, the maintenance of the WDM measures should be seen not as a problem but rather as an opportunity to create useful and long-term employment in areas that typically experience very high levels of unemployment.

CONCLUSIONS The latest NRW study undertaken for the WRC and DWA represents a major advance in the understanding and assessment of water losses from municipal water supply systems in South Africa. It is the most comprehensive assessment yet undertaken and despite the many problems experienced with data collection from many of the smaller municipalities, it was possible to gather information for more than 75% of the water supplied throughout South Africa. The overall NRW for South Africa is estimated to be 1 580 million m3/annum which is approximately one third of the total water supplied. Conservatively, this represents a loss of over R7 billion (almost $1 billion) based on an average bulk water tariff of approximately R5/m3.

24

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

25

CHAPTER 1: Towards Benchmarking of Non-Revenue Water – Experiences from South Africa

CHAPTER 1: Towards Benchmarking of Non-Revenue Water – Experiences from South Africa

The average ILI value for all of the South African Municipalities was estimated to be 6.8 which again is in line with the world average and would be above average (i.e. bad) when compared to most developed countries and well below average (i.e. good) when compared to most developing countries. Effectively, the ILI value of 6.8 tends to support the perception created from the percentage Non-revenue Water figures for South Africa (36.8%) where there is clearly a high level of wastage or water losses in the country and considerable scope for improvement.

The above figures are based on the Standard IWA Water Balance in which the “Revenue Water” figures provided by the Financial Departments are assumed to be correct. In South Africa, however, there can be a significant component of revenue water which is never paid for by the consumers.

Preliminary estimates of this component suggest that if it is taken into account, the level of NRW may increase by up to 10%. Investigations are continuing to try and quantify this element with greater reliability so that the next assessment can provide a more complete and accurate water balance.

REFERENCES WRC, 1999. Development of a standardised approach to evaluate bursts and background losses in water distribution systems in South Africa: SANFLOW. Report TT109/99, by R Mckenzie to the South African Water Research Commission, June 1999. ISBN No. 1 86845 490 8 WRC, 2001. Development of a pragmatic approach to evaluate the potential savings from pressure management in potable was distributions in South Africa: PRESMAC. Report TT152/01

by R Mckenzie published by the South African Water Research Commission, July 2001. ISBN No. 1 86845 722 2 WRC, 2002. Development of a Windows based package for assessing appropriate levels of active leakage control in potable water distribution systems : ECONOLEAK. Report TT 169/02 published by the South African Water Research Commission, April 2002. ISBN No. 1 86845 832 6 WRC, 2002. Development of a simple and pragmatic approach to benchmark real losses in potable was distribution systems in South Africa: BENCHLEAK. Report TT159/01 by Mckenzie & Lambert published by the South African Water Research Commission, January 2002. ISBN No. 1 86845 773 7 WRC, 2005. Benchmarking of Leakage from Water Reticulation Systems in South Africa. Report prepared WRC by Mckenzie, RS & Seago, CJ. Water Research Commission Report Number TT 244/05 , ISBN 1-77005-282-8 WRC, 2007. An Assessment of Non Revenue Water in South Africa. Report prepared for DWAF and the WRC by Seago, CJ. & Mckenzie, RS. Water Research Commission Report Number TT 300/07 , ISBN 978-1-77005-529-2 WRC, 2012. The State of Non-Revenue Water in South Africa. Report prepared for DWAF and the WRC by Mckenzie, RS, Siqalaba, Z & Wegelin W. Water Research Commission Report Number TT 522/12, ISBN 978-1-4312-0263-8

26

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

27

PROFILE: South african institute for entrepreneurship

PROFILE: South african institute for entrepreneurship

Sustainability at the ‘Bottom of the Pyramid’ What are the building blocks of sustainability? More particularly, how can we build sustainability into the lives and mindsets of our communities whose daily lives are a struggle for survival? To what extent does endemic dependency cripple our attempts to achieve sustainability in relation to resources?

In the past decade, entrepreneurship has moved from the status of an interesting preserve of a few, to being regarded today as a key to sustainable economic growth. At the South African Institute for Entrepreneurship (SAIE) we have been wrestling for 17 years with the challenge of how best to stimulate young people and adults to start thinking entrepreneurially. Through a range of programs and interventions, we aim to shift mindsets away from dependency, fatalism, and waiting for somebody else to provide, towards grasping opportunities and making the best of whatever we may have as a starting point. Never in our history has the urgency to understand and bring about this shift been greater. When measured by the yardstick of Total Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA), South Africa languishes in last position relative to 8 of our sub-Saharan neighbours (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, 2012), by a substantial margin. The number of South Africans on social welfare grants exceeds the number of people employed, according to the South African Social Security agency. While social grants on the vital defence against extreme poverty, they also carry the risk of creating higher levels of dependency.

How do we as South Africans navigate our way out of what is becoming an unsustainable position, and can we hope to make real progress towards sustainability of our natural resources unless we have created a sense of personal economic sustainability? In our experience at SAIE, the journey towards sustainability, especially for persons at the bottom of the economic pyramid, consists of several key steps: • Firstly, the spark of self-belief needs to be ignited. For young people whose experience of life has had little to inspire and encourage, exposure to new ideas and possibilities in an environment where they can experiment and begin to imagine what they could do, is a key ingredient of this process.

• Learning how business works is a valuable life skill which is in itself an empowering experience. More formal business training can follow as they walk the path towards independence, but a basic idea of how business works instills a sense of cause and effect and

28

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

more importantly, how their own decisions can influence the outcome. Being in control of even a small part of their destiny is the beginning of empowerment.

• Sustainability in business requires personal accountability, the ability to be a reliable supplier or service provider and a trustworthy employer, all of which are critical life skills and in stark contrast to the get-rich-quick tenderpreneurship model.

• Success as an entrepreneur is directly linked to educational standard. Given the reality that many young people have emerged from our education system with less than adequate skills, requires that aspiring entrepreneurs need to be self-motivated and increase their educational capacity as they grow their business.

SAIE has a range of programmes and interventions which help aspiring entrepreneurs to undertake this journey. However successful growth does require an ecosystem made up of many role players including government agencies, academic and training institutions, business itself, specialised incubators and NPC’s such as ourselves, to have a long-term impact.

The agricultural sector provides enormous potential to move subsistence farmers into an agri-entrepreneurial mindset. Our AgriPlanner program has achieved success with over 2000 farmers who have started producing on a sustainable basis and have come to regard their plot of land as an economic unit, capable of generating an income in addition to feeding their families. In this environment, managing the water resource on a sustainable basis is a key ingredient of success.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

29

PROFILE: abeco tanks (pty) Ltd

PROFILE: abeco tanks (pty) Ltd

abeco tanks (pty) Ltd

The name that really holds water ABECO was started in 1983 when the founder, Mannie Ramos, started out with the aim of satisfying the ever increasing need for hygienic storage of life’s essential: WATER. Today Abeco have one of the best water tanks in the market, installed more water tanks in Southern Africa than anyone else, and has a quality product which has maintained touch with customers while still being able to provide excellent backup service. Abeco has installed in excess of 20,000 water tanks in over 30 countries. Abeco has been able to address this issue of water scarcity in Africa, by improving wells, rainwater catchment systems and through the installation of water tanks. The brand is well known throughout Africa and ABECO has structured itself to ensure its competitive position in the market place is retained.

We have a manufacturing facility of 31,500m2 in Johannesburg which has recently been extended to meet the demands of forecasted production.

Our Quality Management System is ISO 9001:2008 certified and SABS certified Our Sectional Steel Tanks are governed by SANS 10329:2012 Our Structural Stands are governed by SANS 10162-1 & 10162-2: 2005 Edition 2 Our Corrosion Protection is governed by SANS 121: 2011. ISO 1461: 1999 Ed.2 The ABECO support team profiles with over 100 years of combined water tank experience

We now provide a precision RTP (rolled, tapered panel) construction that is the #1 bolted tank design selected worldwide.

The proprietary LIQ Fusion 7000 FBE™ powder coat system is the #1 performance interior tank lining available for water & wastewater storage applications worldwide.

The proprietary EXT Fusion 5000 FBE & SDP (powder on powder) system provides unmatched performance compared to ALL exterior bolted tank coatings.

The synchronized hydraulic jacking process is reviewed as the top field construction process based on field safety & installed quality.

Abeco offers the following products

Ground Level Tanks

Elevated Tanks We offer a full-service design manufacture and installation of support tower steelwork. Basic towers consisting of the support tower steelwork with a caged access ladder to the roof of the tank are offered in the absence of further specification. Walkways around the base of the tank or rest platforms on access ladders are available on request. Access is required all around pressed steel tanks to tighten bolts.

Circular Sectional Steel Tanks • • • • • • • • •

In developing sectional steel tanks, ABECO tanks have the following features: Low cost hygienic water storage Rugged and easily transportable Minimal site preparation and foundations Quick and easy to install Can be installed using basic equipment Durable and long lasting Can be dismantled and re-erected at new sites.

We have also adapted our product range to take us into the waste water, dry bulk storage and digester markets.

30

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

Ground level tanks are commonly supported on reinforced concrete dwarf walls fitted with steel capping strips. The purpose of the capping strip is to spread the load over the full load of the support wall and to provide a level platform on which to erect the tank. For practical reasons concrete cannot be cast with sufficient accuracy of level. The capping strips should be poistioned in place before the installation of the tank starts. Recomended tolerance is ±2mm. Care should be taken to ensure that foundation walls are parrallel and square to each other. Foundation walls must protrude beyound the edge of the tank by a recommended distance of 150mm. The tapered top section of the wall assists in providing access for the tools to fasten.

For more information please visit our website www.abecotanks.co.za

Contact details Sales & Marketing Business Address: 6A Bradford Road, Bedfordview, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2007 P. O. Box 751781 Bedfordview, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2047 Tel No: 011 616 7999 Fax No: 011 616 8355 Email address: abeco@icon.co.za Website: www.abecotanks.co.za

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

31

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

and how to develop a building that uses a net zero amount of water

Mauritz Lindeque Hydraulic Infrastructure and Engineering Built Environment CSIR

The harvesting of rainwater has been used by humans for many years and has become more popular as of late due to the increasing drive to limit the impact on the environment. The scale of development that is happening in South Africa with housing communities and gated communities has decreased exposed top soil that can absorb natural precipitation. Surface areas such as roofs, paved roads and public areas offer perfect areas where rain water can be collected and harvested.

The water harvested from such systems may contain pollutants and should also not be used for human consumption if harvested in an urban area. Some of the pollutants that may be found in urban areas include gasses that are associated with the burning of fossil fuel in an internal combustion engine. As mentioned water is used for the filtration of exhaust gasses from industry as water, including rain water, is very efficient in absorbing gasses. These gasses may include Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and Sulphur oxides (SOx).

Other pollutants may also include: • Mosses • Lichens • Windblown dust • Urban pollutants • Pesticides • Insecticides There are many other uses for this water as discussed. If water borne sanitation is used then this water can be used for toilet flushing or alternative such as irrigation cooling and general cleaning of the facility.

Harvesting of rain water from a roof will require that the water is stored. The stored water will then require energy to transport it to areas where required. When the water is harvested from a roof area the water is lead into storage tanks. When a reticulation system is designed to transport the water to the point of use then it will assist in the reduction of the energy requirements if the endpoint is downhill from the storage. Alternatively a pump system must be installed that can place the water under pressure that will transport it to higher ground where it may be required.

The addition of the pump may be a step away from net zero energy unless the electrical energy required by the pump is generated from RE systems.

Calculating the size of the storage system will require data inputs into a basic calculation. This data include the annual rainfall for the area. It will be more accurate if the data is gathered from a source that can supply accurate measurements that spans a number of years. The average annual rainfall can then be used.

32

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

33

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

The roof surface must be taken in to consideration. The resistance that the roof surface will present to the water when it runs down to the guttering will be seen as a coefficient. There industry standards that state: • Metal roof in the form of corrugated iron = 0.7 – 0.9 • Tile roofs = 0.8 – 0.9 • Concrete roof = 0.6 – 0.8 The surface area of the roof will then be calculated using the examples below. It is not the total roof surface that is measure but the footprint that the roof presents to the sky. It can be seen that the actual footprint seen from above will be less that the surface area covered by the roofing material. Figure 4 A, B, and C represent the surface areas for different types of roofs. As can be noticed in Figure 4 B and Figure 4C the actual surface of the roofing material is very different but the catchment area is the same. Figure 4 D is a more simplified explanation of the surface that is presented to the rain. The equation for calculating the potential volume of water that can be harvested is as follows (UNEP).

Liters/year = Rainfall (mm/year) x Area (m2) x Runoff coefficient

Figure 4 A:

Figure 4 B:

Figure 4D: a More simplified explanation of the surface area calculation Alternatives to using the roof structures of buildings may be making use of the natural environment.

Figure 5 below is an example where a natural rocky outcrop or “kopje” in the Serengeti was used to harvest rain water. When harvesting rain water it needs to be remembered that some organic and inorganic solids will be harvested with the water. The physical and mechanical action of the rain falling on the surface will result in the rain flushing these solids into reservoirs. There are systems available commercially that allows for a simple filtration method of such solids. These systems however will not suffice in filtering out dissolved pollutants and materials. The natural rocky outcrop seen in figure 5 is set in a wildlife area. This means that animals have free access to the catchment area. Similarly in urban areas there are always birdlife and rodents that may use the catchment areas. Seasonal leaf litter and other vegetation may also end up in the catchment systems.

34

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

35

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Figure 5A: Using the natural environment to harvest rain water This camp is in a part of the South Western Serengeti where there is very little water available for domestic use.

This system allows this facility three months of autonomy.

Figure 5B: The reservoirs constructed to store 1 million litres of rain water Ideally when a roof is used for rain water harvesting then it will require filtration systems to prevent solids from blocking the reticulation system and also from polluting the water supply. Gutter mesh will assist in decreasing the amount of solids that will collect in the guttering.

With the organic matter such as leaves being deposited on the mesh it will prevent a build-up of leaves that will then remain moist and decompose. The aeration of the leaves on top of the mesh will allow for the matter to air dry and be removed by slight breeze. If some solid matter does happen to bypass the mesh, a first-flush system is required. This is also available commercially. The principle of a first-flush system is to install mechanical filters in the form of wire mesh and nylon filters that are connected to a sump. The water that is collected from the roof will firstly collect in a sump that will accommodate a measured amount of the rain water as seen in figure 6. This first flush will also allow for the accumulation of the solid material in the sump. Once the sump is filled, the overflow will fill a storage tank.

Figure 6: Representation of a first flush system installed onto a domestic roof This system is not maintenance free and requires that the build-up of organic material in the first flush system is cleaned on a regular basis. The water from the storage tank will require a pump to circulate it to areas where it is required if the storage tank is situated on ground level.

36

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

37

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

THE FUTURE OF WATER Conserving water is essential and the good news is that it’s easy. That’s why eco-savvy urban homeowners are installing rainwater-harvesting tanks.

Biological Treatment The treatment of water through a biological process is a natural method where naturally occurring bacteria is employed. This is a complex biological process that is employed by municipal waste water treatment plant (MWWTP). This process can be used for the treatment of black water with great success.

A very basic explanation of how the system works can be seen in figure 5. Although this is an explanation of the workings of a MWWTP it can become clear through explanation the two different streams that are followed. One stream is for the treatment of the waste water and the other stream is for the treatment and stabilisation of the solids. The treatment of the solids can have a benefit where a renewable fuel source in the form of a methane (CH4) rich gas is produced (Ross et al., 2009). This occurs in the anaerobic digester or AD as pointed out in figure 6.

Figure 6: Typical layout and operation of a waste water treatment plant. The anaerobic digester is circled and named AD

A rainwater-harvesting tank allows you to harvest rain, your FREE source of water, perfect for watering your garden, washing your car, topping your pool and flushing the loo. (Plus, save on your water bill!).

quality food grade virgin material and all carry a 5-year guarantee. Good news for the style-conscious; they are also available in a variety of trendy options and fashionable colours.

And those in the know choose a tank from trusted industry leader JoJo Tanks because all JoJo tanks are made using only the best

It’s the smart way to green your home and garden and reduce your carbon footprint.

013 262 3021

38

Figure 7: Dasspoort municipal waste water treatment plant in Pretoria

www.jojotanks.co.za

JoJo-Tanks-South-Africa THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

The waste water arrives at the MWWTP in a mixed solid and liquid stream. The goal of the pre-sedimentation point is to allow for the solids to settle in the separators. This allows for the withdrawal of the solids from the bottom of the separators and the water from the top of the separators. The water is diverted to a stream where air containing atmospheric oxygen is introduced. This allows aerobic bacteria to treat the water through chemical processes that changes the composition of some of the pollutants such as ammonia (NH3) and phosphorous (P4).

The solids that are removed from the water are introduced into the anaerobic digesters in sludge form with a solid content of 4-5%. The anaerobic digestion process occurs only in an environment that is void of atmospheric air. This means that the vessel where the anaerobic bacteria prefer to live needs to be airtight. Figure 7 below is an example of a WWTP that has been in operation for more than 100 years. The Dasspoort municipal waste water treatment plant makes use of modern aerobic treatment processes where oxygen is introduced to the waste water through aerators. There are also biological filters that were used with some success in the past.

This is where a fixed film of bacteria is allowed to grow on the surface of a medium. The medium in this case is small gravel stones. The tiny facets on the stones allow for the bacteria to grab a hold and multiply. Between the gravel pieces there are cavity’s that then causes the water to “cascade” over the medium. This cascading action allows for the water to be oxygenated.

@JoJo_Tanks THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

39

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

The circles at the bottom right of figure 7 are the older biological filters that are still in use today.

The top left of figure 6 represents the newer activated sludge part of the MWWTP. For smaller scale waste water treatment facilities there are modern technologies that supplies plastic or injection moulded medium that will allow the bacterial film to grow. Figure 8 below is an example of such a system and Figure 9 is a representation of the modern filter mediums compared to the more traditional gravel filter medium. Systems that employ such a biological process can be employed to treat grey of separated black waste water.

Figure 8: Basic principles of bio filtration/trickle filter

Figure 9: The more modern filtration mediums compared to more traditional gravel stones The basic principles of such biological process also occur in nature and can be found on natural reed beds and other wetlands. In a reed bed or wetland system it is not the plants that treat the water but the environment that is created around the roots. The roots provide a surface for the natural bacteria to grow and also a medium for filtration.

Other benefits of using natural reed beds where possible is that the stems and reed plants act as shade that blocks sunlight from penetrating the water. With the high concentration of nutrients in the waste water it is an ideal environment for algae to grow. Algae however require sunlight for photosynthesis and this is prevented by the shade. The over population of algae in an aquatic environment rids the water of oxygen and then would not allow for natural processes to break down the pollutants. This oxygen is important as it is required in the transfer of gasses from the air to the water through the submerged parts of the plants.

The construction of a wetland also serves to improve the environment of an area through aesthetics as well as providing a space for animals and birds to find refuge.

Figure 9 is a good example of such a wetland system.

Figure 10: A constructed wetland for the treatment of waste water The water from these systems should not be used for human consumption unless sufficient sterilisation and complete analysis to establish the level of pathogen removal is completed on a regular basis. Biological

40

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

41

PROFILE: DEWATS

DECENTRALIZED WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEM (DEWATS) DEWATS is an innovative wastewater treatment approach, alternative to conventional centralised wastewater treatment plants, which provides treatment solutions for domestic wastewater, complying with discharge standards and environmental laws.

DEWATS provides decentralised, modular wastewater treatment technologies, which are resource-efficient and non dependent on energy. Thus, DEWATS solutions present low operation and maintenance costs, as their integrating parts work without technical energy inputs (gravity fed) and cannot be switched off intentionally. Furthermore, DEWATS allows resource recovery through • wastewater re-use in agricultural process and • harnessing of energy, through biogas generation.

Further benefits and positive externalities related to the implementation of DEWATS systems are: • local job creation, • low running and life-cycle costs, • a low rate of failure, • income opportunities from trading carbon offsets, • use of nutrient-rich treated effluent in local horticultural projects.

DEWATS are based on four (4) technical treatment modules which are combined according to demand: • Primary treatment: sedimentation and floatation.

• Secondary anaerobic treatment in fixed-bed reactors: baffled upstream reactors or anaerobic filters.

• Tertiary aerobic treatment in sub-surface flow filters • Fourthly aerobic treatment in polishing ponds DEWATS can provide treatment for wastewater flows up to 1000 m3 / day and a pollution reduction of up to 90% from pre-DEWATS levels.

From an operational point of view DEWATS is reliable and long lasting, tolerant towards inflow and load fluctuations with • minimal maintenance and • long de-sludging intervals.

Contact Brooklands, Unit 17 Coconut Grove, Shakas Head 4390, Ballito P.O. Box 30144 Mayville Durban 4058 Office +27 31 205 60 93 Mobile +27 73 173 14 47

+27 76 031 22 56 sandileM@des-za.org www.des-za.org

42

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

processes are not well known for the removal of heavy metals. This however should not be a problem with a domestic system as the heavy metals typically originate from industrial waste.

With systems such a biological filters it is still required that the water is disinfected. This can be done by using chemicals such as chlorine. A chlorine treatment process is added to the stream at the end of the treatment facility just before the water is reintroduced to the environment or where the water is return to a header tank or water supply.

One area of a building that requires the most water is the toilet systems. Every time a person uses a toilet there is up to 13 litres of water that is used. This is a result of the water coming into contact with the pollutants associated with flush toilets. Once the water comes into contact with solid waste in the toilet it is contaminated and requires treatment before disposal. In urban areas water borne sanitation will have an end point in the municipal waste water treatment plant where the solids and liquids are treated as mentioned before.

It is therefore suggested that if the owner or occupant of the building insists on water borne sanitation a system can be designed where recycled water is used in the flushing of the toilets.

This will reduce the demand for clean potable water to be used for sanitation.

The alternative to water borne sanitation will be compost toilets. A compost toilet is a system that allows for the dewatering of the solid waste. In many areas pit latrines are used for this task but more modern manufactured systems have been designed to allow for an installed system that can be used indoors. Additional to a conventional compost toilet is a urine diversion (UD) toilet.

This is a system as depicted in figure 11 that separated the urine/liquids from the solids. When the urine separation is achieved it reduces the odours associated with pit toilets by reducing the volume of ammonia (NH3) that mixes with the solids. This then results in a system that is more conducive to indoor use.

With a UD toilet the urine will be captured in a separate receptacle. This can be diluted with water and used as a liquid fertiliser. The solid matter reduces in net volume as the solids are dewatered. The lack of odour and the fact that the solids are exposed to air results in a solid material that can be used as a fertiliser in gardens.

Although the cleaning process of the toilet will require some water, it will still be less than a typical 13 litre flush of water. Many waterless urinals are also available commercially that allow for odourless operation Figure 11: Urine diversion (UD) toilet Alternative methods for the disinfection of the water can also be thermal treatment. This is where the water is boiled or heated above 80°C to allow for Pathogen destruction. This is a very energy intensive process though and will move away from a net zero energy building.

Reverse osmosis (RO) or as it is known as desalination is another method of treating water. This is a process where the water is passed through a series of filters such as sand for the removal of large suspended particles Activated charcoal filter for the removal of odours and taste from the water And 5 micron filters to remove smaller suspended particles

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

43

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CHAPTER 2: RAIN WATER HARVESTING

The last stage of the RO process is for the water to be pressurised to ± 20 Bar and forced through membranes that removes microscopic pollutants from the water. RO is also a very energy intensive process and requires electrical energy to achieve the pressures required for the treatment of the water.

Conclusion It may be possible to design a building that incorporate net zero water design principles. This is if the net zero water principles are purely to reduce the predicted use of potable water in the building. There are many mature and proven systems and technologies that can reduce the use of potable water dramatically. These systems can be incorporated in a building and reduce impacts that reach beyond the walls or boundary of the building. Harvesting and use of rain water will reduce the influx of water into the sewer system and therefore reduce the demand for capacity on the municipal waste water treatment plants. Every drop of water that enters the sewer comes into contact with contaminants and requires treatment. These plants require electrical energy to treat water. Lessening that demand for electrical energy will lessen the demand for more water to generate the electrical energy. Therefore there is a water cycle that has to be considered holistically.

References

Innovative Storage Solutions JoJo Tanks is South Africa’s foremost supplier of polyethylene tank liquid stodrage solutions including water, fertilizer, chemicals, sanitation and fuel applications up to 20000lt.

The agricultural range offers applications for both commercial and domestic usage and the 600lt underground tank allows for an underground water storage system that permits maximum use of property, particularly on a tight commercial site.

The JoJo Tanks’ specialist rotomoulding manufacturing process guarantees quality, durability and appropriate wall thickness whilst its expertise facilitates the development of customized rotomoulded solutions for a range of bespoke applications.

JoJo tanks carry a 5-year guarantee and are certified fit for purpose by the Agre’ment Board of South Africa 013 262 3021

www.jojotanks.co.za

JoJo-Tanks-South-Africa

44

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

• Climate change 600 years ago in the Sahara desert explained. MIT News Monday March 31 2003. Read 2 Dec 2012 Available on the web at: http://eltahir.mit.edu/news/ climate-change-6000-years-ago-sahara-desert-explained • Conflict and co-operation in international freshwater management: A global review. Erik Mostert, Delft University of Technology. International Journal of River Basin Management. Read 29 Nov 2012 Available on the net http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/trbm20 • Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. Regulations under section 9 of the water service act (Act No. 108 of 1997) Norms & Standards for Quality Water Services. Explanatory notes and guidelines available on the web http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/waterpolicy/vdFileLoad/file. asp?ID=586 • Guidance for innovative water projects in Seattle (February 2011) Available on the net http:// living-future.org.cascadia/ideas-action/research/water/regulatory-pathways-net -zero-water • Green Star SA – Multi Unit Residential V1 Water Calculator Guide Version 1. Available on the net at http://www.gbcsa.org.za/docs/greenstar/GSSA_MUR_v1_Water_Sewage_Guide_20111027. pdf • GBCSA Green Building Council of South Africa Technical Manual Green star SA Office v1 • Ross, W.R., Novella, P.H., Pitt, A.J., Lund. P., Thomson. B.A., and Fawcett. K.S. (1992). Anaerobic digestion of waste water sludge: Operating guide. Water Research Commission of South Africa.

Project no No. 390, published TT55/92 Pretoria South Africa.

• Waltina & Neubrt Transboundery water management in Africa: Challenges for development cooperation. German Development Institute ISBN 3-88985-326-9 ISSN 1860-0468 URI: http:// hdl.handle.net/123456789/26068 • W.D. Jones, 2008. How much water does it take to make electricity? IEEE Spectrum journal.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Read 4 Dec 2012. Available on the web at. http:// spectrum.ieee.org/energy/environment/how-much-water-does-it-take-to-make-electricity

@JoJo_Tanks THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

45

installation.

Delivery Time Delivery Time

+27 (0) 11 397 3801 +27 (0) 11 397 3801

+27 (0) 11 397 2313 +27 (0) 11 397 2313

+27 (0) 11 397 5239 +27 (0) 11 397 5239

+27 (0) 71 850 6489 +27 (0) 71 850 6489

+27 (0) 86 589 3646 +27 (0) 86 589 3646

info@pmps.co.za info@pmps.co.za

Visit Our Website: www.pmps.co.za Visit Our Website: www.pmps.co.za Visit Our Website: www.pmps.co.za

Packaged Metering & Pumping Solutions Packaged Metering & Pumping Solutions Packaged Metering & Pumping Solutions

Contact Details Contact Details Telephone: Telephone:

After Hours: After Hours:

Fax:

Fax:

E‐Mail:

E‐Mail:

a level 4 BBEE Established in 2009 & Established in 2009 and a level 4 BBEE com‐ PMPS is a supplier of compliant company, pliant company, PMPS is a supplier of metering pumps as chemical dosing & chemical dosing & metering pumps as well equipment that is well as related as related equipment that is required for an accurate & reliable required for an that is required for an installation. dosing accurate and reliable dosing

Technical Assistance Technical Assistance With over 20 years’ experience and

We know a short delivery lead time We know a short delivery lead time is of utmost importance, hence we is of utmost importance, hence we keep a wide range of standard keep a wide range of standard pumps in stock, and should you re‐ pumps in stock, and should you re‐ quire a non‐stock pump we are able quire a non‐stock pump we are able to offer a reliable and better than to offer a reliable and better than . . market delivery time market delivery time

Dosing Pumps & & Accessories Accessories

Dosing Pumps

OBL Chemical Dosing Pumps Chemical Dosing Pumps

 OBL

technical know how we will person‐ ally assist you with the correct and most cost effective option for your application without wavering on quality.

Novarotors Progressive Cavity Pumps  Novarotors Progressive Cavity Pumps  

Quality Quality

Greenpumps Mag-Drive Pumps Greenpumps Mag‐Drive Pumps

Kuntze Liquid Monitoring Instruments Kuntze Liquid Monitoring Instruments

All products comply with ISO quality All products comply with ISO quality standards, with our petrochemical range standards, with our petrochemical range being fully compliant with the stringent being fully compliant with the stringent API 675 standards.

API 675 standards.

Customer Service Customer Service

We pride ourselves on our focus to cus‐ We pride ourselves on our focus to cus‐ tomer service whether it be; a quick re‐ tomer service whether it be; a quick re‐ sponse to urgent quotations by our ap‐ sponse to urgent quotations by our ap‐ plication engineers or rapid reaction to plication engineers or rapid reaction to breakdowns by our field technicians. breakdowns by our field technicians.

PROFILE: ILISO

New projects undertaken

by Iliso consulting Soroti Abstraction Works, Uganda The town of Soroti is located in the east of Uganda, just to the North of Lake Kyoga. The town is dependent on water from the Awoja River. During a recent flood the river abstraction works to the water treatment plant was washed away. ILISO Consulting were appointed by the National Water and Sewerage Corporation to redesign the intake structure and pumps, and oversee the construction, installation and commissioning.

As part of the project, a study was undertaken to ascertain the sustainability of the Awoja River as a reliable resource, taking into account the expected growth in demand, as well as the assurance of supply. This was used to determine the capacity of the intake works. Detailed engineering studies were undertaken for a 25 year design horizon. A complicating factor was that a new road bridge is being constructed at the site of the abstraction works, which required careful attention to the scheduling of construction activities.

PROFILE: ILISO

in the Vaal Dam Water supply area. The project team (ILISO Consulting, Schoeman en Vennote, Aurecon, Thompson and Thompson and SLR Consultants) have been very successful in identifying illegal water use, while at the same time farmers have co-operated once being made aware that their actions are illegal.

The success of the project can be largely ascribed to the sophisticated remote sensing techniques that are used by Schoeman and Vennote to identify illegal water use for irrigation. To date the use of almost 100 million m3/a has been identified as illegal, of which about 25% has been successfully stopped. The balance is being addressed by the DWA through a legal process. A further 100 million m3/a is suspected to be illegal, but this still has to be verified.

Kobong Pumped Storage Scheme The Lesotho Highlands Water Commission (LHWC) is proposing to construct an underground 1 000 MW Pumped Storage Scheme at Kobong near Lejone on the Katse Dam Reservoir in northern Lesotho.

The project is currently in the tender phase, with construction expected to commence during September 2013, and to be completed by the end of 2014.

Katze Dam at Kobong

Mr Paddy Twesigye of NWSC handing over the project site to Dr Martin van Veelen of ILISO Consulting.

Vaal River Illegal Water Use for Irrigation The objective of the project is to assist the Department of Water Affairs to identify and stop the unlawful use of water for irrigation as quickly as possible in order to avert a looming water crisis

48

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

ILISO Consulting were appointed to conduct an environmental impact assessment for the proposed project. The project team studied a variety of impacts ranging from noise and vibrations during construction, to the visual impact of the electricity transmission lines that will convey the electricity to South Africa. The major impacts were found to be associated with the transmission line, and not the dam or the power generation plant. These impacts were visual impacts, and impacts on the communities through which the transmission line would pass. By carefully positioning the transmission line below the horizon, on the eastern side of the mountain range, and routing it around the densely populated areas on the western side, the impacts could be reduced to a level that can be seen as acceptable.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

49

CHAPTER 3: NORTH WEST WATER CRISIS

CHAPTER 3: NORTH WEST WATER CRISIS

NORTH WEST WATER CRISIS REACHES CLIMAX IN SUMMER OF 2013

Elma Pollard

The platinum rich North-West province (NWP) places a heavy demand on its water resources due to multiple industries and mines. Over the past few years there had been many warnings that urgent attention needs to be paid to the building water crisis in the area. It seems in many ways this area was a time bomb waiting to explode and this summer it happened.

During the hottest month of February 2013, the water crisis in this province finally reached a climax. This was the ultimate confluence of challenging environmental factors coupled with years of high industrial demand and persistent human neglect. The taps finally ran dry.

The chronic water shortage in the province left many businesses and residents alike in a crisis that will take years to recover from.

Potchefstroom – broken pumps Potchefstroom and areas to the west, like Dassiesrand, the Bult, Promosa, Ikageng, Potch Industria as well as the prison and hospital, remained without water for a week.

Tlokwe City Council spokesperson, Willie Maphosa, blamed the crisis on the extreme heat affecting the water levels in their reservoirs. This meant that water levels took longer to rise and this affected the pump pressure.

Water restrictions were introduced with immediate effect to monitor residents’ consumption.

Maphosa said the problem was persisting longer than anticipated. They had brought 1.2 million litres of water in tanks to the residents – maximum 40 litres per person to speed up the queues.

[Beisheim, 28 Feb 2013]

Go home – save water Students from North West University were asked to go home, to save water. The university halted all lectures resulting in “a mass exodus of students.” “We don’t want to take any health risks, and we’re trying to limit campus water consumption to allow reservoirs to fill up faster,” said Kiewiet Scheppel, campus spokesman. [Sapa, City Press, 1 March 2013] Maphosa said problems arose because pumps and valves at the water treatment plant were poorly regulated and reservoirs ran dry. He also said the council was investigating the possibility of gross negligence and even sabotage. [Beisheim, 28 Feb. 2013]

Lichtenburg – broken pipes

Severe and ongoing water shortages were also experienced in Ermelo, Lichtenburg, Middelburg, Kriel, Delmas and Lydenburg.

In the Lichtenberg area, in the Subotla municipality, this was ironic as the area has lots of underground water, said Mr. Jannie Swart from Agriforum Lichtenburg. “A number of pumps had

50

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

51

CHAPTER 3: NORTH WEST WATER CRISIS

broken, but nobody was fixing them, so the water was simply not available. In this case it was a service provider who did not do his work to standard.”

Harts River full of sewage Swart points at unqualified staff, not water or energy as the cause. “The Harts River is full of sewage,” he said, as their sewage works had been mismanaged for some time. The drinking water pipeline from the Taung Dam broke and a new pipeline had to be inserted. Also at the sewage works the weak plastic pipes broke. Due to a high concentration of industries and factories there is a high water demand in the area. These could not operate, and struggled for 3 to 4 months without sufficient water. Then the business people took responsibility and installed new pumps to restore the water flow.

“Members of the community and other organisations, such as the Chamber of Commerce, have been working for weeks to solve the problem, which should rightfully be handled by the district municipality,” said Ian Cameron, Agriforum organizer for NWP. “Those whose job it is to keep the water flowing are simply negligent. Our businesses can’t operate if the water is not properly managed, so we simply had to do it ourselves.” He also said an official appointed as manager had presented false qualifications and a false matric certificate.

Tender and appointment corruption is rife as well as comrade deployment, maintains Swart.

Ventersdorp – new water storage tank Come March 2013 residents of Ventersdorp and surrounding areas had also been struggling for water for some time. Even the proceedings of the Marikana Commission were adjourned at one stage due to this crisis.

The town had responded by building a new water storage tank, which promised to solve the water problem in the future. “The tank will reach its completion at the end of the year. We will provide the residents with 14 million litres of water per day,” government official Lobakeng said. [Maje, Taung Daily News, 24 March] NWP AfriForum threatened to take legal steps against the persons and institutions responsible for the water supply and maintenance. The Potchefstroom branch requested that the Municipality submit an urgent action plan to solve the town’s water crisis. [Agriforum, 1 March 2013]

CHAPTER 3: NORTH WEST WATER CRISIS

these service providers were allegedly not paid, so services were terminated. In other cases service providers were paid, like in Sedibeng, but the work was not done to healthy standards.

Water supply is the responsibility of the District Council and the distribution of this water is the responsibility of the Municipality. It seems as if there was mismanagement at both levels – incompetency, untrained staff and corruption.

Although legal steps were not taken, the constant threat thereof placed pressure on the Districts to sort out their water systems.

Rustenburg – ten dry days Parts of Rustenburg were without water for 10 days without any answers from the Municipality to queries from members. This is the same Municipality that cannot account for more than R24 million in tax revenue, according to a report from the Special Investigation Unit.

Ratlou – learners sent home as no flushing toilets A heat wave had exacerbated the water shortage in the Ratlou Municipality, where the water crisis had disrupted normal teaching and learning in the area. Schools were forced to send learners home early.

Over 500 learners at Madibogo High School were forced to return home earlier than scheduled.

The conditions were not conducive for the school to function as the school’s flushing toilets were dry.

One staff member volunteered to transport water containers, while residents and animals were fighting for a drop of water from the nearby empty water tank. Both Water Affairs and Ngaka Modiri Molema District Municipality were trying to deal with water scarcity in the area. The Water Affairs Department said they believed that the problem could persist for a period of more than two years. [SABC News, 14 Nov 2012]

Government creates rapid response team

The environmental pressures – extreme heat and increasing droughts – were probably due to climate change.

Kevin Wall, civil engineer and Fellow at the CSIR’s built environment division, said the water crisis was a “symptom of a complex problem. ” He attributed it to lack of expertise, poor maintenance of infrastructure and an absence of political will to maintain existing systems.

He also referred to a preference for buying ‘new stuff’ rather than maintaining existing structures.

Wall said that many of the 237 local authorities did not know what kind of infrastructure existed within their municipalities. [Sapa, City Press, 1 March 2013] The provincial government came under fire from opposition parties after they were accused of dealing with the water issue ineptly. At one stage, the DA wanted to take the provincial government to court. [Maje, Taung Daily News, 24 March 2013]

On 1 March the NW Dept. of Local Government and Traditional Affairs issued a statement in Brits announcing the formation of a Rapid Response Team to deal with the water challenges in the Madibeng Municipality.

The formation of the team followed an emergency meeting between Acting MEC for Local Government and Traditional Affairs Paul Sebegoe, Madibeng Municipal Mayor Poppy Magongwa as well as councilors and ward committees from affected wards. This was as a result of protest action by residents experiencing a lack of water or unclean water, like Letlhabile, Centreville, Kgabalatsane, Klipgat and Oskraal.

In an effort to deal with water challenges in the Madibeng Municipality several resolutions were taken during the emergency meeting. “The water treatment plant in the area will be upgraded. Stolen electricity transformers in some water pump stations will be replaced and those dysfunctional will be fixed to ensure sufficient water capacity to reservoirs. This will enable them to supply water to high lying areas. Water filters that are not functional will be up and running soon to improve water quality. We appeal to communities not to steal these important facilities as this destabilizes peace in communities and denies them the right to access water,” said Sebegoe.

[Lolokwane, info.gov, 1 March 2013]

Vryburg – money issues and negligence

Mushrooming informal settlements

Outside Vryburg in the Huhudi area people were without water for 12 weeks, due to perceived negligence. Municipalities in the North West outsource their water services, but in some cases

Sebegoe also blamed the water problems on mushrooming informal settlements and the ever growing population of Madibeng municipality placing pressure on the available water resource.

Climate change and human causes

52

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

53

CHAPTER 3: NORTH WEST WATER CRISIS

CHAPTER 3: NORTH WEST WATER CRISIS

“Breaking down of facilities such as pipes and worn out valves are also responsible for the high loss of water resulting in high water shortage in the municipality. As a means of dealing with the problem we have resolved to resuscitate abandoned boreholes in the community to increase supply of water moving forward,” said Sebegoe.

He said the department was determined to resolve the water problems in Madibeng and had confidence in the newly formed Rapid Response Team, which will consult with other stakeholders including the department of Water Affairs to provide permanent solutions. [Lolokwane, info.gov, 1 March 2013]

theft often occurs during times of drought. Finally, owing to the inferior quality of stock typically available in a drought-stricken area, stock prices often fall. [Van Riet, 2012] “Farmers in the North West Province are expected to harvest less than 30% of their total agricultural produce this season. This is due to drought and damaged crops. Farmers say much of the grazing land has been destroyed; and livestock farmers are forced to sell their animals in large numbers at low prices. The province has received just more than a third of its normal rainfall this season.” [Newsnote, 19 May 2013]

Apologies and promises

Ironically just before the crisis the department of Local Government and Traditional Affairs came up with a comprehensive roll-out of its Destination 2016 plan during its three-day strategic retreat held at Stonehenge Lodge in Parys, where they promised to “deliver with dignity and integrity … to address systemic and human capital deficiencies in critical areas.”

“I have no doubt that my department will be able to discharge this enormous exercise to the best of its ability to achieve the set objectives and deliver beyond expectation,” said MEC China Doduvo. [Lolokwane, info.gov, 21 Jan] It remains to be seen whether the NWP will manage to seriously embrace the changing climate and deliver not only crisis intervention but long-term credible planning, maintenance and improvements to all water systems. This will ensure all water sources are protected and all its citizens, including the rural communal farmers, are able to rely on water for life.

The Rapid Response Team consists of officials from Madibeng Local Municipality and Bojanala Platinum District Municipality, the Department of Local Government and Traditional Affairs, ward councilors and some ward committee members of affected areas as well as officials from both Magalies Water and the Water Board.

In another statement issued in Mahikeng Sebogo noted with concern that the water supply to Cashan in Rustenburg had been interrupted and promised to take the matter up with the Rustenburg Municipality for their intervention. He also offered an apology for the inconvenience to the residents of Cashan. [Lolokwane, info.gov, 1 March 2013]

Communal farmers’ livelihoods threatened One cannot do full justice to the water crisis in the NWP without also including those who did not make it into the hype and news – the more forgotten poor subsistence farmers, who have been feeling the pinch of more frequent droughts over the past 20 years.

In December 2012 in the Mahikeng district communal farmers whose livestock had been affected by severe drought in the Districts of Ngaka Modiri Molema and Dr. Ruth Segomotsi Mompati received fodder as relief assistance from the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development.

According to research in Mantsie village in NWP by the Tyndal Centre for Climate Change Research, there are many factors placing pressure on communal farmers to change and adapt to the effects of climate change in the area, such as: • • • • • •

Regular risk of drought – not the usual 7 year droughts that they were accustomed to Unpredictable seasons with frequent mini-droughts Unpredictable rainy season Water shortages Poor quality rangeland with increase in unpalatable grasses Land degradation and bush encroachment. [Tyndall, 2003]

More frequent droughts Van Riet reports that droughts used to occur every 20 years. Over recent decades this happens more frequently and their frequency is more unpredictable.

One district official noted: “The normal times of rain have changed.” Rains often occur later in the season. The impact of drought in the area over time has been far reaching, resulting in a loss of grazing land, which typically translates into a loss of cattle.

Participants had lost up to 80% of their cattle in one particular drought. Furthermore, drought often leads to other disasters, for example, veld fires and the spread of animal diseases. In addition, stock

54

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

Will Destination 2016 manage to ensure water?

REFERENCES

Afriforum, 1 March 2013 http://www.afriforum.co.za/ english/2013-03-01-afriforum-considers-legal-steps-re-north-west-water-crisis/ Beisheim, 28 February 2013 http://www.ofm.co.za/article/129220/ Potch-water-crisis-continuesfull-list-of-designated-water-tanker-areas Lolokwane, Info.gov, 21 January 2013 issued by NW Dept of Local Government and Traditional Affairs http://www.info.gov.za/speech/DynamicAction?pageid=461&sid=33792&tid=96750 Maje, Taung Daily News, 24 March http://taungdailynews.wordpress.com/2013/03/24/ water-shortage-in-north-west-a-problem/ Newsnote http://www.newsnote.co.za/read_inthenews.php?id=142 Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, 2003 http://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/research/ landscape/projects/adaptive/pdfs/5_use_Mantsie_village.pdf SABC News 14 Nov 2012 www.sabc.co.za Sapa, City Press, 1 March 2013 http://www.citypress.co.za/news/ water-crisis-in-many-north-west-mpumalanga-towns/ Van Riet, G., 2012, ‘Recurrent drought in the Dr Ruth Segomotsi Mompati District Municipality of the North West Province in South Africa: An environmental justice perspective’, Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 4(1), Art. #52, 9 pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ jamba.v4i1.52

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

55

PROFILE: EKURHULENI METROPOLITAN MUNICIPALITY

The City of Ekurhuleni’s Non-Revenue Water Management Plan The City of Ekurhuleni The City of Ekurhuleni, located in the east of Gauteng is made up of the nine former towns of Germiston, Alberton, Edenvale, Boksburg, Kempton Park, Benoni, Brakpan, Springs and Nigel and has a population of just over three million people.

Over 340 million kilolitres of water per year is supplied to the Ekurhuleni customers through a water supply infrastructure network of over 9 900km of water pipes, 71 reservoirs, 32 water towers and 181 bulk water connections.

It is the responsibility of the City of Ekurhuleni to ensure affordable, cost-effective, reliable, sustainable and good quality water supply to all its citizens. To this end, the City was awarded the top position by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) in both the 2012 Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Sector Awards and the 2012 National Blue Drop Awards, respectively.

National Non-Revenue Water Status Water Conservation and Water Demand Management involves the management of Non-Revenue Water (NRW). This is defined as the volume of water supplied in to the water system by the municipality minus the billed authorised consumption. It should be noted that the standard International Water Association (IWA) water balance is based on the volume of water and not revenue. For purposes of calculating the NRW it is assumed that all billed water is paid for.

According to the recently released Water Research Commission report for 2012 the country’s NRW is at 36.8%. In accordance with the DWA National Non-Revenue Water Assessment Report’s classification of NRW (Table 1), the national performance in terms of NRW can be classified as average.

Table 1: Classification of NRW Performance levels

The City of Ekurhuleni’s Non-Revenue Water Status The City of Ekurhuleni’s NRW for the 2011/2012 financial year was at 39.3%. In accordance with Table 1 above, this figure is on the higher end of the “average performance” classification. This high NRW is one of the reasons why the City has adopted a Water Conservation and Demand, as well as Non-Revenue and Water Loss Management Plan.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

57

PROFILE: EKURHULENI METROPOLITAN MUNICIPALITY

Planned Interventions A metropolitan municipality like Ekurhuleni should, in line with Table 1, aspire towards a NRW figure of 20%, representing desirable and good performance. The effort required, within the South African environment, to reduce NRW below 20% may not be regarded as feasible nor cost effective because of the extended effort required regarding the layout of resources, both human and financial, to achieve this goal. The aspiration for the City to attain a target of 20% means that the room for NRW improvement is 19.3%. A goal of reducing its NRW from 39.3% to 20% over the next 10 years has been set by the City.

The question is then how the 19.3% reduction should be brought about. Table 2 indicates the main challenges that have to be addressed in order to reduce NRW as well as the targets that the City of Ekurhuleni is aiming to achieve over the next 10 years.

Table 2: Proportional Breakdown of the NRW Reduction from 39.3% to 20%

Planned Programmes The Water Conservation and Demand as well as Non-Revenue and Water Loss Management Plan of the City has identified 17 programmes that are critical to ensure the realisation of the objective of reducing NRW from 39.3% to 20% over the next 10 years. Some of the programmes are: • Pipeline and valve assessment and replacement; • Metering of all unmetered areas; • Consolidation and replacement of all large consumer water meters • Pro-active leak detection and repairs; • Sectorization of water distribution areas; • Pressure management; • Replacement of mid-block pipelines; • Metering of all informal settlements; and • Leak fixing at indigent properties.

Cost of Implementation The implementation of this plan will cost the City of Ekurhuleni approximately R3.2 billion over 10 years, resulting in water cost savings of over 280 million kl and R1.3 billion for the municipality over the 10 year period. It should be noted that the benefits of implementing the plan will carry on long after its implementation.

58

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 4: Case of the Stellenbosch Waste Water Treatment Works

Case of the Stellenbosch Waste Water Treatment Works

Thanduxolo Stimela Department of Water Affairs

Department of Water Affairs The Western Cape Regional Office of the Department of Water Affairs had received several complaints from the residents and by the Cape Winelands District Municipality, located downstream of the Stellenbosch Waste Water Treatment Works (“the WWTW”) regarding the quality of effluent discharged into the Eersteriver by the WWTW.

The issue “Poorly operated treatment works (and those operating above their design capacity) result in wastewater discharges that damage the environment, place increasing pressure on limited freshwater resources and raise the costs of water treatment and environmental mitigation and rehabilitation. For these reasons, initiatives to ensure compliance with wastewater discharge licence conditions are an important priority. (DWA, 2008)” Due to its size and treatment type, the WWTW falls under Schedule 3 of Government Notice 399 (March 2004). Schedule 3 provides special limits that the effluent discharged to the environment must comply with, of particular relevance is the non-compliance with the E.coli limit.

Parameter

Special Limit

SABS Result 2011

SABS Result 2013

v

0

1 785 000

>110 000

These results do not comply with any of the South African Water Quality Standards, i.e. the water is unfit for irrigation, recreational or livestock watering uses, which directly and severely impacts on the downstream users of the Eersteriver, who rely on its water for these purposes.

Responsibility In terms of the Water Services Act, Act 108 of 1997, water services authorities are required to ensure that the water services assets owned and/or operated by themselves (or owned and/or operated by service providers in their area of jurisdiction) are managed and operated effectively and are adequately maintained. In terms of the Water Services Act and the Local Government: Municipal Structures Act, Act 117of 1998, the Stellenbosch Municipality is the water services provider for its area of jurisdiction.

The Stellenbosch Municipality is an Organ of State and the Constitution of the Republic South Africa, Act 108 of 1996 (“the Constitution”) section 41(1)(h)(vi) states that all spheres of government and all organs of state within each sphere must co-operate with one another in mutual trust and good faith by avoiding legal proceedings against one another (own emphasis). The Stellenbosch Municipality must also comply with sections 41(1)(b) to secure the well-being of the people of the Republic, where section 24(a) of the Constitution has already identified that everyone has the

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

61

CHAPTER 4: Case of the Stellenbosch Waste Water Treatment Works

DID YOU KNOW? Nearly 50% of South Africa’s potable water is being stolen through illegal water connections and abstractions, lost through leaks or wasted.

In order to ensure the long-term sustainability of our water resources, we need to start taking action now.

Read all about Water Wise and how we can help you conserve water in this edition of the Sustainable Water Resource Handbook.

right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being; and 24(b)(i) to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that prevent pollution and ecological degradation.

Upgrade and Expansion The WWTW was identified from the Western Cape Provincial Master Plan as needing funding and support. In agreement with the Department of Water Affairs, the Municipality was granted R2million under the RBIG project to conduct a feasibility study which produced an Implementation Readiness Study. Currently the WWTW is designed for 20Ml capacity per day with 700 COD removal and no BNR treatment. The Implementation Readiness Study recommended an upgrade to 35Ml/day at a COD removal of 1200 with BNR treatment (BNR = de-nitrification and phosphate removal). This expansion and upgrade will also require a new water use licence, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) authorisation, a waste licence and a freshwater assessment. Through the RBIG process, R5million was granted to the Municipality to proceed with construction, with the project to commence in June 2012. However, to date this has not commenced.

Accountability The DWA Regional Office has followed the recommendations of the National Water Services Regulation Strategy (DWA, 2008), by providing assistance and funding to the Municipality to rectify the non-compliance of the WWTW. As the WWTW was only designed as a primary treatment plant, it could be argued that such strict limits should never have been placed on the WWTW in the first place. However, health standards, water quality standards and the use of the water for downstream irrigation should have required the upgrade and expansion of the works at a much earlier date.

The DWA has now recommended this case to the NPA for prosecution.

As of 6 June 2013 the National Prosecuting Authority has approved the case for prosecution.

References DWA, Department of Water Affairs (2008). National Water Services Regulation Strategy. Penultimate Draft. Pretoria.

For more information on being Water WiseÂŽ please visit www.randwater.co.za and click on the Water Wise logo or contact us on 0860 10 10 60.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

63

PROFILE: RAND WATER

PROFILE: RAND WATER

• Modelling water use on golf course: golf courses have been identified as high water users.

This project identifies the quantity and source of water used on golf courses, and aims to assist golf courses in applying Water Wise principles to significantly reduce their water consumption.

WATER WISE This environmental brand was established in Rand Water in 1997 and encourages the wise use of water. The main objective of the brand is to provide information, awareness and education to promote the sustainable use of water and other environmental resources.

Water Wise Pillars There are six water wise action pillars that provide the basis for all of Water Wise’s principles and values. These are: 1. Respect water, respect life: By respecting and protecting water, you are respecting the life on Earth. Action: Always consider the effect of what you do on our water and environment.

2. Don’t waste water: By misusing water, unnecessary amounts of potable water are put back into the waste-water treatment system, where it requires cleaning, which costs money. Action: Record how much water you use monthly and actively try to reduce it.

3. Don’t pollute water: Very highly polluted water may be too polluted to be effectively cleaned for consumption. Action: Reduce, reuse and recycle your waste so that it does not threaten our environment or water ecosystems.

4. Pay for your water services: This allows for sustainable provision of this service. The purification and pumping process of raw water requires machinery, chemicals and labour. Action: Pay your water bill every month.

5. Take environmental action: Every South African has a responsibility to care for our water and environment. Action: Become aware of your water and carbon-footprints and take steps to reduce them.

6. Conserve water and conserve the environment: By conserving water, we are conserving our environment and ensuring the survival of all life on Earth. Action: Support local parks, wetlands, rivers and nature reserves. This encourages their continued conservation.

Research projects Water Wise and UNISA share a very successful partnership, through which a number of research projects are run. The results from these projects assist Water Wise in supporting the statements it makes. The following is a small selection of the research topics currently undertaken at UNISA: • Grey water in the home: the re-use of grey water in the home presents a sustainable option in the face of a potential water crisis. This project investigates the quality of grey water after treatment with three very basic processes. The aim of this project is to inform the homeowner of the effective, low cost options available to treat and use grey water.

• Invasive Alien Plants (IAPs) survey: this survey identified and prioritised areas of Rand Water property invaded by alien plants and now supports a successful removal programme on sites.

• Water use in the home versus the garden: this project aims to identify the quantity of water used in the home as opposed to in the garden and will assist Water Wise in identifying where water conservation campaigns should be targeted.

64

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

Educational talks and displays Water Wise participates in numerous exhibitions such as Decorex, Grand Designs, Homemaker’s Expo and Sustainability Week. Through these expos, the Water Wise message is relayed with advice on how to implement Water Wise practises in the home, garden, office and landscape. The Water Wise team regularly provides talks for businesses, garden clubs, forums, conferences and the general public on a range of topics.

Tips and tools A vast selection of educational and exciting information is available in the form of pamphlets, brochures, posters, lesson notes, booklets, and downloads. The most efficient way of accessing this information is by visiting Rand Water’s website, www.randwater.co.za, and clicking on the Water Wise logo. This action will re-route you to the Water Wise website, where you will find all you need to know about water in the environment.

Monthly updates By subscribing to the monthly Water Wise newsletter you will be updated on interesting information on environmental issues, news, and snippets, and will receive useful tips, links to related websites and facts on the South African situation and around the world. Subscription to the newsletter can be done via the website.

Contact details Meagan Donnelly (Coordinator Water Wise and Research) Tel: 011 724 9351 Cell: 073 651 0662 Fax: 011 900 2108 Email: mdonnell@randwater.co.za

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

65

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

Johann WN Tempelhoff Research Niche for the Cultural Dynamics of Water (CuDyWat) School of Basic Sciences North-West University (Vaal)

Carolina’s 2012 crisis of acid mine drainage (AMD) in the municipal water supply

Sysman Motloung Programme Administrator (Community Work Programme) The Mvula Trust and CuDyWat

Introduction The Carolina water saga is best described in the term of “wicked problems” (Ritchey, 2013; Buchanan, 1992; Rittel & Webber, 1973) and exposes the increasing risks in South Africa’s water resource management and governance. After a nasty experience of drinking water pollution and media intervention, Carolina was overnight labelled ‘the first municipality in South Africa’ to have AMD in its drinking water (Tempelhoff, E., 2012).

The outplay of things When on the morning of 11 January 2012 residents of the Mpumalanga town of Carolina (population 17 000) opened their municipal water taps, they discovered that it was not possible to use it (See Tempelhoff, Ginster, Motloung, Gouws & Strauss, 2013:7-8). There was a strange taste to the water and it burnt the skin on contact. Within 48 hours officials of the Chief Albert Luthuli Local Municipality and the local media informed residents to be careful when they used the water (Gumede, 2012:2). Unofficially there were fears that the town’s water had been contaminated with acid mine drainage emanating from old and current mining operations. Subsequent water samples and tests confirmed there were excessive amounts of aluminium, iron, lead manganese and nickel in the water (ANS, 2011, Waterlab 2012, reports 34005 and 341203).

What had happened was that a freak storm in the area of the Witrandspruit, caused acid mine drainage, emanating from deserted and worked out coal mines and a coal washing plant, to be released into the Boesmanspruit, which is used as the source of Carolina’s drinking water supply. The acid mine drainage had accumulated for a number of years in a large wetland in the Witrandspruit. The storm, according to assessments by environmental scientists and geologists, released large quantities of toxic water that contaminated the municipal water storage dam in the Boesmanspruit (MPTA, 2012:1-9; McCarthy & Humphries, 2012).

66

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

67

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

Illustration 1 In February 2012 the weir of Carolina’s municipal dam was tinted red as a result of acid mine drainage in the Boesmanspruit. The dam stores the town’s raw water supply. in Mpumalanga, South Africa (Photograph: JWN Tempelhoff)

Illustration 2 With the municipal water supply contaminated, local residents once again started using the old fountains in town to secure their household water supplies (Photograph JWN Tempelhoff) Two weeks after the crisis started community leaders and stakeholders met with municipal officials and councillors to discuss the way forward. A crisis committee was established and members were sensitive to the fact that public discontent with the situation could lead to protests. At the

68

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

time there were increasing reports in the local newspaper and in private discussions about the serious effects of the contaminated water when residents tried to use the water for personal hygiene, or wash their laundry. Drinking the water was out of the question and it was also useless for preparing food. On 10 February residents, under the banner of the Concerned Residents of Silobela peacefully marched to the municipal offices and handed over a memorandum in which they complained about the state of affairs and made some allegations on municipal corruption (Anon, 2012:13). Next, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) of a local church congregation (Munnik et al., 2009:18) blew the proverbial whistle on the matter to the national news media raising the AMD situation in Carolina’s tap water. More intense protest actions followed, causing injury to people and damage to public property.

Against this backdrop the Federation for a Sustainable Environment (FSE), an active NGO working in Mpumalanga in the interest of protecting the aquatic environment of the Highveld from coal mining excesses, stepped in to help the town’s residents (GOA 20130325). In June 2012 the Concerned Residents of Silobela, the FSE and Lawyers for Human Rights, laid charges against the Chief Albert Luthuli Local Municipality, the Gert Sibande District Municipality, as well as provincial and national government departments. Subsequently, In the High Court of North Gauteng, Judge Moses Mavundla ordered the matter to be set right within 72 hours (High Court of South Africa, 2012; Tempelhoff E, 2012e).

Needless to say the local authorities of the Gert Sibande District Municipality and Chief Albert Luthuli Local Municipality did not comply (Anon., 2012a). Only by late August 2012 did the potential legal fallout of Carolina’s AMD-lined tap water crisis diminish. The town’s upgraded local water purification plant was now able to more consistently provide reliable quality water to the residents (Anon., 2012b).

It was only then that the provincial office departments of water affairs and the Incomati Catchment Management Agency publicly announced that a rapid response unit was working on addressing the crisis.

The consequences of the spill were comprehensive.

• The municipal water supply of Carolina was literally in a shambles and unreliable for the next eight months. The water purification plant was unable to cope, water pipelines were clogged and the existing limited reservoir facilities and wastewater treatment systems deteriorated.

• Protest actions of some residents created chaotic conditions in Carolina and caused personal injury, loss of productive time and damage to public property.

• Farmers, amongst others a poultry farm downstream, had grave concerns about the potential impact of acid mine drainage affecting their operations.

• Both the Witrandspruit and the Boesmanspruit are tributaries of the Incomati River catchment.

The Incomati, in turn, forms part of a comprehensive water transfer system used for generating electricity at a number of Mpumalanga power stations, of the electricity state utility company ESKOM. The effective operation of these plants could be compromised if the water they used contained acid mine drainage.

• The Incomati River passes through the neighbouring states of Swaziland and Mozambique before flowing into the Indian Ocean. If water with a high AMD content had to accumulate in downstream storage dams, such as the Nooitgedacht and Vygeboomspruit, the Incomati’s water quality could become suspect and raise serious concerns with neighbouring water users in Swaziland and Mozambique. The three countries have international agreements on the responsible use of the Incomati River.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

69

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

Disaster Management The Carolina water crisis presents a wicked problem in a sense that the water pollution saga was mainly AMD-triggered by a freak storm. Yet evidence onsite indicates that there are present mining and legacy issues that continue to pose danger to the Boesmanspruit and Carolina drinking water supplies. A matter of concern remains in the fact that South African legislation presents a pro-active approach to disaster management (Carsterns, 2011:7) but in practice, most municipalities do not have adequate disaster risk management measure in place (Botha et al., 2011:9) and are re-active as in Carolina (Tempelhoff et al., 2013:104).

Local mining companies, identified as potentially responsible for the outbreak of the AMD crisis, participated in the crisis meetings, but soon appeared to deny being at fault, despite increasing evidence to the contrary. The authorities made threats of legal measures against the responsible culprits, but little else was communicated in the media (Tempelhoff, E., 2012b).

Outdated Water Purification technology The need for technological modernisation became evident as Carolina’s water purification plant was unable to deal with the crisis. The plant was small and originally only used for primarily drawing high quality raw water from the Boesmanspruit Dam. There had been other problems earlier. In September 2003 there was a public protest in town because the plant was unable to provide sufficient water for the town’s residents (Anon., 2003). This was as a result of rapid urbanisation in the region, since the late-1980s. There were also problems with E. coli and diarrhoea-outbreaks as well as the cholera scare in 2008-9 (Sapa, 2008). Problems of this nature have been endemic in the rural areas of South Africa since the late-1990s, as local authorities continued to grapple with an ever-growing demand for potable water and sanitation services, but not having the necessary finds to upgrade and maintain existing infrastructure (Tempelhoff, 2011:81-100).

Disaster preparedness Carolina’s AMD crisis was a new problem. The local authority was clearly unable to deal with the crisis. There was no disaster management strategy in place. Neither did the local mining industry, at the time of fieldwork in February, May and October 2012, appear to have taken necessary precautionary measures to prevent AMD disaster events (Tempelhoff et al., 2013).

70

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

71

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

Meanwhile tanker trucks and large plastic containers, placed at strategic points in town, were used to provide drinking water for residents. These arrangements were not well managed. Most directly affected communities were the elderly people resident at an old age home, local schools and care initiatives for the youth and disabled people (Tempelhoff, E., 2012a).

By April 2012 residents of Carolina had resorted to contingency measures. People purchased water from a local water bottling business. Some even had boreholes drilled on the premises of their homes and businesses. Poorer residents relied more heavily on water from a number of old artesian fountains in town, while others collected supplies from the Moslem mosques in downtown Carolina and the suburbs of Caro Park and Silobela (Tempelhoff et al, 2013:26-33).

Specialists of the rapid response unit set up by the department of water affairs were unable to rectify at short notice, Carolina’s water supply. The continued AMD contamination of the Boesmanspruit dam was too comprehensive. Flushing the sub-catchment of the Incomati later only proved to have a favourable effect over an extended period of time (Tempelhoff et al., 2013:84-90).

On 17 May violent protests broke out in Silobela. Individuals labelled as ‘comrades’ chased school children out of classrooms to join the march. As the crowd became more chaotic municipal buildings and vehicles were set on fire and local Pakistani shops were ransacked in the suburb of Silobela. Riot police from neighbouring towns had to be brought in to restore order, but only after a number of protesters and police had been injured. Later 25 youths briefly appeared in the local magistrate’s court (Tempelhoff, E, 2012c; Tempelhoff, E, 2012d).

It was evident that the local authority was unable to manage the crisis. The primary requirement was a secure consistent and reliable supply of potable water for Carolina’s residents. The crisis committee’s meetings tended to be less regular. There were also a notable absence of effective lines of communication between the local authority and residents (Tempelhoff, et al., 2013: 63-83).

72

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

The situation did not improve overnight. As late as March 2013 there were still local residents who distrusted the municipal water supply. They preferred to purchase bottled water, or collect household water from the local mosques (Tempelhoff et al., 2013:102).

Bibliography Anon., 2003. “Carolina ratepayers march in protest” in High Velder, 2003.09.05.

Anon., 2012 “Carolina water protest memorandum” – text of memorandum in Kontrei Gazette, 02.18, p. 13.

Anon., 2012a. “Municipalities fail to meet deadline” in Sowetan Live, 08.15 at http://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/2012/08/15/municipalities-fail-to-meet-deadline (Accessed 2013.03.24).

Anon., 2012b. “MEC finds Carolina water acceptable” in Kontrei Gazette, 2012.08.24, pp. 1, 8.

ANS 241-1: 2011 Ed. 1 Drinking water Part 1: Microbiological, physical, aesthetic and chemical determinants; Waterlab report number 34005. Sample 2327. Certificate of Analysis for general water quality parameters, dated 6 Feb 2012; Waterlab report number 34103. Sample 2873. Certificate of Analysis for general water quality parameters, dated 13 Feb 2012.

Botha, D., van Niekerk, D., Wentink, G., Coetzee, C., Forbes, K., Maartens, Y., Annandale, E., Tshona, T., & Raju, E. 2011. Disaster Risk Management status assessment at Municipalities in South Africa.

Research Report prepared for SALGA

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

73

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

Innovative Solutions Provider to Integrative Water & Effluent Management Processes

Buchanan, R. 1992. Wicked problems in design thinking. Design Issue 2(8):14-19 at http:// www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1511637?uid=3739368&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4& sid=21102188282941 (Accessed 2013.04.30) Carsterns, C. 2011. Utilising Disaster Management as a sustainable spatial development planning tool Disaster Management Southern Africa (7):6-9pp Sep Gumede, ME (2012) Report on the bad raw water that rendered the Carolina water treatment works rendering substandard water and the dead of the of fish in the river and Boesmanspruit Dam (Chief Albert Luthuli Local Municipality).

McCarthy, TS MS Humphries (2012) Contamination of the water supply to the town of Carolina, Mpumalanga (Unpublished report).

Mpumalanga Parks and Tourism Agency (MPTA) (2012) Report on the impacts of contaminated water, from mining and related activities, on wetlands in the Boesmanspruit catchment area, close to the town of Carolina (Chief Albert Luthuli Local Municipality), (Report released in April).

SA Chemical Technologies creates and sustains value to industry through the application of speciality treatment chemicals, appropriate equipment technologies and solutions in an innovative manner, that is both environmentally acceptable and financially feasible.

Background:

Capabilities:

Started in South Africa in 1996

Water Management

Head Office situated in Durban, KZN

Systems implementation

Represented in all provinces

Environmental technology (products & service)

Munnik, V. G Hochmann and M Hlabane 2009. Manuscript: The social and environmental consequences of coal mining: South African case study� (Environmental Monitoring Group [EMG], (Final draft).

Ritchey, T. 2013. Wicked problems: Modelling Social messes with Morphological analysis. Acta Morpholocial Generalis 1(2):1-8 at http://www.swemorph.com/wp.html (Accessed 2013.04.30)

Consulting services

Consulting Services: Process Design Water and Waste Minimisation Water Usage, Target and Monitoring Water Disclosure Audits Water Reuse & Recycle

SA Chemical Technologies CC Tel (031) 563 0178 Fax 086 2193077 www.sachemtech.co.za Gareth Mitchison (Director) 082 800 1786 Brendon Boyall (Director) Cell 082 498 9427

Business Methodology: Our focus lies in creating VALUE for our customers by not only stabilising water chemistry within utility circuits through the application of specialty water treatment chemicals, but also in efficiently managing water resource. The management of such water resources lies in minimising the plants’ water intake and wastewater discharge whilst achieving compliance to environmental dictates. In doing so, our philosophy focuses on creating sustainable ongoing business with our clients, by becoming an integral part of the operation. THIS PRINCIPLE AIMS TO SHIFT THE BURDEN OF MANAGING WATER RESOURCES FROM THE CUSTOMER TO SA CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGIES. SA Chemical Technologies approach in developing Water Management Strategies for Process and Environmental Improvements consists of a multidisciplinary approach. Central to the success of such an approach is our collective understanding of Water Chemistry, Modelling and Equipment Technologies available within the market place.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

75

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

Rittel, H. W. T., & Webber, M. M. 1973. Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning. Policy Science 4:155-169 at http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01405730#page-1 (Accessed 2013.04.30) Sapa, 2008. “New chlorinator for Carolina” in Independent Online,11.19, at http://www.iol. co.za/news/south-africa/new-chlorinator-for-carolina-1.424944#.UUsuqhm5aWE (Accessed 2013.03.21).

Sapa, 2012. “Carolina, Mpumalanga residents drinking polluted water” in Times Live, 2012.02.16 at http://www.timeslive.co.za/scitech/2012/02/16/carolina-mpumalanga-residents-drinking-polluted-water (Accessed 2012.03.24).

Tempelhoff, E, 2012. “Net suur water in hul pype” in Beeld, 2012.02.15 at http://www.beeld.com/ Suid-Afrika/Nuus/Net-suur-water-in-hul-pype-20120215 (Accessed 2013.03.21).

Tempelhoff, E. 2012a. “Skrop werk nie, vlek bly” in Beeld, 2012.05.23 at http://152.111.1.88/argief/ berigte/beeld/2012/05/23/B1/11/gvcarolina.html (2012.10.14).

Tempelhoff, E, 2012b. “Suur mynwater: minister wil hof toe” in Beeld, 06.12 at http://152.111.1.88/ argief/berigte/beeld/2012/06/12/B1/4/etcarolina.html (Accessed 2012.10.14).

Tempelhoff, E, 2012c.“25 van dorp in hof ná geweld oor water”in Beeld, 2012.05.18http://152.111.1.88/ argief/berigte/beeld/2012/05/18/B1/2/etcarolina.html (Accessed 2013.03.23).

Tempelhoff, E, 2012d. “Suur myn water: polisie skiet op betogers – man kan been dalk verloor” in Beeld, 05.19 at http://152.111.1.88/argief/berigte/beeld/2012/05/19/B1/4/etcarolina.html (Accessed 2013.03.23).

AGUA AFRICA is a company committed to meeting Customer requirements through provision of centralized sourcing of water related engineered and scientific products associated with our operating divisions represented by our technology and supply partners

Our Expertise AGUA AFRICA specializes in all fields of industrial, process, marine and domestic water related industries and institutional sectors. Custom designed water treatment plants covering the full spectrum of filtration are designed and fabricated by our OEM division.

Scientific Instrumentation for water testing, treatment, monitoring and control is locally supplied, serviced and supprted via our two principal business partners HACH and Palintest.

Tempelhoff, E, 2012e. “Verskaf water góú, bevel hof: raad moet plan binne maand voorlê” in Beeld, 2012.07.11 at http://152.111.1.88/argief/berigte/beeld/2012/07/11/B1/2/etcarolina1-B2-02.html (Accessed 2013.03.23).

Tempelhoff, JWN 2011. “Local service delivery problems and trends in South Africa’s water governance (1994-2010)” Journal for Contemporary History, 36(3), December, pp. 81-100.

Tempelhoff, JWN, M Ginster, S Motloung, CM Gouws and J Strauss, 2012. When taps turn sour: the 2012 acid mine drainage crisis in the municipal water supply of Carolina, South Africa (CuDyWat Report 1/2012, North-West University (Vaal), 2013)

The Industries AGUA AFRICA offers unique Engineered Solutions, consultancy services and associated products to the following Industries: Water, Waste Water, Institutional, Food & Beverage, Bottling & Packaging, Shipping, Aquaculture, Agriculture, Hospital, Pharmaceutical, Farming, Heavy and light industrial process, Wine and Spirits.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

77

PROFILE: Waterspec (Water Specialists)

PROFILE: Waterspec (Water Specialists)

Waterspec (Water Specialists) Waterspec (Water Specialists) specializes in water and waste water treatment and bulk engineering services. Our consulting services include civil, mechanical and electrical engineering work related to water services. Our vision is the establishment of environmentally safe and reliable water service facilities for domestic and industrial communities.

Waterspec focus on operation specific knowledge to enhance the performance of the water treatment and bulk water handling facilities.

We have the ability to bring together the best professionals to suit your needs. Our constantly evolving skills base reflects the diversity of both our clients and our staff - whatever the challenge, we have the expertise and resources to resolve it.

Waterspec Consulting Engineers are specialists in the Water & Waste Water treatment industry and can also deliver on Civil, Mechanical & Electrical Engineering projects.

We do: Problem Identification | Preliminary & Final Design | Contractor Adjudication | Construction Supervision | Quality Control | Commissioning | Training | Operational Management

78

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

79

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand (in South Africa) Fanie Vogel and Johan van Zyl - Aurecon South Africa (Pty) Ltd Jurgo van Wyk, Pieter Viljoen and Jacqueline Jay - Department of Water Affairs

Andrew Tanner Aurecon

The impacts of mining on the environment and water resources Mining is one of the cornerstones of South Africa’s economy, a major contributor to the GDP and a major employer. However mining has had, and will continue to have significant impacts on the environment and our water resources, particularly through Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). In many areas abandoned mines and current mining activities are polluting the surface and ground water resources. Managing these impacts and preventing further pollution is an expensive exercise. The impacts could be significantly reduced by more effective control over mining and environmentally sensitive mining activities. Historically the mining industry has made inadequate provision for mine closure, rehabilitation and the management or prevention of a legacy of pollution from their activities.

This paper the current initiatives to manage the underground AMD from gold mining on the Witwatersrand where the mines are no longer active and the Government has to manage the problem. The proposed management initiatives will have a capital cost of about R8 Billion with high annual operating costs. There are no financially viable solutions and the public will have to make a significant contribution through taxes, tariffs and other charges, which is considered inequitable and unsustainable. The current requirements for mines to make financial provisions for closure and their post closure management of impacts have been shown to be very inadequate and far more realistic provisions are required from the mines. Better mine planning and realistic provisions for closure, especially when mines become insolvent or are liquidated, are essential. The process for licensing new mines should take account of their proximity to sensitive water resources and environments and there are some areas where mining should not be allowed. In addition the exiting legislation should be better enforced and strengthened to prevent or significantly reduce the negative legacy of current and future mining,

History of AMD on the Witwatersrand Gold mining in the East, Central and West Rand underground mining basins of the Witwatersrand goldfields (hereafter referred to as the Eastern, Central and Western Basins) started in the late 1880s.

It is estimated that in the 1920s approximately 50% of the world’s gold production came from the

80

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

81

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

Witwatersrand mining belt, while in the 1980s South Africa was still the largest gold producer in the world. The large-scale mining in South Africa, in particular on the Witwatersrand, has decreased since the 1990s, and underground mining on the Witwatersrand essentially ceased in 2010. The mines of the Western, Central and Eastern Basins have produced a total of approximately 15 600 tons of refined gold since mining commenced. While the mines were operating, they pumped water to the surface to dewater their mine workings, but since mining stopped, the underground voids that were left after mining have been steadily filling with water. The water and air in the mine voids interacts with the exposed sulphide bearing minerals in the rock formations to form Acid Mine Drainage (AMD), also known internationally as Acid Rock Drainage (ARD).

AMD is generally characterised by one or more of the following: low pH, high Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), high Sulphates (SO4), and/ or high levels of heavy metals - particularly Iron (Fe) giving it the orange red colour, Manganese (Mn), Nickel (Ni) and/ or Cobalt (Co). In some instances, where Uranium is present there are also radiological risks.

In the Western Basin, after the mines reduced and stopped pumping, the void gradually filled with water and the AMD started to drain out (decant) into surface streams of the Crocodile (West) river system in 2002. Through various initiatives by DWA and the Rand Uranium mine the AMD has been neutralised and decant was stopped in 2012. The water in the mine voids of the Central and Eastern Basins is rising steadily and will continue to do so until the water is pumped from the voids or reaches the surface. It is predicted that, if no action had been taken, the critical water levels will be reached in the Central Basin in late 2013 and in the Eastern Basin in mid-2014. Without pumping it is predicted that the water in the mine voids would reach the surface and decant at the lowest points in the Central Basin in the second half of 2015 and to reach the surface and decant in the Eastern Basin in late 2016. Decant would be uncontrolled and occur at several identified points, as well as at unexpected locations across each basin, due to varying water levels and connectivity between the near-surface aquifers and the voids. Water decanting or pumped from the Eastern and Central basins will flow into tributaries of the Vaal River System.

Integrated Water Quality Management Strategy for the Vaal River System The Vaal River System supplies water to the economic heartland of South Africa, which produces approximately 60% of the national GDP and is home to about 45% of South Africa’s population.

The Vaal River Strategy was developed to ensure that sufficient water of good quality is available to supply the future requirements of this important area. If AMD, which has not been desalinated, is discharged into the Vaal River System, the high salt load will require large dilution releases to be made from the Vaal Dam to achieve the fitness-for-use objectives set for the Vaal Barrage and further downstream. This would result in unusable surpluses developing in the Lower Vaal River.

Moreover, if dilution releases are still required after 2015, the acceptable levels of assurance of water supply from the Vaal Dam would be threatened. This will mean that there would be an increasing risk of water restrictions in the Vaal River water supply area, which will have negative economic and social implications. These negative impacts will be much greater if the catchment of the Vaal River System enters a period of lower-than-average rainfall with drought conditions.

The short-term Integrated Water Quality Management Strategy allows for the following: • Release of semi-treated AMD to the Vaal River system after neutralisation and metals removal; • Making dilution releases from Vaal Dam to comply with the 600 mg/ℓ TDS operating rule set for the Vaal Barrage; and • “Dilution water” used downstream of the Vaal Barrage.

However this short-term scenario is not sustainable in the long term. Developments in the Vaal River catchments, population growth and the expected associated increase in salt-loading,

82

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

inter-alia, due to the increasing return flows from the wastewater treatment, will require more and more water to be released from Vaal Dam to maintain the fitness- for use in the Barrage and downstream. Excess “dilution” releases will build up in the lower Vaal in Bloemhof Dam, potentially externalising the elevated salinity levels to the lower Orange River, when Bloemhof Dam starts to spill. By removing the salts from the AMD the need for dilution is eliminated and a substantial volume of good quality water is retained in the Vaal River System. This will in turn contribute to ensuring water security in the Vaal River water supply area.

The Current Initiatives to Manage AMD The Inter Ministerial Committee The importance of finding a solution to the rising AMD and the need for inter-governmental cooperation led to the establishment of an Inter-Ministerial Committee (IMC) on AMD, comprising the Ministers of Mineral Resources, Water and Environmental Affairs, and Science and Technology, and the Minister in the Presidency: National Planning Commission.

The first meeting of the IMC took place in September 2010.

The IMC established a Technical Committee, co-chaired by the Directors-General of the Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) and the Department of Water Affairs (DWA), which instructed a Team of Experts to prepare a report on solutions to control and manage AMD in the Witwatersrand goldfields. In February 2011, Cabinet approved the IMC report and funds were then allocated to DWA by National Treasury with the purpose of implementing some of the IMC recommendations, namely to: • Investigate and implement measures to pump the underground mine water to prevent the violation of the Environmental Critical Levels (ECLs), i.e. specific levels in each mining basin above which mine water should not be allowed to rise so as to prevent adverse environmental, social and economic impacts; • Investigate and implement measures to neutralise AMD (pH correction and removal of heavy metals from AMD); and • Initiate a Feasibility Study to identify the next steps to address the underground mine water contribution to the salinity in major river systems in the medium- to long-term The investigations and implementation actions proposed in the first two recommendations commenced in April 2011, when the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs issued a Directive to the Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) to undertake “Emergency Works Water Management on the Witwatersrand Gold fields with special emphasis on AMD”: These works are known as the Short Term Intervention (STI) and are described below.

What are Water Control Levels (ECL, SECL and TOL)?

The Environmental Critical Level ECL is defined as the shallowest level to which water can be allowed to rise in a flooded mine void before damage may occur to specific environmental features, including groundwater resources such as dolomitic aquifers. The ECLs in the different basins have been set at levels which will ensure protection of both ground and surface water resources, and buffer zones have also been allowed. The levels currently being used can be regarded as conservative estimates of the ECLs for each basin and can possibly be adjusted in future, as more information becomes available.

The Socio Economic Critical Level (SECL) is the water level in the mine void above which the water in the void must not be allowed to rise, to protect specific social or economic features, such as Gold Reef City museum, and active or planned mining.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

83

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

Witwatersrand mining belt, while in the 1980s South Africa was still the largest gold producer in the world. The large-scale mining in South Africa, in particular on the Witwatersrand, has decreased since the 1990s, and underground mining on the Witwatersrand essentially ceased in 2010. The mines of the Western, Central and Eastern Basins have produced a total of approximately 15 600 tons of refined gold since mining commenced. While the mines were operating, they pumped water to the surface to dewater their mine workings, but since mining stopped, the underground voids that were left after mining have been steadily filling with water. The water and air in the mine voids interacts with the exposed sulphide bearing minerals in the rock formations to form Acid Mine Drainage (AMD), also known internationally as Acid Rock Drainage (ARD).

AMD is generally characterised by one or more of the following: low pH, high Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), high Sulphates (SO4), and/ or high levels of heavy metals - particularly Iron (Fe) giving it the orange red colour, Manganese (Mn), Nickel (Ni) and/ or Cobalt (Co). In some instances, where Uranium is present there are also radiological risks.

In the Western Basin, after the mines reduced and stopped pumping, the void gradually filled with water and the AMD started to drain out (decant) into surface streams of the Crocodile (West) river system in 2002. Through various initiatives by DWA and the Rand Uranium mine the AMD has been neutralised and decant was stopped in 2012. The water in the mine voids of the Central and Eastern Basins is rising steadily and will continue to do so until the water is pumped from the voids or reaches the surface. It is predicted that, if no action had been taken, the critical water levels will be reached in the Central Basin in late 2013 and in the Eastern Basin in mid-2014. Without pumping it is predicted that the water in the mine voids would reach the surface and decant at the lowest points in the Central Basin in the second half of 2015 and to reach the surface and decant in the Eastern Basin in late 2016. Decant would be uncontrolled and occur at several identified points, as well as at unexpected locations across each basin, due to varying water levels and connectivity between the near-surface aquifers and the voids. Water decanting or pumped from the Eastern and Central basins will flow into tributaries of the Vaal River System.

Integrated Water Quality Management Strategy for the Vaal River System The Vaal River System supplies water to the economic heartland of South Africa, which produces approximately 60% of the national GDP and is home to about 45% of South Africa’s population.

The Vaal River Strategy was developed to ensure that sufficient water of good quality is available to supply the future requirements of this important area. If AMD, which has not been desalinated, is discharged into the Vaal River System, the high salt load will require large dilution releases to be made from the Vaal Dam to achieve the fitness-for-use objectives set for the Vaal Barrage and further downstream. This would result in unusable surpluses developing in the Lower Vaal River.

Moreover, if dilution releases are still required after 2015, the acceptable levels of assurance of water supply from the Vaal Dam would be threatened. This will mean that there would be an increasing risk of water restrictions in the Vaal River water supply area, which will have negative economic and social implications. These negative impacts will be much greater if the catchment of the Vaal River System enters a period of lower-than-average rainfall with drought conditions.

The short-term Integrated Water Quality Management Strategy allows for the following: • Release of semi-treated AMD to the Vaal River system after neutralisation and metals removal; • Making dilution releases from Vaal Dam to comply with the 600 mg/ℓ TDS operating rule set for the Vaal Barrage; and • “Dilution water” used downstream of the Vaal Barrage.

However this short-term scenario is not sustainable in the long term. Developments in the Vaal River catchments, population growth and the expected associated increase in salt-loading,

84

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

inter-alia, due to the increasing return flows from the wastewater treatment, will require more and more water to be released from Vaal Dam to maintain the fitness- for use in the Barrage and downstream. Excess “dilution” releases will build up in the lower Vaal in Bloemhof Dam, potentially externalising the elevated salinity levels to the lower Orange River, when Bloemhof Dam starts to spill. By removing the salts from the AMD the need for dilution is eliminated and a substantial volume of good quality water is retained in the Vaal River System. This will in turn contribute to ensuring water security in the Vaal River water supply area.

The Current Initiatives to Manage AMD The Inter Ministerial Committee The importance of finding a solution to the rising AMD and the need for inter-governmental cooperation led to the establishment of an Inter-Ministerial Committee (IMC) on AMD, comprising the Ministers of Mineral Resources, Water and Environmental Affairs, and Science and Technology, and the Minister in the Presidency: National Planning Commission.

The first meeting of the IMC took place in September 2010.

The IMC established a Technical Committee, co-chaired by the Directors-General of the Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) and the Department of Water Affairs (DWA), which instructed a Team of Experts to prepare a report on solutions to control and manage AMD in the Witwatersrand goldfields. In February 2011, Cabinet approved the IMC report and funds were then allocated to DWA by National Treasury with the purpose of implementing some of the IMC recommendations, namely to: • Investigate and implement measures to pump the underground mine water to prevent the violation of the Environmental Critical Levels (ECLs), i.e. specific levels in each mining basin above which mine water should not be allowed to rise so as to prevent adverse environmental, social and economic impacts; • Investigate and implement measures to neutralise AMD (pH correction and removal of heavy metals from AMD); and • Initiate a Feasibility Study to identify the next steps to address the underground mine water contribution to the salinity in major river systems in the medium- to long-term The investigations and implementation actions proposed in the first two recommendations commenced in April 2011, when the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs issued a Directive to the Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) to undertake “Emergency Works Water Management on the Witwatersrand Gold fields with special emphasis on AMD”: These works are known as the Short Term Intervention (STI) and are described below.

What are Water Control Levels (ECL, SECL and TOL)?

The Environmental Critical Level ECL is defined as the shallowest level to which water can be allowed to rise in a flooded mine void before damage may occur to specific environmental features, including groundwater resources such as dolomitic aquifers. The ECLs in the different basins have been set at levels which will ensure protection of both ground and surface water resources, and buffer zones have also been allowed. The levels currently being used can be regarded as conservative estimates of the ECLs for each basin and can possibly be adjusted in future, as more information becomes available.

The Socio Economic Critical Level (SECL) is the water level in the mine void above which the water in the void must not be allowed to rise, to protect specific social or economic features, such as Gold Reef City museum, and active or planned mining.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

85

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

The water quality test of the most recent samples from the Western Basin show an improvement in quality, indicating that once the void is flooded and mixes with shallow surface water, there is layering in the water column with improved water quality above the more saline mine water.

Central Basin

The Preliminary Findings of the Feasibility study One of the first tasks in the feasibility study was to identify suitable ECL and SECLs.

Western Basin It is recommended that the water table is lowered to, and maintained at 1 600 m amsl by pumping void water from Gold One Shaft (previously called Rand Uranium #8) and monitoring to verify that the groundwater flow is reversed towards the void, with no further decant to the shallow aquifer and the Tweelopies Spruit. In addition, by effectively minimising infiltration through removal of old tailings dams, dumps, and covering old surface excavations, the surface water ingress into the void can be reduced. It is estimated that there can be a reduction of at least 5-6 Mℓ/day which equates to a cost saving of R1.6 million per year.

86

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

If the Central Basin void is allowed to fill completely, the decant level of approximately 1 620 m amsl will occur not only in the east into the Elsburgspruit (Cinderella Shafts) but also from several other points across the basin.

Shallow surface workings were widespread in the Central Basin and several rivers cross these, resulting in ingress to the void. Ingress can be reduced by an estimated 10 Mℓ/day (saving ± R4.6 million per year) by implementing proposed plans to canalise rivers and reduce ingress from surface water bodies overlying or near mine workings as well as upgrading leaking municipal infrastructure in this highly urbanised area.

The abstraction point for the STI is South West Vertical shaft located in the eastern corner of the basin. However, the LTS identified that this deep shaft is only connected to the void in the compartment at about 1 000 meters below surface water level. However monitoring of void water levels shows that underground decant between compartments occurs at shallow levels.

Poorer quality water from the compartments together with water from shallower levels from other compartments will be pumped for treatment. Due to the uncertainties related to the groundwater flow within the void it has been identified that, in the longer term, additional abstraction points such as boreholes drilled into larger void spaces and at shallow depth may be more effective in maintaining the water level below the ECL across the basin.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

87

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

estimated 20 Mℓ/d with an estimated cost saving of R3.5 million per year if the proposed plans are implemented.

Assessment of quantity and quality of water in mine voids The current body of knowledge relating to the quality and quantity of water in the mine voids and the connectivity between the shafts and different sub-components in the mine void will be strengthened through proper monitoring once the pumping of AMD commences and continued for a number of years.

Potential application of raw and treated AMD The various water uses that were considered are summarised in the figure below:

Eastern Basin In this basin, there is a horizontal layer of dolerite occurring within the dolomites (“Green Sill” on diagram), which effectively acts as an aquaclude preventing complete dewatering of the saturated dolomite aquifer whilst mining was occurring. The water quality in this void has a higher pH of around 7 and lower TDS of 3 300 mg/ℓ indicating the effectiveness of the buffering capacity of water from the dolomite compartments. It is recommended that pumping should commence to initially maintain the water at 1 280 m amsl and then gradually increase the level in steps to a maximum of 1 450 m amsl while it is adequately monitored to see that no pollution of the aquifer occurs. The groundwater flow from the saturated dolomites would still remain towards the mine void, leaving the water quality in the dolomites uncompromised.

The abstraction point proposed for the STI is Shaft #3 at Grootvlei, which was used to maintain the water level whilst mining. This shaft is also recommended for the LTS. Ingress volumes from surface water bodies through fractures in the dolomites into the mine void could be minimized by an

88

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

Using neutralised water for agriculture or mines (pink icons in figure) poses too great a risk since there is no assurance that the salts in the system will be reduced to acceptable levels. In the long-term it might end up back in the river, which will mean that the objective of the strategy has not been achieved.

These usage options have been considered for the medium-term, while alternative solutions for the long-term are further investigated. An option that was also proposed is to implement agriculture in conjunction with a desalination plant treating the return flow from the agriculture, with the intention that the agriculture would remove a great deal of the salts at low costs. The problem posed by this approach is that the salts that will still remain in the system and will no longer be a point source of pollution, but a diffuse source which is much harder, if not impossible, to manage.

Supplying neutralised water to industry or to potable water suppliers (green icons) is not recommended. Neither domestic users nor industry will be able to use the saline water. They will have to desalinate it before use and the salts will most likely end up back in the river system. Even though AMD can be treated to potable standards and the quality of the treated water would be carefully monitored, there is a public perception that such water, is “contaminated”. This perception will require careful management if AMD is to be supplied for potable use.

The discharge of any water to rivers of the Vaal River system is not recommended. Discharging neutralised water to the river for an extended period will have major downstream economic, environmental and social impacts and discharging fully treated water will incur high costs with no cost recovery.

The one option that has been identified for the reference project is the supply of fully treated water to industries. During implementation further engagement with Rand Water and other possible recipients is necessary to optimally utilise this option.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

89

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

Treatment Technology/ Processes Options Investigated A Request for Information on different treatment technologies that could be used to treat AMD was issued in December 2012 and about 40 technology providers responded through registering and providing information. This information was assessed and assembled for the DWA to evaluate the various options in this regard.

In order to evaluate the various treatment technologies it was necessary to classify the technologies according to the state of development of the technology, which impacts directly on the risks associated with the implementation of the technology. The following categories were used: • Laboratory-scale Technologies - Includes all technologies that have only been tested at a theoretical laboratory scale. (High risk) • Pilot-scale Technologies - Technologies that have been simulated in pilot plants to prove the chemical, physical or biological principles on a larger scale. (Medium risk) Proven Technologies - Technologies that have been in operation at a scale comparable with the scale required for the application under consideration. (Low risk) Options for passive, biological, chemical and physical treatment were assessed. The only technologies that are proven and that can currently be recommended if government provides funding are: • High Density Sludge (HDS) for neutralisation (chemical process) • Reverse Osmosis (RO) for desalination (physical process) A possible alternative to the HDS process is that Government partners with mining companies in a combined tailings reclamation and neutralisation process with co-disposal of waste (in the Western Basin) thus sharing risks and costs. This is currently being explored by DWA. The private sector may be prepared to fund a project with technologies other than those proposed above and thus carry the risk of any poor performance. A Design, Build, Operate and Maintain (DBOM) or a DBOM within Private Sector Finance (DBOMF) contract, also known as Public Private Partnership (PPP) contract could allow alternative processes to be offered.

Alternative Waste Management Options Considered The outcomes of the investigations into the waste management are summarised below.

Alternative Technical Options Considered The analysis of technical options involved evaluating the information on options for alternative use, discharge or disposal, and developing alternative treatment and infrastructure layout options to supply the treated AMD to potential recipients. The options were analysed and considered on the basis of: • Technical and practical viability; • Recipient water quality requirements; • Land development constraints; • Geological constraints; • Legal and institutional considerations / constraints; • Environmental constraints; • Socio-economic considerations; • Meeting the objectives of the applicable water resource strategies (e.g. Vaal and Crocodile Reconciliation Strategies).

• In the Feasibility Phase intensive Feasibility level investigations and optimisation of the most feasible layouts for each basin and to select a preferred option to be used as a Reference Project for each basin were completed. The requirements for implementation were also considered and evaluated.

The Feasibility Phase The Prefeasibility Phase identified fourteen options in the Western Basin, of which 4 options were selected for costing. Nineteen options were identified in the Central Basin, with 5 being selected for costing, while 14 options were identified in the Eastern Basin and 3 were selected for costing.

Altogether, a total of 47 options were identified of which a total of 12 were selected for costing.

From the options that were costed, one reference project per basin was recommended for more detailed assessment during the Feasibility Phase of the Study.

90

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

91

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

The Concept Design, which forms part of the Feasibility Phase, is based on the Reference Project and includes site layouts, the costing and land requirements. This in turn provides input for the evaluation of the institutional framework, procurement and financing options and the implementation strategy and action plan.

The figure below is a generic illustration of the Reference Projects that are recommended for each of the basins. All the main aspects of the Reference Projects are shown here, e.g. abstraction, neutralisation, desalination, brine and sludge disposal and supply to an end user. The details of each basin’s specific Reference Project will differ.

CHAPTER 6: The Management of Underground Acid Mine Drainage on the Witwatersrand

Conclusions and Recommendations HDS and Conventional RO are technologies that are “Proven and Ready for Implementation”, but these are also some of the most expensive technologies. Other AMD treatment technologies have distinct advantages, but also disadvantages and risks that need to be resolved. Further research and pilot plant operations are required to improve the promising innovative technologies, such as Alternative RO, Biological treatment and Electro-coagulation.

In the medium term (10 - 15 year horizon) HDS and conventional RO are proposed as reference processes. The objective of research on pilot-scales technologies during this medium term period would be to give such technologies the chance to prove themselves and thereby reduce the associated risks. If the associated risks can be reduced, then some of these technologies may be considered for the next phase of the Long-Term Solution if they offer significantly lower operating costs.

Careful monitoring of all the activities which are undertaken is essential to better understand the processes and see if the desired results are being achieved, this will enable improved or new processes and systems to be implemented after the first 10- 15 years.

Way Forward Completion of the Study will provide all the information required for implementation to proceed, although DWA plans to start the preparations required for implementation in parallel with Phase 3 of this Study.

Following from the Feasibility Study, implementation should be carried out as soon as possible.

The key activities required for implementation include the following: DWA submitting the Feasibility Study Reports to National Treasury for their review and approval.

The project has been registered with National Treasury, and Treasury Approval 1 (TA 1) will be required before procurement can commence; Conducting an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA); and The preparation of procurement documents.

The Reference Project could be implemented, but may not be the most effective solution. It will provide the yardstick methodology and costing which will be used to evaluate the tenders which are submitted.

DWA will also need to source the technical and contractual expertise required to enable them to manage the implementation of the desired long-term solution in each of the three basins.

It must be emphasised that what is shown here is not necessarily what will be implemented, but it will be used to compare proposals submitted in response to the Request for Proposals during the project procurement that will follow the Feasibility Study.

Estimated high cost of operation - Preliminary cost estimations have shown that for the planning horizon under consideration (50 years), the operational costs will far exceed the capital costs. There is thus a need to explore other alternative technologies through the implementation of pilot plants.

Pilot Plants – An alternative to the Reference Project in the Western Basin would be to invite tenders to design, build, own and operate pilot plants (capacity 8 to 10 Mℓ/day) that utilise alternative treatment technologies which generate less waste and have lower operating costs.

The objective is to provide an opportunity for such technologies to be proven suitable for the long-term, with acceptable risks. Proven technologies can be considered to replace HDS and RO after 10 to 15 years.

92

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

93

Project Case Study: Underground Rainwater Harvesting Tank.

Residential Property, Simbithi Eco Estate, Ballito, Kwazulu Natal.

Completion Date April 2012.

Pulawater Systems import, distribute & design rainwater harvesting systems & vertical gardens:Landscaping; Vertical Gardens Roof Gardens Permeable Paving

Contact us:

Engineering; Underground Rainwater Harvesting Attenuation Tanks Ecological Channels

Cell:

083 65 35 790 Email: info@pulawater.co.za Web: www.pulawater.co.za

This project harvests the rainwater from a 400m2 Aluminium corrugated roof into a 20,000ltr underground tank.

The engineer specified a 14,000ltr Stormwater Attenuation Tank, based on the pre/post development runoff calculations, as required by the municipality. The cost was estimated at ZAR45,000 with zero benefit to the client.

The architect specified a 2x5,000ltr Rotomoulded above ground tanks for use as rainwater harvesting.

Due to estate regulations, the tanks were to be clad with Ntengu screening & hidden from site behind a drystack retaining wall. The water would only have been useable for toilets & irrigation due to decreased water quality as a result of stagnation, temperature volatility & UV degradation.

Fortunately Pulawater Systems were able to blend the two above mentioned specifications into single solution as follows:It’s a little known fact that many municipalities allow 60% of a Rainwater Harvesting Tank to be deemed as Stormwater Attenuation. By increasing the modular tank upto 20,000ltrs, both the attenuation requirement & the harvesting requirement could be met with a singular installation, saving on costs & installation time.

By using the proprietary Atlantis Matrix System water quality is preserved; modular tank systems excel when there is a requirement to achieve high water quality, particularly in the effective removal of nutrients and gross pollutants. In addition to the obvious environmental benefits, the sub -surface location of the tank system provides more useable ground area and enhanced aesthetic setting compared to above ground concrete or plastic tanks.

The client is happy as the mains water consumption during the months of October to April dropped from a normal 35,000ltrs/month to only 6,000ltrs/month – a saving of 85% and more importantly ZAR350/month.

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

Presented at the IMESA Conference of 2010 N Perring, K Turner, H Erwee N Perring, Director Technical Services, Knysna Municipality H Erwee, Principal, SSI Engineers & Environmental Consultants (Pty)

K Turner Principal Associate SSI Engineers & Environmental Consultants (Pty) Ltd

Introduction and background Starting in the winter of 2008, and through the following year, the southern Cape experienced one of the worst drought periods in history. Sedgefield, a seaside town on the Garden Route in the southern Cape, situated within the Knysna local municipal area, effectively ran dry in January 2009 when the Karatara River stopped flowing. Later in the same year, critically low flows were also recorded in the rivers supplying the town of Knysna (the Knysna River and it’s tributary, the Gouna River), as well as in the Homtini River near Rheenendal.

In January 2009, when the Karatara River stopped flowing, potable water was transported by road to Sedgefield. This required the use of water tankers that were sent from disaster management services, provincial authorities, and the military, and hired from private contractors. Running around the clock, this fleet of tankers carted water to Sedgefield from George Municipality’s water treatment works at Wilderness. The cost of this exercise was not sustainable for an extended period of time, and, in any case, George Municipality was soon facing its own water supply crisis. And so, to limit the ongoing costs and the logistical difficulties of the tanker operation, the Knysna Municipality had to come up with another plan.

Existing Water Supply Historically, Sedgefield has always relied on the in-stream flow of the Karatara River, as there are no dams or impoundments to provide water in the event that the river stops flowing. The existing river abstraction system and water treatment works (WTW) may have been able to meet the town’s peak demand of nearly 3Mℓ/day when the river was flowing, but the system failed in severe drought conditions, with the resulting water shortages having the potential to cause major health problems and have a devastating effect on all aspects of the local economy.

The Original 2003 Plan By 2003, the Knysna Municipality had already developed a long term plan to meet a predicted average demand of 4.5Mℓ/day for Sedgefield up to the year 2030 (Ninham Shand 2003). The plan consisted of abstracting water from the Hoogekraal River, storing it in an off-channel dam, downgrading the present Ruigtevlei WTW on the Karatara River to a pumping facility, and constructing a new WTW on the Cloud Nine Hill above Sedgefield town. The plan would be implemented in phases represented by the steps in the system yield line in the typical yield and demand illustration in Figure 1 below.

96

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

97

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

The existing Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR) units at the plant are rated to treat up to 750kℓ/day.

In the current configuration, the effluent from the plant does not meet the Special Limit Values (SLVs) required by DWA. The SLVs are not met due to high hydraulic loading in peak seasons and the higher than average sewage strength.

The Municipality initiated a study in 2007, to investigate the upgrading options to meet the SLV standards for effluent discharge (SSI Engineers 2008). This will be discussed further under the long term water augmentation plan below.

Sedgefield Water Augmentation Plan 2009

Figure 1: Typical system yield increasing in steps to meet demand over time However, the plan was not implemented due to a lack of funds, although some funding (R14.2million) was obtained from National Treasury following the August 2006 floods for relocating the flood-prone WTW. By 2009, the estimated total budget for the scheme was R110-million and, with the river running dry, even the WTW relocation was no longer the priority.

Sedgefield Waste Water Treatment Works

Returning to the crisis conditions in January 2009, it must be noted that water demand management measures (in the form of water restrictions) were already in place over the peak season of 2008/2009. However, the hot and dry weather, and an increase in upstream abstraction from the Karatara River for agricultural use, resulted in an extremely rapid decrease in the flow in the river at the Ruigtevlei WTW. The agricultural sector was not initially targeted in the water demand management strategy.

In the emergency plan that was developed, it was proposed that certain interventions be implemented immediately to prevent interruptions to the town’s water supply. These items are described below, under the Accelerated Water Augmentation Plan, and were chosen as alternatives to the continued transfer of potable water from George by road tanker (an expensive but effective measure that provided initial relief ).

Short term options were also examined for implementation after the initial crisis measures, and these are also described below under the Accelerated Water Augmentation Plan. In Figure 3 below, the solid blue line indicates a drop in the system yield due to the drought, and the augmentation measures provide “New water” to make up the initial shortfall in meeting the reduced demands as indicated. These measures will then become part of the town’s overall system yield. The assured yield of certain measures like groundwater abstraction from boreholes, will be determined after ongoing monitoring and analysis.

Another scheme waiting for authorization and funding was the upgrading of the existing Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTW), and it will become apparent later how this forms part of the water augmentation plan. The existing WWTW is located on a small site with restricted boundaries, between the dunes and existing residential developments on the eastern side of Sedgefield. It is possible that a portion of the effluent discharged from this facility flows subterraneously into the Groenvlei, which is an environmentally sensitive body of water (Roets et al.2008). This, and the fact that the effluent infiltrates the sandy subsoils at the discharge point near the plant, have resulted in strict plant performance criteria being set by DWA.

Figure 3: A decrease in system yield and a reduction in water demand illustrated graphically Figure 2: Sedgefield Waste Water Treatment Works

98

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

99

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

After addressing the emergency measures, the investigation was expanded to examine the medium and longer term options, and to develop an integrated plan for the proposed water supply augmentation measures. This integrated plan mitigates the risk of overall supply failure, should one, or more, of the sources fail. The investigation also provided data for a cost-benefit analysis and for comparative unit reference values (URVs) of the plan and its components.

The immediate, short, medium and long term supply options, proposed and described below, combine the conjunctive use of surface water, ground water, desalinated water and the re-use of final effluent from the waste water treatment works. These sources were ranked based on costs and risk of failure to provide for Sedgefield’s long term water needs.

outlined in the document, Integrated Provision of Water and Sanitation for the Greater Knysna Area, Annexure A: Sedgefield Water Augmentation Business Plan (Knysna Municipality 2009b).

This paper draws extensively on the document and certain sections are included as they appear in the Business Plan. The Business Plan was used as part of the documentation submitted to secure funding and technical approval for the projects described below.

Accelerated Water Augmentation Plan 2009 Hoogekraal River Transfer - Rapid (Complete) The Hoogekraal River continued to flow throughout the months of December 2008 and January 2009, and the catchment area is steep and responds well to precipitation. The level of the Hoogekraal River upstream of the weir is noticeably higher than the level in the Swartvlei and seawater contamination from Swartvlei is highly unlikely.

As a rapid intervention, a portable pumpstation and 110mm diameter pipe was installed to pump water from the Hoogekraal River to the Ruigtevlei WTW on the Karatara River. The pipeline was laid above ground as an interim measure and was then buried to make it a permanent installation.

The pipeline is 3600 meters in length and can deliver approximately 1Mℓ per day to the Ruigtevlei WTW. The cost to implement the permanent scheme, excluding the proposed future Hoogekraal pump station, is R1.3million (Excl VAT).

Well Points – Rapid (Complete) The use of existing privately-owned well points at Lake Pleasant and Windemere was investigated and two well points were installed. These can be brought into production rapidly if required.

The yield of the well points is approximately 0.290Mℓ/day, and the cost of the equipment and of transferring the water into the supply system is R0.4million (Excl VAT).

Figure 4: Use of Water Sources (average daily water production)

Hoogekraal River Transfer - Short Term (Complete)

The proposed scheme is to be phased to provide water as the demands increase. In addition, an important aspect is the ability to provide “insurance” against peak season failure in the short to medium term. At present the peak season month demand is 30% higher than the average monthly demand.

A further, and important, aspect of adopting this plan is that the rapidly implemented measures can defer the implementation of costly infrastructure to the medium or long term, as illustrated in Figure 5 below.

The Hoogekraal transfer scheme must still be made permanent by burying the 110mm diameter HDPE pipe, and providing a permanent position and electrical power for the pumps. The estimated cost is R0.5million (Excl VAT).

Figure 6: Water produced from Sources Figure 7: Cost of Water from Sources

Figure 5: Augmentation measures can defer implementation of new schemes

The water supply augmentation plan that was developed is

100

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

101

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

Emergency Borehole Drilling Programme - Short Term (Complete) A number of shallow boreholes were drilled and preliminary tests indicate a borehole yield of up to 1.5Mℓ/day. The aquifer’s sustainable yield has not been accurately determined and for planning purposes, only 0.5Mℓ/day is included in the scheme. The cost of this borehole field is R3.0million (Excl.VAT).

Karatara River Weir – Short Term (Initiated) To prevent further seawater contamination from the Swartvlei into the Karatara River at the Ruigtevlei WTW, temporary weir plates have been placed at the culvert openings.

A permanent installation is however required to prevent further contamination. The estimated cost for this work is R2.5million (Excl VAT).

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

award was signed on 1 October 2009 and the plant was functional on 18 December 2009, in time for the anticipated holiday peak in December 2009.

A number of potential locations were investigated with extraction of the feed water from the Swartvlei and directly from the sea. Due to time constraints and the need to have the plant ready for the December holiday period, the Environmental Processes were conducted in parallel to the procurement of the plant. It was decided to procure a containerized (mobile) plant that could be moved should the environmental process show negative impact to the surrounds. The cost reflected in the business plan is based on the option of placing a plant near to the sea at Myoli Beach’s parking area and pumping the desalination product water to the Blombosnek reservoirs to blend in with the water from other sources.

The cost of the plant includes for beach well abstraction points and beach well brine discharge points.

The cost of running the plant will be closely monitored and reported. The estimated operating and maintenance costs are as follows:

Table 1: Estimated Operating and Maintenance Costs

Figure 8: Sedgefield Water Augmentation Plan – Layout

Medium Term Water Augmentation Plan

Notes:

In the short to medium term the following options were examined for implementation as the water demand grows.

* Based on the plant running 24h/day, producing 1.5Mℓ/day, i.e. lowest unit cost ** R0.50 per kWh assumed due to Eskom tariff increases (2009 power costs were initially R0.30 per kWh)

Desalination (Complete) To meet the projected medium term demand, approximately 3.5Mℓ/day assured supply is required.

The surface water supply from the Karatara and Hoogekraal rivers should be curtailed at 1.5Mℓ/ day and the supply from boreholes at 0.5Mℓ/day. The difference of 1.5Mℓ/day will be made up from desalination of seawater.

The Sedgefield desalination plant is a single-pass, reverse osmosis (RO) system that can produce 1. 5Mℓ/day of potable water. The plant consists of two 0.75Mℓ/day modules in two separate 12m steel shipping containers. Extracting seawater and disposing of the concentrate (brine) is achieved by using beach wells. More than twice the amount of seawater is required to produce 1.5Mℓ/day of potable water - with 45% being harvested as product and 55% returned to the sea as concentrate (brine). Initially the plant will be operated by the supplier for one year. This will probably be extended to three or five years.

The team is justifiably proud to have commissioned the plant within three months: the contract

102

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

There are a number of scenarios for the operation of the plant - from running it as much as possible (resulting in the lowest unit cost for the desalinated water), to running as little as possible (resulting in a relatively high unit cost).

The cost of the desalination plant and feed water pumping scheme is R16.0million (Excl. VAT).

Re-commission Ruigetvlei WTW The Ruigtevlei WTW cannot meet acceptable standards at a supply of 2.2Mℓ/day. Therefore, it is proposed that the surface water supply be limited to 1.5Mℓ/day. To meet an acceptable supply standard at 1.5Mℓ/day and to minimize downtime after flooding of the Karatara River, the works requires refurbishment of the sedimentation and filter units, among other items. The plant will then be able to supply 2.0Mℓ/day for short periods when necessary.

The costs to refurbish the works to 1.5Mℓ/day is R4.0million (Excl VAT).

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

103

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

PROFILE: AQUA EARTH

Long Term Water Augmentation Plan

TURNKEY GROUNDWATER CONTRACTORS AND CONSULTANTS Aqua Earth Consulting offers professional, practical solutions to our clients’ geohydrological and engineering geological environments. These services include an integrated and effective approach to the management, utilisation and monitoring of water resources, as well as legal and environmental aspects related to these environments. We offer a comprehensive geothermal service, from site geothermal investigations, loop installations and the supply of ground source heat pumps.

Our equipment includes state of the art percussion drill rigs, pump test units and down the hole logging equipment and a borehole camera. All projects have full logistical support with backup vehicles, site personnel and professional planning.

Our crews are trained in all aspects of safe and efficient operations, and adhere to the best practice health, safety and environmental standards.

Contact us for: • Mine Dewatering • Water Supply

In the long term, the option of wastewater re-use is proposed as follows:

Waste Water Treatment Works Upgrade The capacity of the Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTW) must be upgraded from 750kℓ/day to 2Mℓ/day. To achieve an effluent quality to meet the required Special Limit Values (SLV), it was recommended (SSI Engineers 2008) that the works be upgraded to a membrane bio-reactor (MBR) plant. The MBR process, which has an economical footprint, will also provide good quality effluent, which will be the building block to wastewater re-use.

The cost for upgrading the works to 2Mℓ/day is estimated at R15.0million (Excl VAT)

RO for Wastewater Re-use To provide the ultimate potable water supply of 4.5Mℓ/day an additional 1Mℓ/day will be provided from the WWTW through direct reverse osmosis (RO).

The cost for this process and the final polishing of treated effluent for use as potable water is estimated at R7.5million (Excl VAT)

Additional Storage To provide adequate reservoir storage capacity, it is proposed to provide a 4Mℓ additional storage capacity (or aquifer recharge capacity, depending on the final solution).

The cost to provide additional storage is estimated at R8.0million (Excl VAT).

Cost Benefit Analysis The proposals were subjected to a cost benefit analysis which was also used to determine the Unit Reference Value (URV) of the proposed plan, as well as that of the individual components of the plan. The URV values and utilization rates for the different sources of supply are shown in Figure 9 and Table 2 below.

• Construction Dewatering • Specialist Studies • Groundwater Monitoring • Water Audits • Water Management • Borehole Drilling • Monitoring Well Installations • Borehole Testing

Contact us at: 72 - 5th Avenue, Fontainbleau, 2194 Telephone: (011) 791 3490 Fax: (011) 507 6612 Email: aquaearth@aquaearth.co.za Website: www.aquaearth.co.za Figure 9: URV values and utilisation of the available water sources

104

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

105

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

The cost benefit analysis indicates an average positive value of R2.05 per kℓ of water produced.

Further work is planned to develop a cost model to inform the process of optimising the water tariffs for Knysna.

The URV for the overall scheme is calculated to be R5.95 per kℓ of water produced. It should be noted that this includes for having additional capacity (“insurance”) to meet peak season demands.

Geothermal Systems – heating and cooling from the earth.

Reduce your carbon footprint and utility bills at the same time. Geothermal systems use the free, renewable energy found in your own back yard!

Save up to 70% on heating, cooling, & hot water costs.

Source

Yield (Ml/d)

Utilisation

URV (R/ m3)

Karatara River (1)

1.35

90%

0.58

Hoogekraal River (2)

0.15

17%

3.06

Boreholes (3)

0.50

100%

3.03

Desalination Seawater (4)

1.50

38%

15.82

Reuse Wastewater (5)

1.00

79%

6.94

Overall for Augmentation Scheme

4.50

5.95

Table 2: URV values and utilisation of sources

Funding The funding of the project was achieved with a combination of Disaster Management (CoGTA), MIG, Eden DM, and Knysna LM Funds.

Start saving and Call us today on +27 11 791 3490 or submit a form from our web page and we will contact you!

Contact: Ben Hefer Mobile: 082 576 0278 Office: 011 791 3490 Email: ben@aegeothermal.co.za www.aegeothermal.co.za Table 3: Project budget & programme

Notes:

1 Estimates are based on preliminary costing 2 Estimated costs reflect present value and exclude escalation.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

107

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

CHAPTER 7: SEDGEFIELD WATER AUGMENTATION CASE STUDY

THE CHEMICAL AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES’ ASSOCIATION

The Chemical and Allied Industries’ Association (CAIA), which was established in 1994 and is affiliated to the International Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA), seeks to fulfil its primary mission of;

• • •

promoting the sound management of chemicals throughout their lifecycles, promoting the sustainable development of the chemical industry through investment, and promoting education and training to enhance the development of skills in the sector.

CAIA’s mission cannot be achieved without the involvement of its member companies. Members sign a commitment to strive for the continual improvement of their safety, health and environmental performance with respect to products and processes – a commitment known around the world as the Responsible Care Pledge. Practiced in 57 countries, with 148 members in South Africa, the Responsible Care initiative is gaining momentum as a proactive approach to managing industry hazards.

3 The escalation can be covered by Knysna Municipality’s contribution 4 Professional fees, site monitoring, investigations and disbursement costs are included 5 The Environmental and Water Licensing authorizations are to be obtained

Conclusion The Sedgefield water crisis prompted the Knysna Municipality to take drastic action, and this resulted in an innovative, demand-based approach being developed to address the situation.

This approach was adopted and proved to be cost effective and achievable within the tight time constraints.

The Sedgefield Water Augmentation project is the forerunner in conjunctive water use in the southern Cape and paved the way for Mossel Bay, George, Knynsa and Plettenberg Bay to re-assess their available water sources. “New Water” is now mandatory in the water portfolios of the municipalities to limit the risk of complete water supply failure should our rivers run dry.

The approach was based on making better use of the available water resources and supplementing the traditional surface water resources with a combination of ground water, desalinated water and the re-use of final effluent. The conjunctive supply approach limits the risk of supply failure from a single source, and ensures sustainable potable water security for Sedgefield into the future.

There is indeed “Life beyond our rivers “ in the Garden Route.

Acknowledgements Industry is a major user of water. A lot can be done at company and plant level to ensure that water is used more efficiently. Companies that are signatories to the CAIA Responsible Care initiative have water conservation measures in place as part of their commitment to improving the environmental performance of the chemical sector. Over the last four years, water usage per tonne of production has shown a steady decrease.

CAIA strives to represent the chemical and allied industries in South Africa by;

• • • • • • •

ensuring a balanced perception of its contribution to the South African economy, investigating and pursuing opportunities for growth and trade, fostering cooperation between companies, including small and developing businesses, publicising CAIA and member activities as widely as possible to create public awareness in terms of how the chemical industry is continually improving and committed to do so, proactively consulting and advising government on the content and potential unintended consequences of proposed legislation through various channels (Business Unity South Africa, the National Economic Development and Labour Council, and Parliamentary representation) where possible and appropriate, promoting and representing the broad interests of the chemical and allied industries when engaging with government and stakeholders, and engaging in relevant national and international forums and activities.

Membership is open to chemical manufacturers and traders as well as to organisations which provide a service to the chemical industry, such as hauliers and consultants.

108

Please contact Glen Malherbe for more information. caiainfo@caia.co.za (011) 482 – 1671 THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

The authors wish to thank the following for their involvement with, and input to, the projects described herein: Rodney Nay, Rhoydon Parry, and Jules Hartslief of Knysna Municipality, Marike de Groen and Derrick Main of SSI, and Roger Parsons of Parsons and Associates.

References Ninham Shand 2003, Sedgefield Water Augmentation Report, Report No.9933/3483, May 2003.

Roets W, Y Xu, L Raitt, M El-Kahloun, P Meire, F Calitz, O Batelaan, C Anibas, K Paridaens, T Vandenbroucke, NEC Verhoest and L Brendonck. 2008. Determining discharges from the Table Mountain Group (TMG) Aquifer to wetlands in the Southern Cape - South Africa. Hydrobiologia (2008) 607:175–186 SSI Engineers 2008, Sedgefield Wastewater Treatment Works Upgrade and Re-Use Potential, Report No.W01.GRJ.000089, June 2008 (Updated July 2009).

Knysna Municipality 2009a, Comprehensive Integrated Water & Sanitation Business Plan for Greater Knysna, April 2009 (Updated July 2009) Knysna Municipality 2009b, Integrated Provision of Water and Sanitation for the Greater Knysna Area, Annexure A: Sedgefield Water Augmentation Business Plan, February 2009.

R Nay 2010, Desalination: A Potable Water Solution for Sedgefield, Presentation to The Sustainable Water Resource Conference and Exhibition, July 2010.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

109

Technology Improvement Using and incorporating nanotechnology aspects into current treatment technologies, the WNU has demonstrated that improvements can be made to commercial products. Tailor-made properties to effect predictable structures, surface properties and performance can be achieved through nanotechnology approaches.

WATER NANOTECHNOLOGY UNIT AT MINTEK WATER NANOTECHNOLOGY UNiT is housed within the DST/Mintek Nanotechnology innovation center (NIC) in Randburg.

It focuses on utilising nanotechnology to find new solutions to improve the quality of water. This entails undertaking fundamental and practical activities to develop new materials and to improve methods in water treatment and wastewater remediation.

Manipulate and design membrane structures

Vision and objectives The vision of the Water Nanotechnology Unit is to provide nanotechnology based solutions for the effective treatment of water to improve the quality of life of the people of South Africa.

To achieve its vision and objectives, the Unit undertake R&D in utilising nanotechnology and membrane technology for water treatment and wastewater remediation.

Through creating nanostructured polymeric materials as: • Develop and produce new nanostructured materials for use as sorbents and polymeric membranes; • Large scale synthesis and production of polymer beads systems for water treatment; • Develop and produce new generation hydrophilic membrane-nanocomposites at a pilot scale level to improve fouling and flux; • Routine in-house membrane assessment and performance testing; and • Design and develop integrated filter devices and systems for water treatment.

Ultimately ensuring that there is universal access to cheap, pure drinking water for all.

TECHNOLOGY AREAS

New Materials research

Manipulate membrane surface properties

Technology Demonstration Ultimately the WNU strive to demonstrate the improvements from laboratory through to pilot applications on water treatment and wastewater remediation areas.

Designing materials with tailor made properties to effect physical, microscopic and surface properties in order to improve material performance is core to our R&D strategy.

Contact: Core R&D efforts

Laboratory and pilot performance assessment

DST/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Center, Advanced Materials Division, Mintek, 200 Malibongwe Drive, Randburg, 2125, South Africa, E-mail: general@nic.ac.za

PROFILE: AQUAMAT

PROFILE: AQUAMAT

Water Purification ...

The Uniquely Aquamat Way! In the Water Purification Industry, Aquamat S.A (Pty) Ltd has established itself as a reliable partner to various organisations in delivering high quality potable water under severe conditions.

Our projects include amongst others:• A 60m³ per hour Skid Mounted Unit to supply potable water to a small village up in DRC. • A Containerized 20m³ per hour Unit to a Mine at the same village, capable of cleaning surface water as well as Borehole water.

• A Containerized Unit for a 150 personnel Military Camp in a National Park to assist with combating poaching. This Unit can do 20m³ to 120m³ per day.

• A Containerized 100m³ per day Unit to purify water from Lake Victoria in Tanzania.

• A Deployable Containerized Unit for the Navy to purify all types of water, including Sea Water.

• Units built onto Caged Skids, on Trailers and into Sea Freight Containers have already been operating effortlessly all over Africa for many years , treating Brackish Water in Angola, Botswana Military , Zambia and North Africa for UN Operations Safe, potable water is becoming increasingly scarce in Africa and even in South Africa. Aquamat possesses the knowledge, experience and technology to provide all the necessary equipment to make unusable water absolutely fit for human and animal consumption, as well as for irrigation.

For many years now Aquamat’s Aquamaster range have been contributing towards hugely improved crops for vegetable, grain, grape and nut farming as well as other stakeholders in the agricultural industry. Aquatronic Water Softeners and Descalers have become a household name over the years while Pressure Pumps and Aquamat are synonymous.

On the world market Aquamat SA (Pty) Ltd is also in high demand for the provision of water purification systems in refugee and military camps, as well as in mining development and the establishment of informal settlements. Aquamat SA’s product range consists of, among others, the following: • Descalers • Pressure Pumps • Water Softeners • Special filter media such as BIRM for iron removal and TURBIDEX Zeolite that filters very fine particles without the use of filter elements • Filter Systems • Reverse Osmosis Purifiers and desalination • Ozone and ultraviolet sterilising and • Mobile water purifying units.

Aquamat offers training on their equipment and the containerized units, whether mobile or static, are designed with simplicity in mind to make them easy to operate and simple to maintain.

The company has equipment to purify surface water such as rivers, dams and canal water quickly and economically at low production costs and with sustainable yield.

Aquamat’s latest range of useful technology and equipment also treats borehole water containing high levels of dissolved salts. The company’s innovative expertise for the purification and sterilization of water is of the highest standard.

112

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

Please direct any enquiries to Aquamat SA as follows: Tel no: (011) 472 1311.

Fax no: (011) 672 7592.

E-mail: aquamat@mweb.co.za.

Website: www.aquamat.co.za.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

113

CHAPTER 8: Municipal Water By-laws in South Africa

CHAPTER 8: Municipal Water By-laws in South Africa

Municipal Water Bylaws in South Africa

Inge van Aarde

Water is one of the key blocks for life – human beings cannot survive without it. It is essential for use in agriculture, industries, making food and even to generate energy such as hydro-electricity.

We must become more aware of this precious renewable resource. As water is such a precious resource it is essential that the consumption and protection of water are centrally managed. The proper management of the water supply is safeguarded both on national and local government levels. The Minister of Water Affairs is responsible for managing and administering water resources as the public trustee, ensuring that the country`s water resources are managed for the benefit of all. The Minister should also ensure that water is allocated equitably and that environmental values are protected. (Dept of Water Affairs Strategic Plan 2009-2014) The Department of Water Affairs is responsible for implementing the Water Services Act (Act 108 of 1997) as well as the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998)(“NWA”). The NWA also provides for municipalities to take responsibility for delivering water supply and sanitation services under the Municipal Structures Act of 1998.

Municipalities in their turn manage the water and sanitation services of the area and community which they serve. These services are implemented through a set of laws and regulations known as bylaws. In this way the functions of the government are not only exercised at national level, but are also decentralised to levels closer to the people.

Municipal Water Bylaws What is a bylaw A bylaw is a law that is passed by the Council of a municipality to regulate the affairs and services it provides within its area of jurisdiction (Capetown.gov.za.en/bylaws/pages/Home.aspx2013).

For example City of Cape Town Municipal Council and eThekwini Municipality has its own water bylaws. A municipality`s powers to pass bylaws are derived from the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa which allocates specified powers and competencies to local government as set out in Part B of Schedule 4 and Part B of Schedule 5 in the Constitution. Bylaws may not go against any national laws. Some bylaws are amended to meet unforeseen circumstances in municipalities.

Water sector bylaws, like all other bylaws, are constantly under revisions depending on conditions and demands. An example of this is the implementation of water restrictions in times of drought.

Aspects covered by water bylaws The management of municipal water and sanitation services is implemented by a range of bylaws :

114

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

115

CHAPTER 8: Municipal Water By-laws in South Africa

• • • •

CHAPTER 8: Municipal Water By-laws in South Africa

Water Bylaw(potable/drinking water) Water saving Bylaw Stormwater Management Bylaw Waste Water and Industrial Effluent Bylaw Water Restriction Bylaw

Water Bylaw Water, as previously indicated, is a scarce resource and must be managed responsibly. This bylaw covers the provision of potable water. For example, the City of Cape Town, loses approximately 80 000 litres of potable water per year in the distribution system. A simple example like brushing your teeth and leaving the tap running can waste water at a rate of 6 l/min (wecf.eu/download/2012).

The Water Bylaw is therefore an essential means of controlling water wastage from private homes.

“The Water quality standards ensure s that the quality of potable water is of satisfactory standard.

The municipality bylaw relates to the provision, administration and supply of potable water. The National Department of Water Affairs hands out annual awards to those municipalities that ensure a high level of management and provision of potable water services. The following is a table of municipalities which received awards, known as the “Blue Drop Award 2011 National Top 10 Blue Drop municipalities(2012 Report) 1st Ekurhuleni Municipality – GAUTENG 2nd City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality – GAUTENG 3rd Mogale City Local Municipality- GAUTENG 4th eThekwini Municipality -KWAZULU-NATAL 5th Tlokwe Local Municipality- NORTH WEST 6th City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality- WESTERN CAPE 7th Eden District Municipality -WESTERN CAPE 8th George Local Municipality – WESTERN CAPE 9th Bitou Local Municipality – WESTERN CAPE 10th Witzenberg Local Municipality – WESTERN CAPE

98.95% 98.92% 98.79% 98.77% 98.45% 98.14% 98.12% 98.12% 97.74% 97.63%

Water Saving Bylaw The Water saving bylaw has been introduced to ensure good water practices and to ensure that water supply does not outstrip demand. As part of the City`s water management plan, water bylaws have been introduced to reduce water wastage: • Cape Town water bylaws limit shower flow rates to no more than 10 litres per minute. A good modern product will save water which will usually pay back the investment within a few months or even weeks.

Low vol toilet Leak free toilet Aerated tap Low pressure geysers Grey water recycling

Duel flush toilets Low flow shower Strap tap Rainwater tanks

Water efficient devices used by architects • Residents who run informal car washes are assisted by City Council to ensure compliance with water- bylaws. Residents are encouraged to use water efficiently and that water is discharged

116

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

in accordance with the City`s bylaws. Awareness and education campaigns will help to learn about alternative car wash options such as waterless, recycling and water efficient methods.

City’s Mayoral Committee member said`` for an informal carwash to operate within the requirements of the City’s bylaws, it must be metered (separately) and the water must be discharged to the sewer and not the stormwater system. `Grey water’ if used must be handled carefully as it could be dangerous if not disposed in the correct manner.”

‘Grey water’ is any domestic wastewater produced from baths, showers, dishwashing, laundry and clothes washing machines. Grey water need is not necessarily waste water as it has the potential to be reused. Unfortunately much of it is still wasted.

Grey water gets its name from its cloudy appearance. Potable water is known as ‘white water’ and ‘sewage’ as black water.

Stormwater Management Bylaw This bylaw provides for the regulation and management of stormwater in a municipal area and also for the regulation of activities which may have a detrimental effect on the development, operation or maintenance of the stormwater system. The City of Cape Town stormwater bylaw relates to the management of flood plains, private stormwater systems, water pollution and natural water courses such as rivers, vleis, wetlands, dams and lakes. This management includes prohibition of discharges into the stormwater systems, the protection of this system, reduce the risk of flood damage, study of assessments related to the environment, the prevention and treatment of water pollution, stormwater systems on private land and the determining of fees and tariffs related to stormwater services. The City of Cape Town’s water bylaws are very clear – the only run-off permitted to enter the stormwater system is rain water and water collected from roofs via gutters and down pipes. It also empowers council to impose penalties on any person who contravenes this bylaw or fails to comply with its terms.

Waste Water and Sanitation Bylaw Wastewater and Sanitation bylaws are necessary to protect the health, welfare and safety of the public. This bylaw provides for the management and regulation of both industrial and domestic waste water within the municipal area, including compulsory provision of sewerage, common drains, unauthorized drainage work, unlawful drainage work, prevention of blockages, clearing of blockages, interference with sewer such interfering with the free flow of sewage or endangering the health of any person. In Cape Town all wastewater and backwash from pools must be diverted to the sewer system.

Water restriction bylaw Water restriction bylaws are instituted during drought to ensure sustainable water supply and to safeguard against excessive use of water.

• Here are some of the restrictions implemented: • No toilet cisterns may exceed 9,5litres in capacity.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

117

CHAPTER 8: Municipal Water By-laws in South Africa

CHAPTER 8: Municipal Water By-laws in South Africa

• Water-saving devices, such as showerheads, tap fitting and fixtures, efficient toilet flush systems must be included in all new buildings and developments.

• No watering of gardens (or any grassed area) with potable (drinkable) water between 10h00 and 16h00.

• The City’s Director for Water and Sanitation stated: “The City of Cape Town`s amended Water Bylaw(18February 2011) provides an opportunity for the City to be pro-active and introduce water conservation and demand management measures to ensure sustainability of water supply to consumers.”

Conclusion A bylaw exists to ensure that certain kinds of behaviour are prohibited and punished if the prohibitions are not observed(Memeza 2013). As the bylaws passed by a municipal council have the same force of laws as national legislation and provincial ordinances, the significance of the legislative authority of the municipal council must be emphasized. Bylaws can be enforced by courts of law and transgressors can be punished. However, a magistrate court can enquire into the `validity of bylaws`. Mizi Memeza stated“ that the rationale for bylaw enforcement emanates from the need to control people`s behavior. Metropolitan Police Services for all cities are expected to serve as an enforcement unit.

To date, Cape Town has appointed 18 Peace Officers (www.savingwater.co.za/2012) to enforce the bylaws related to Water, Wastewater and Industrial Effluent, Treated Effluent and Stormwater Management. In addition, a partnership has been formed between existing Water and Sanitation Inspectors and the City`s Law Enforcements Officers to further increase the enforcement capacity for enforcement of bylaws related to water.

Resources NOTE SABINET Municipal Bylaws offers access to all Bylaws in force and applicable to each individual Municipality in all nine provinces from 1995 to date. A fully comprehensive index for each province listing all existing and disestablished municipalities is also supplied Department of Water Affairs- the Enviropaedia www.enviropaedia.com?company/defaultphp?pk_company_id=183 Department of Water Affairs Strategic Plan 2009-2014-South Africa www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=126920 Memeza M (In a report on several papers published in 2000) By-law Enforcement in South African Cities, CSVR, Johannesburg

Cape Town to bolster water bylaw enforcement http://www.savingwater.co.za/2012/04/16/15/cape-town-to-bolster-water-by-law-enforcement

D N Klopper (2011) Policy, Strategy, and Regulation Section, WDM&S, Water & Sanitation.

Goodwood Municipal Office, City of Cape Town

SABINET http://www.sabinet.co.za/legal-products-only/sabinet-municipal-by-laws

EMM Bylaws/ Ekurhuleni Local Bylaws http://ekurhuleni.gov.za?your-council/ news-andpublications/ekuhuleni-talks, 30/04/2013

David Still et al(2007)Partners in development forWater research commissionThe Status and Use of Water Efficient Devices in South Africa A Review of Municipal Bylaws Relating to Water Efficiency , Ch 5 p 148 Bylaws http://capetown.gov.za/en/bylaws/Pages /Home.aspx 23/04/2013

SAVE Saving is simple 13Apri2013)http://capetown.gov.za/en/electricitysaving/Pages/ Intheshower.aspx

118

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

6l/min of water wasted www.wecf.eu/download/2012/wsp/WSP_Module_12 Watersaving.pdf

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

119

PROFILE: IWR Water Resources

profile

profile

PROFILE: IWR Water Resources

IWR WATER RESOURCES (PTY) LTD IWR Water Resources (Pty) Ltd consists of a small team of experienced and highly qualified hydrologists, water resources planners and hydraulic engineers. The main focus of the company lies in water resources planning and management, which includes water resources modelling and model development. The Company has extensive experience in the water resources models used within Southern Africa, including WRSM2000 and the Water Resources Yield Model, but have also developed their own water resources modelling tools so as to enable them to remain at the forefront of technology and respond rapidly to specific requirements from clients. Several new techniques have been developed to address specialised aspects in response to the needs of clients.

These new techniques include: • • • •

Ecological water requirements Development of operating rules for reservoirs Streamflow reduction due to afforestation and invasive alien plants, Monthly stochastic models to integrate long, medium term and short term operation of river systems.

The core expertise of the company is as follows:

• Yield analysis of dams and large integrated bulk water supply systems • Water resources modelling in support of the determination of ecological water requirements of both rivers and estuaries • Ecological Reserve implementation • Hydrological analysis • Eco-hydraulics modelling in support of ecological water requirement determination

• Development of operating rules of dams • Development of Water Allocation Plans • Agricultural water use and management • Catchment management studies • Water use license assessments, including trading • Flood-line determination • Project management and co-ordination • Water management institutional development

IWR Water Resources (Pty) Ltd is actively involved in research and development, both in-house (selffunded) and through the Water Research Commission as well as the Institute for Water Research at Rhodes University.

Research topics include: • Uncertainty in hydrological and water resources models • Environmental flow requirements of wetlands • Implementation of ecological water requirements • On-going water resources model development

• The Shared Rivers programme which is analysing the ecological state of rivers which flow through the Kruger National Park • Low-flow river hydraulics in support of determining ecological water requirements

Our vision is to provide efficient, sustainable and innovative solutions to the field of water resources management and modelling. At IWR Water Resources Pty (Ltd), our aim is to provide superior professional service to our clients. The cornerstone of our ethos is to share our technical solutions with other institutions with which we work to enhance research and development in the water sector.

IWR Water Resources Pty (Ltd) is strategically located to serve our clients and have offices located in Pretoria, Nelspruit and Durban.

120

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

IWR Water Resources has strong empowerment objectives. The company has 79% HDI equity ownership and 60% of our technical team are persons classified as HDI’s. Our staff are important to us, so our longterm goal is to offer shareholding opportunities to our employees. We encourage our staff to further develop their skills through bursary programs.

Key projects on which IWR Water Resources is the lead consultant are: • Development of operating rules for stand-alone dams in the Eastern and Western Cape • Development of operating rules for the Sabie/Sand River catchment • Development of a Water Requirement and Water Resources Reconciliation Strategy for the Mbombela Municipal Area.

• Support to water use licencing in the Inkomati Water Management Area Recent South African projects in which the IWR Water Resources (Pty) Ltd team has been involved include: • Inkomati Water Availability Assessment • Algoa Operational Analysis • Development of a real-time operational model for the Crocodile Catchment • Assessment of forestry potential in South Africa • Water Resources support to the ecological Reserve determination in the Outeniqua, Crocodile, Sabie and Mokolo rivers catchments • Development and pilot implementation of methodologies to implement the ecological Reserve • Water resources modeling support to the development of a draft water allocation plan for the Inkomati WMA Recent projects within other SADC countries: • Zambezi basin Development • Water resources support to the determination of environmental flow requirements of the Kafue river, Zambia • Evaluation of Water Use and Irrigation Efficiencies in the Upper Komati, Swaziland • Progressive Realisation of the IncMaputo Agreement: Water Resources aspects of the IWRM study (South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique) • Yield analysis of the Corumana Dam: Mozambique

CONTACT DETAILS:

Tel: +27 (0)12 365 2121 Fax: +27 (0)86 609 2269 Email: Stephen@waterresources.co.za Post: Postnet Suite 40, Private Bag X4, Menlo Park, 0102 Website: www.waterresources.co.za

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

121

CHAPTER 9: IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS FOR WATER SERVICES WORKS

IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS FOR WATER SERVICES WORKS AND PROCESS CONTROLLING PERSONNEL -

Kim Hodgson Umgeni Water

AN UMGENI WATER CASE STUDY INTRODUCTION Adequate numbers of appropriately qualified and experienced staff are required to operate and supervise water and wastewater treatment works. In recognition of the importance of adequately skilled staff to take charge of process control, plant maintenance and management at water services works, the Minister of Water Affairs has under Section 9(1) of the Water Services Act (No. 108 of 1997) detailed the regulations for the Classification of Water Services Works and Registration of Process Controllers (currently draft as Regulation 17, to be gazetted). These regulations require Water Services Institutions to classify all water and wastewater treatment plants and register the associated Process Controllers.

Figure 1: All Process Controllers must be trained to ensure that they have the required skills to operate water works

Draft Regulation 17 has been developed based on sector-wide review of Regulation 2834 of the Water Act (No. 54 of 1956), Regulations for the Erection, Enlargement, Operation and Registration of Water Care Works, which remains in existence today.

THE REQUIREMENTS OF PROPOSED REGULATION 17 The proposed Regulation 17 requires water and wastewater works to be classified according to Schedule I (water works) or II (wastewater works) by considering a number of factors, including the population served, design capacity of the water works, complexity of the treatment process and the variability of the raw water. The classification certificate is required to be displayed in a prominent place at all water or wastewater treatment works.

The proposed Regulation 17 states that a Water Services Institution is required to employ a supervisory Process Controller, Process Controllers and Operations and Maintenance support services for the operation and control of a water services works. The proposed Regulation also stipulates that no person shall operate a water services works unless they hold a valid Process Controller Registration Certificate. To qualify for registration, a Process Controller must fulfill requirements related to qualifications and experience specified in Schedule III of draft Regulation 17. The Process Controller Registration must be equal to or greater than the class specified in Schedule IV, which is appropriate to the class of works:

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

123

CHAPTER 9: IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS FOR WATER SERVICES WORKS

Works Class

Class of PROCESS CONTROLLER per shift

CLASS OF PROCESS CONTROLLER FOR Supervision*

CHAPTER 9: IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS FOR WATER SERVICES WORKS

operations and maintenance support services REQUIREMENTS*

E

Class I

Class V*

D

Class II

Class V*

C

Class III

Class V*

·

electrician

B

Class IV

Class V

·

fitter

A

Class IV

Class V

·

instrumentation technician

THESE PERSONNEL MUST BE AVAILABLE AT ALL TIMES BUT MAY BE IN-HOUSE OR OUTSOURCED

Table 1: Minimum Class of Process Controller and Supervisor per Shift *does not have to be at the water services works at all times but must be available at all times (DWA, 2011, p. 16) A noteworthy change proposed in draft Regulation 17 is that the Process Controller Registration Certificate expires five years after it is issued and application has to be made to the DWA for renewal of registration. This renewal is conditional on meeting specified training requirements as well as at least six months of practical operational experience over the five year period.

In addition, the proposed draft Regulation 17 establishes mandatory refresher training requirements for Process Controllers to ensure that they can undertake their duties with competence.

Registration renewal is provisional on completing the required hours of training every year, over the five years between renewals. Table 2 indicates the minimum annual training requirements in terms of number of Unit Standard Credits per class of Process Controller:

Unit Standard Credits 30

Class I

30

Class II

30

Class III

30

Class IV

30

Class V

10*

Class VI

10*

Continued Education

In Training

Table 2: Minimum Annual Training Requirements for Registration Renewal * Professional Credits: From Class V, Process Controllers must register for Professional Process Controller Registration. (DWA, 2011, p. 5)

124

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

In acknowledgement of the critical shortage of trained, skilled and experienced Process Controllers in South Africa, and in consideration of the transition from the currently under-regulated to a more regulated industry, the Department of Water Affairs has made provision for a number of special circumstances in the proposed Regulation 17: • Process Controllers with acceptable qualifications, but limited experienced: At the beginning of a career, draft Regulation 17 allows individuals to obtain a Process Controller-in-Training certificate to gain the experience needed to become Class I Process Controllers. However, after a three-year period, the Process Controller-in-Training must secure a Class I certificate to remain registered (DWA, 2011).

• Process Controllers who satisfy the experience requirements, but do not have a formal qualification: These Process Controllers will receive a registration certificate for a period of five years thereby enabling them to keep their jobs. Within a period of five years, these grand-parented Process Controllers will be required to successfully complete a competency examination and demonstrate their proficiency to renew their registration. However, it should be noted that grand-parenting is permitted only to existing Process Controllers in existing systems; it is site-specific and non-transferrable to other Process Controllers (DWA, 2011).

A Process Controller can have their registration revoked under specified conditions, such as fraudulent documentation used in obtaining the registration, or falsification of operational records.

Gross negligence or incompetence would also lead to loss of registration.

UMGENI WATER’S APPROACH TO PROACTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF DRAFT REGULATION 17

Continued Education/ Refresher Training

Class of Process Controller

Each Water Services Institution is required to submit an annual report to the Department of Water Affairs to indicate compliance with these annual training requirements.

The Blue Drop and Green Drop Certification Programme is an incentive-based regulatory tool used by the Department of Water Affairs to acknowledge excellence in drinking water and wastewater quality management in South Africa. The certification process measures the performance of Water Services Authorities and their Water Services Providers against predefined minimum requirements based on legal requirements and international best practice. The programme acknowledges the importance of appropriately qualified and experienced staff and has included a key performance area of Process Management and Control in the Blue Drop and Green Drop requirements. In the 2012 Green Drop Assessments and the 2013 Blue Drop Progress Inspections, compliance was assessed against the draft Regulation 17 (rather than the existing Regulation 2834), despite that the regulation has not yet been gazetted. For this reason, Umgeni Water made a decision to proactively prioritise the implementation of the requirements in draft Regulation 17 (in addition to the requirements of Regulation 2834).

A number of actions were implemented to facilitate a continual improvement approach and incremental compliance with draft Regulation 17: • All water works, wastewater works and Process Controllers have been classified and registered on the Department of Water Affairs electronic Blue and Green Drop System. Reclassification was undertaken for works that have been upgraded.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

125

CHAPTER 9: IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS FOR WATER SERVICES WORKS

• A multi-disciplinary, cross-divisional team was set up to develop a coordinated strategy for on-going process-related training of Process Controllers to meet draft Regulation 17 and Blue and Green Drop requirements.

CHAPTER 9: IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS FOR WATER SERVICES WORKS

• Since it would be too costly to train all Process Controller’s via an accredited training provider, internal staff training and competency assessments of Process Controllers (Planned Job Observations) are being implemented annually for all Process Controllers for all critical processrelated procedures within the ISO 9001: 2008 Quality Management System.

• A number of Process Controllers were classified as Class 0 due to a lack of formal qualifications, despite many years of experience. In some cases, this has resulted in the works not complying with draft Regulation 17. A decision was taken to pursue grand-parenting competency assessments in these cases to demonstrate the ability of the Process Controllers to adequately operate the works. A prioritized list of thirty-two Process Controllers has been submitted to the Department of Water Affairs for competency assessments.

• The requirements of draft Regulation 17 have been incorporated into the recruitment process for new Process Controllers. Particular attention has been given to the significantly more complex classification system proposed in Regulation 17 compared to the simple four criteria system used in Regulation 2834. This change is likely to result in a higher works classification and an associated higher class of Process Controller required per shift at a number of key water works.

CHALLENGES POSED BY IMPLEMENTATION OF DRAFT REGULATION 17 In the process of implementation of draft Regulation 17 at Umgeni Water, a number of challenges have been experienced:

Figure 2: Updated water works and Process Controller Classification and Registration certificates • A situational assessment of Process Controller registrations relative to works requirements was undertaken, and a gap analysis was prepared to inform future Process Controller training and development. Quarterly progress meetings are held to assess compliance with draft Regulation 17.

• A number of training interventions have been implemented to improve the skill levels of Process Controllers and Shift Attendants at Umgeni Water as well as compliance with draft Regulation 17: ºº Thirty-five staff attended 5-day National Qualifications Framework Level 3 courses (Disinfection of Water and Wastewater; Sampling Procedures) presented by an accredited training provider. Further training courses on the filtration and coagulation process are planned for 2013-14; ºº Fourteen learners are registered in Water and Wastewater Treatment Process Operation National Qualifications Framework Level 4 Learnerships through an accredited service provider; ºº Twenty Process Controllers/Shift Attendants are currently doing the N3 Water /N3 Wastewater qualification through an accredited service provider.

126

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

• The annual training requirements specified in Table 1 have proven to be extremely onerous to implement. The required 30 Unit Standard Credits translates to approximately 300 notional hours per Process Controller per year – approximately 25 days (of twelve hour shifts) per Process Controller per year. With the shift system in operation at water works, it is not possible to implement 25 days of training with the existing staff complement and simultaneously provide the essential services of water and wastewater treatment. To ensure compliance with this training requirement, a Water Services Institution will be obligated to employ additional Process Controllers to ensure that sufficient staff is available to undertake core water and wastewater treatment functions when training is in progress. In the absence of additional staff, allowing even limited staff to attend a 5-day training course, quickly consumes the overtime budget for each month, resulting in less budget available to attend to after-hours emergencies. An annual training requirement of 10 Unit Standard Credits per Process Controller per year is proposed as a pragmatic alternative that will not impact as significantly on the operation of the works.

• Furthermore, in consideration of the financial implications of fulfilling these extensive training requirements, it is recommended that the Department of Water Affairs clarify the obligation for accredited external training versus internal Umgeni Water training that could be provided by registered Scientists and Engineers.

• Compliance with draft Regulation 17 at small rural package plants and boreholes, which are either unmanned during the nights or only monitored at a weekly frequency, would be extremely costly and would require the employment of a significant number of additional Process Controllers. The Department of Water Affairs is recommended to reconsider the requirement for fulltime Process Controllers at groundwater schemes with low variability in water quality, which requires less active process control.

• There is a perceived stigma associated with grand-parenting of Process Controllers. Grandparenting is also considered to reduce future employment prospects since the registration

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

127

CHAPTER 9: IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS FOR WATER SERVICES WORKS

• class allocated to the grand-parented Process Controller is site-specific and not transferrable to other works.

• Umgeni Water’s In-service Trainee Programme allows newly graduated Process Controllers to gain one year’s relevant experience in operating water and wastewater works. However, after the in-service period, since these Process Controllers have limited experience (and an associated low Class), often they cannot be employed at the works at which they have gained their experience since they do not meet the requirements of that works, and will result in a shift being non-compliant with Regulation 17.

These challenges, concerns and recommendations have been communicated to the Department of Water Affairs.

CONCLUSION Umgeni Water acknowledges and supports the regulatory processes which ensure that all Process Controllers have the required skills to operate and maintain water and wastewater works for the protection of public health and the environment.

A number of challenges and concerns regarding the implementation of draft Regulation 17 have been communicated to the Water Services Regulation unit of the Department of Water Affairs.

Co-operation and liaison with the Regulator will continue to develop a pragmatic regulation which balances the need for appropriately qualified and experienced Process Controllers with the human and financial resources necessary to achieve this.

REFERENCES Department of Water Affairs, 1985, Regulations in terms of Section 26 Read in conjunction with Section 12A of the Water Act, 1956 (Act 54 of 1956) for the Erection, Enlargement, Operation and Registration of Water Care Works, No. R. 2834.

Department of Water Affairs, 2011, Draft Regulations for the Classification of Water Services Works and Registration of Process Controllers, No. R. 17.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

129

PROFILE: WSSA

PROFILE: WSSA

Sustainable service solutions Water Solutions Southern Africa (WSSA) has taken the lead role in developing and implementing private sector participation within the water sector in Southern Africa, this has been primarily though the company’s municipal and industrial clients delegating the management, technical support, operational and maintenance responsibilities for these water, effluent and wastewater services to a specialised company such as WSSA without relinquishing their rights of ownership of their assets or their contractual regulatory and monitoring responsibilities.

WSSA has been specialising for over 26 years in the upgrading, optimisation, management, operation and maintenance of water and effluent systems throughout Southern Africa, covering not only the industrial sector but also the municipal environment, from large cities and towns through to municipal peri-urban and rural areas.

WSSA currently operates more than 650 facilities across eight of the nine provinces in South Africa and provides specialist services to industry and the water sector in Uganda, Zambia, Botswana, Mozambique, Qatar and Lebanon. Today, we provide over 426 000 m3/d of treated water and treat over 206 000 m3/d of effluent and wastewater through their management operation and maintenance contract frameworks.

The Company’s Total Water Management approach allows us to create value in a sustainable way for our clients using the TCO (Total Cost of Ownership) approach, injecting sustainability factors going beyond the traditional concept planning, design, construction and commissioning of water systems by including their subsequent management, operations and maintenance.

Evolutionary management systems WSSA is also one of the few water service providers in Southern Africa that has ISO 9001, ISO 14001, as well as OHSAS 18001 certifications throughout its operations nationally, with all three integrated into a single management system. These certifications provide assurance to clients embarking on service delivery partnerships with WSSA that they will receive the best value proposal for their water and wastewater services.

Municipal sector in focus As a water services operator in the municipal sector specifically, the organisation provides water service authorities with the full spectrum of water services with the view to continuously improve and sustain water and wastewater service delivery to communities and consumers.

Varied clients and sectors WSSA also presently provides services to several provincial and regional government or parastatal departments, providing the towns and communities in their areas with an extensive range of technical, construction, operational and process expertise through numerous contract frameworks and appointments.

130

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

A prime example is where WSSA is the sole water and sanitation service provider to over 3.8 million people in three key district municipalities, with 16 local municipalities, covering an area of 36 000 km2. This also includes the major city in the region, with its industrial and export hub.

Contract intricacies WSSA also does operations and maintenance contracts, where it takes over the responsibility for the management, operation and routine maintenance of the bulk water and wastewater treatment systems, as well as the associated water and sewer reticulation systems where required.

Technical and operational support WSSA’s technical and operational support services within the municipal water and wastewater sector include asset management, network management, water demand, conservation and loss management, crises interventions, benchmarking, quality monitoring and laboratory services, customer management services, capital works programmes, rural water and sanitation services, water utility support and training.

With regards to network management specifically, WSSA manages, operates and maintains over 26 000 km of bulk water transmission systems, together with their associated weirs, intake towers, pump stations, water towers and reservoirs.

Closing the gap WSSA is doing what it can to assist in the provision of water professionals to the industry through the provision of SETA accredited training programmes in water and wastewater process control, not only within its operations, but also as a service to its clients.

Extensive network WSSA has a wide network of consultants, contractors and specialist service providers who can be mobilized as required to meet specific requirements and they place particular emphasis in our international operations on expanding this network to include the local support structures and specialists within our host countries.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

131

CHAPTER 10: Mathuba Schools and Citizens River Health Program

CHAPTER 10: Mathuba Schools and Citizens River Health Program

Mathuba Schools and Citizens River Health Program:- towards a learning architecture for sustainability LB Hurry, T Reinhardt University of KwaZulu-Natal University of Berlin, Germany

MC Dent

The technology which underpins the Mathuba Program is Google Earth Outreach, which posts the following invitation on its home page. “You want to change the world. We want to help. Google Earth Outreach gives non -profits and public benefit organizations the knowledge and resources they need to visualize their cause and tell their story in Google Earth and Google Maps to hundreds of millions of people.� (http://www.google.com/earth/outreach) The Mathuba Program has been conceived and crafted as a network of networks. Currently the virtual organisational form of the Mathuba Program network is being depicted as shown in Figure 1. The network is bound by an undertaking to work together in a community of practice for the benefit of current and future generations.

Figure 1 Schematic depiction of the current Mathuba Program network A key aim of the Mathuba Program is to foster identity transformation and learning in participants as they engage in the rapidly emerging field of citizen science.

132

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

133

CHAPTER 10: Mathuba Schools and Citizens River Health Program

Identity and Learning Wenger (2009) explains that actors engage their identity in the enquiry as they participate in social learning spaces. He goes on to reflect how actors transform their identity and their ability to participate in the world as they pursue their individual and collective learning in these social spaces. Such learning says Wenger (2009) develops accountability, to their evolving identity, that includes ways of talking, behaving and simply being. Such self-identities influence connections and power, legitimacy, values ways of engaging and feelings of legitimacy and efficacy writes Wenger (2009) Wenger (2009) explains that a community of practice can be thought of as a social learning system and such systems exhibit continuous negotiation of identity and cultural meaning by the actors as the complex relationships emerge and form dynamic structures and boundaries in ceaseless self-organisation. The Mathuba Schools and Citizens River Health Program can be viewed as a network of such communities of practice.

Identity changes that the Mathuba Program has seen already range from disconnected to connected; from unrelated to related; from irrelevant to relevant; from meaningless to meaningful; from purposeless to purposeful. In these emergent processes of identity change amongst the participants the practice architectures (Kemmis and Mutton, 2012), are metaphorically similar to a ‘strange attractor’ in atomic physics world that holds the chaos in a crucible as patterns and order start to form, as described by Wheatley (2006) who argues that in human systems, these strange attractors of purpose and meaning are key to working with emergence to affect real change, on a large scale. We certainly need such positive identity and learning change in southern Africa.

Citizen Science Given the severity and urgency of the challenges, there is, as if following the advice of Ison et al. (2004), increasing evidence, worldwide, of networks of citizens engaging in science, monitoring, evaluation, co-production of local solutions and co-learning towards a more sustainable world (Newman et al., 2012). It is such networks which the Mathuba Program is striving to catalyse, assist and stimulate.

A large scale example of citizen science combined with crowdsourcing, is the land-use monitoring project known as Geo-Wiki ( http://www.geo-wiki.org). The Geo-Wiki Project is a global network of volunteers who wish to help improve the quality of global land cover maps. Geo-Wiki has been developed by EuroGEOSS which is a large scale integrated project in the Seventh Framework Program of the European Commission (http://www.eurogeoss.eu).

Newman et al. (2012) explain that when emerging technologies are coupled with citizen science, a nexus between science and education is created and appropriate new knowledge is produced, in this new regime. Meaningful public participation can, according to Dickinson et al. (2012), be guided by citizen science projects. Their views are shared by Jordan et al. (2012) who contend that other, more far-reaching community-level outcomes are possible through citizen science. We believe that regaining of feelings of connectedness; questions of relevance and identity and payment for ecosystems services (PES) are all possible in South Africa, through citizen science. The engagement of citizens at all levels of endeavour in South Africa is strongly endorse by the Dinokeng Scenarios (2009), whose authors advocate government, business and civil society walking together (http://www.dinokengscenarios.co.za).

On World Water Day 2013, IBM, in collaboration with the City of Tswane, launched the IBM WaterWatchers project ( www.ibmwaterwatchers.co.za), which is an example of cellular phone and internet based crowdsourcing to address water and sewage leaks. Another exciting example of citizen science monitoring and mapping onto Google Earth systems is in the field of biomonitoring of streams. Groundtruth (http://www.groundtruth.co.za) has been awarded a national

134

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 10: Mathuba Schools and Citizens River Health Program

scale stream bio-monitoring project by the Water Research Commission. As a large industrial user of water, Sasol has formed strategic partnerships with the Department of Basic Education in the Free State, the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) and the Water Research Commission (WRC), inter alia to promote water education in addition to what effectively amounts to citizen science, related to water (http://www.infrastructurene.ws/2013/04/30/wrc-and-sasol-advance-water-stewardship/).

The Mpophomeni Sanitation Education Project (http://srhp.wozaonline.co.za) is an example of a joint local government/ NGO project which is funded by uMgungundlovu District Municipality and managed by the Duzi uMngeni Conservation Trust (DUCT) and the Wildlife and Environment Society of Southern Africa (WESSA). The Project involves identifying, training and equipping local environmental champions, or ‘enviro-champs’, three of whom are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 A Mpophomeni Sanitation Education Project eco-champion points to the proximity of Midmar Dam to the spilling sewer main.

These Eco-champions and a local coordinator are recruited from the large number of unemployed people in Mpophomeni.

Wherever there are environmental problems that need to be addressed, for example. frequently spilling sewers, illegal dumping hotspots these champions photograph and report the situation to the local authority , through their co-ordinator. This project works in close co-operation with a drama program and school education program which is linked to the world wide Eco-Schools movement. Eco-schools and DUCT have been working actively towards building a stronger community environmental ethic and awareness and activism in Howick and Mpophomeni for several years and are enthusiastic participants in the Mathuba Program.

The process of engaging the Mathuba Program is outlined schematically in Figure 3.

Figure 3 The cell phone to internet e-mail post and then the manual post to Google Earth

Outreach depicted schematically A screen copy of some Mathuba entries into that system is shown in Figure 3 . We recognise that the details on the above figures are too small to read. The purpose of placing them in this document is to indicate the steps in the process and not to convey details which can be found in the User Manual which the Mathuba Program has developed and which may be accessed at http://srhp.wozaonline.co.za. A key element of the Google Earth Outreach technology is the cloud

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

135

CHAPTER 10: Mathuba Schools and Citizens River Health Program

CHAPTER 10: Mathuba Schools and Citizens River Health Program

based spread sheet system, developed and maintained by Google and into which the information for each observation is entered by users. A screen print of this spread sheet is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 The Google Earth Outreach spread sheet.

Organisations and groups that contribute to the virtual network/community of practice that forms the Mathuba Program are quite naturally keen to maintain autonomy and control over the entries which they post into their Google Earth spread sheet. Such needs are accommodated in the design

by Google Earth Outreach.

Each organisation’s spread sheet is write password protected and at the same time easily linkable via URL to the Google Maps or Google Satellite display at another organisation. An example of the display is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Screen copy of a typical Mathuba, Google Earth Outreach Program in the Pietermaritzburg and Howick areas One of the key elements of the Mathuba Program is a focussed attempt to encourage individuals and groups to think systemically and to become aware of their own mental maps/mental models/ implicit working assumptions.

To achieve this, the network participants are encouraged to draw on the ‘iceberg’ metaphor developed by Senge et al.

(2008) and illustrated in Figure 6. Engaging these conversations helps to create a common language that can be used to describe any situation and simultaneously draws the participants into deeper levels of systems thinking and exploration of mental maps that are vital for transformation of identity and actions. Exponential up-scaling of creative, linked thought and actions are required to make a material difference in the urgent and serious issues at stake and these ‘iceberg conversations’ are crucial in the emergence of that process. One of the pathways that such conversations are opening up is those described in the literature on co-production (Boyle et al. (2010)

136

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

Co-production is predicated on the principle of recognising people as assets, this in contrast to the perception of people as burdens on the system and passive recipients of services. Personal and peer networks that work within co-production paradigms engage lay persons and professionals as they build knowledge to support change. These networks of co-production reduce distinctions and transcend barriers between recipients of services and local officials, expected to provide services.

Citizens and local officials thereby develop mutual responsibilities, respect and expectations.

Figure 6 Ways of explaining reality (after Senge et al., 2008) These “iceberg conversations” as they are termed within the Mathuba Program’s communities of practice, enhance understanding of biophysical and human relatedness and hence feelings of relevance by the participants. The transformation of feelings from irrelevant to relevant in the youth and adult participants associated with Mathuba Program related activities, has been marked (Boothway, 2013; Taylor 2013).

Discussion and Conclusions The practice architectures both technical and dialogic in the Mathuba Program contribute positively to the improvement of wicked problem situations. They do this by enabling constant, transparent exploration of the nature of the problems and their systemic boundaries. Also inherent in the Mathuba dynamic is a contribution to the stakeholder interaction so vital for the emergence of sustainability. Social learning in self-organising groups and networks needs the feedback and learning inherent in exploring the ‘iceberg conversations’ that are central to the transparent and reflexive networks in the Mathuba practice architectures. When wisely engaged the Mathuba practice architectures are well suited to fostering intensive and continuous interaction between results and interpretation, people and environments, applications and implications, that are imperative for the generation of socially robust knowledge. Citizen science as practiced through the ‘iceberg conversations’ around widely diverse activities provides a key element of the epistemology for integrating science and governance in problem situations where facts are uncertain, values in dispute, stakes high and decisions urgent. As the self-organising practice architectures in the networks within networks unfold the collective mental maps of citizen science co-creators have the potential coalesce in stigmergic processes of marking the work of each group, on the commonly visible Google Earth Outreach platform. As these mental maps and the myriad of connections between them begin to form the self-identity of the participants is likely transform from disconnected to connected, from unrelated to related, from irrelevant to relevant, from meaningless to meaningful, from purposeless to purposeful.

Through the unfolding of these processes there is a real possibility that the people of southern Africa can light a million candles in their hearts and minds. Taylor (2009) urges that we move beyond raising awareness and ensure that integrated capacity development occurs on an unprecedented scale. A key element of these activities according to Goleman (2009) should be directed to achieving radical transparency that contributes to ecological intelligence. The practice

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

137

CHAPTER 10: Mathuba Schools and Citizens River Health Program

25 YEARS OF THE EXTRAORDINARY TCTA is a state-owned liability management entity responsible for bulk raw water infrastructure development

architecture offered by the Mathuba Program enables unprecedented up-scaling and connecting to the marked work.

REFERENCES Boothway, L. (2013) Personal communication . Eco-schools and Enviro Club Convenor, Howick.

The TCTA is proud to contribute towards a system which aims to deliver a sustainable water supply across Southern Africa TCTA is also expected to play a key role in the funding of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project Phase 2, the implementation of which was announced in a joint statement issued in August 2011 by the Governments of Lesotho and the Republic of South Africa.

T

he Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority(TCTA) specialist skills, from sourcing project finance to planning, design and construction, place TCTA in the ideal position to facilitate development of bulk raw water infrastructure.

From an initial single project, TCTA now manages a portfolio of nine. These are the Lesotho Highlands Water Project Phase 1; the Berg Water Project (Western Cape); the Vaal River Eastern Subsystem Augmentation Project (Mpumalanga); the Mooi-Mgeni Transfer Scheme Phase 2 (KZN Midlands); the Olifants River Water Resource Development Project Phase 2 (Limpopo); the MokoloCrocodile (West) Water Augmentation Project (Limpopo); the Komati Water Scheme Augmentation Project (Mpumalanga) and, more recently, the Acid Mine Drainage Project (Gauteng) and the Metsi Bophelo Borehole Project (across six provinces).

The provision of water serves as a catalyst for sustainable economic development. The manner in which TCTA implements and manages its projects is governed by principles of transformation and sustainable development. We consider ourselves an instrument of social purpose, formed within society to accomplish social objectives. Consequetly, we are obliged to create new patterns, processes and strategies to tackle complex socio-ecological issues.

TCTA has committed itself to the progressive ideals and principles of sustainable development and their integration into various aspects of our business processes, giving us an opportunity to create value for all stakeholders, including social, economic and environmental facets.

All the above services are in support of government’s development agenda to make a better life for all. TCTA is committed to assisting government to achieve its socioeconomic objectives.

Boyle, D., Slay, J. and Stephens, L. (2010) Public Services Inside Out. London: nef/NESTA. Dickinson, J.L. , Shirk, J., Bonter, D., Bonney, R., Crain, R.L. , Martin, J., Phillips, T. and Purcell, K. (2012) The current state of citizen science as a tool for ecological research and public engagement Front Ecol Environ 2012; 10(6): 291–297.

Dinokeng Scenarios (2009) Three futures for South Africa. URL : www.dinokengscenarios.co.za . Accessed 13 June 2010.

Goleman, D (2009) Ecological Intelligence :- the coming age of radical transparency. Broadway Books, New York.

Ison, R. L., Steyaert, P., Roggero,P. ,Hubert,B. and Jiggins,J. editors. (2004) Social learning for the integrated management and sustainable use of water at catchment scale. SLIM project. URL http://slim.open.ac.uk/objects/Outcomes/SLIM%20Final%20Report.pdf.

Jordan, R.C., Heidi L, Ballard, H.L. and Phillips, T.B. (2012) Key issues and new approaches for evaluating citizen-science learning outcomes. Front Ecol Environ 2012; 10(6): 307–309.

Kemmis, S and Mutton, R (2012) Education for sustainability (EfS): practice and practice architectures.

Environmental Education Research. 18:2, 187-207.

Newman, G. , Wiggins, A., Crall, A 1, Graham, E., Newman, S. and Crowston, K. (2012) The future of citizen science: emerging technologies and shifting paradigms Front Ecol Environ 2012; 10(6): 298–304.

Senge, P., Smith, B Kruschwitz, N. , Laur J and Schley , S. (2008). The necessary revolution. How Individuals and Organizations are working together to create a sustainable world. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. London.

Taylor, E. (2013) Personal communication. DUCT Convenor, Mpophomeni Sanitation Education Project. Howick Taylor, J. (2009) The Environmental Crisis, Biodiversity and Education for Sustainable Development: a partnership response. In Environment Issue 1 2009, 22-28.

For more information on TCTA visit: www.tcta.co.za or Call +27 12 683 1200

Wenger, E (2009) Four essays on key components of the learning capability of social system, including “Social learning spaces,”“Learning citizenship,”“Social artists,” and “Learning governance.”.

URL http://www.ewenger.com/pub/pubpapers.htm Accessed 5 May 2010.

Wheatley, M.J. (2006) Leadership and the New Science:- Discovering Order in a Chaotic World.

Berrett-Koehler

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

139

PROFILE: TCTA

PROFILE: TCTA

MOOI-MGENI TRANSFER SCHEME PHASE 2 The Mgeni system supplies potable water to about five million people and various Industries in the Umgeni Water area of supply, which includes the greater Durban and Pietermaritzburg regions. The beneficiaries are all users in the Umgeni Water area of supply, including the following municipalities: eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality, uMgungundlovu District Municipality, Msunduzi Local Municipality, iLembe District Municipality, Ugu District Municipality and Sisonke District Municipality As a result of growing demand for water by users of the Mgeni system, the water supply of the existing system needed to be augmented. Various water supply solutions were investigated and the Mooi-Mgeni Transfer Scheme Phase 2 project (MMTS-2) in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands was identified as the preferred option. The project will augment the yield of the Mgeni system from 334 to 394 Mm3/a by transferring raw bulk water from the Mooi to the Mgeni catchment.

In November 2007, the Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) received a directive from the Minister of Water Affairs to fund and implement the second phase of the Mooi Mgeni Transfer Scheme (MMTS-2).

In May 2011, a SOD turning ceremony, by the Minister of Water Affairs, of the Spring Grove Dam took place to officially mark and celebrate the start of construction. Although the project is still on-going, the Spring Grove Dam started impounding water on March 2013.

The water transfer system, i.e. second component of the MMTS-2 project, could not progress in parallel with the dam due to the appeals on the Record of Decision being upheld by the Minister of Justice and Constitutional Development in September 2010. This necessitated that a new Environmental Impact Assessment be undertaken by TCTA and this process is in the final stage, i.e. the final Environmental Impact Assessment Report has been submitted to the Department of Environmental Affairs for approval. Construction of the transfer system will only commence after the Environmental Authorisation is issued by DEA and no appeals received.

The MMTS-2 project comprises • First component: The construction of the 37.7m high Spring Grove Dam in the Mooi River at Rosetta in KwaZulu-Natal. The dam has a storage volume of 139.5 Mm3 at full supply level of 1433.5masl.

• Second component: The construction of a water transfer system in the form of a pump station and pipeline.

AECOM, formerly BKS, was appointed as the Professional Service Provider for the MMTS-2 project.

The Group Five-Pandev Spring Grove Joint Venture was appointed as the contractor for the construction of the Spring Grove Dam. The procurement of the contractor for the water transfer system is currently out on tender.

The funding process Like other TCTA projects, the MMTS-2 project has been funded on an off-budget basis. This means that funding for the project has been sourced from external lenders and not through the fiscus.

The lenders are the European Investment Bank (EIB), Agence Française de Développement (AFD), the German Development Bank (KfW) and the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA).

The cost of the project will be recovered from the revenue generated through a tariff charged on water sales from the Mgeni System.

140

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

141

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters: A Solution for the Production of Safe Drinking Water in Rural Scattered Areas without Centralised Piped Systems Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Sciences, Private Bag X680ArcadiaCampus, Pretoria 0001 South Africa

Maggie MNB Momba Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Sciences Tshwane University of Technology

Access to safe drinking water is a universal human right recognised worldwide. As a result of the United Nations Millennium Summit in 2000, the international community reached consensus to halve by 2015 the proportion of people who did not have sustainable access to safe drinking water in 1990, and therefore extend access to 88% of the global population (WHO/UNICEF, 2012). The 2012 report of the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation has recently revealed that 89 % of the world’s population, which is approximately 6.1 billion people, used improved drinking water sources in 2010, 1% point more than the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) target. This report also states that between 1990 and 2010, over two billion people have gained access to improved drinking water sources such as piped supplies, boreholes fitted with hand pumps and protected wells.

Although the MDG target for drinking water was reached at the end of 2010, the WHO and UNICEF report ((2012) indicated that780 million people still have no access to safe drinking water worldwide. The vast majority of these people are currently residing in developing nations.

Sub-Saharan Africa in particular, faces the greatest challenge in increasing the use of improved drinking-water and it accounts for more than 40% of the global population without access to safe drinking water. This implies that many people in this region still depend on contaminated water sources for their daily water needs. The WHO/UNICEF (2012) also reported great inequality of access to improved drinking water sources between rural areas and urban areas. This rural-urban disparity is particularly prominent in Sub-Saharan Africa where the gap is 29 percentage points.

In least developed countries 97 out of every 100 rural dwellers do not have access to piped water.

Consumption of unsafe water is a major cause of death and morbidity in developing countries.

An estimated 2 million deaths are reported annually as a result of diarrhoeal diseases (WHO/UNICEF, 2000). Since 1996, it has been pointed out that each child in Sub-Saharan Africa experiences an average of five episodes of diarrhoea per year resulting in about 800 000 annual deaths (WHO, 1996). In 2002, the World Health Organisation indicated that 5.9 % deaths in developing countries are attributable to diarrhoea mainly as a result of unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene practices.

A study by Kosek et al. (2003) has clearly shown the magnitude of the global burden of diarrhoeal diseases between 1992 and 2000. These authors estimated that diarrhoea accounts for 21% of all deaths of children under 5 years of age annually, mostly from developing countries.

The implementation of centralised systems in rural areas not only requires substantial financial inputs, but also highly skilled personnel for constant maintenance and management of the

142

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

143

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

infrastructures. Lack of technical skills in the water sector as well as the relatively high costs of providing piped water to dispersed communities have been highlighted as among the major challenges to sustaining safe drinking water. It seems to be implausible that the communities in scattered rural areas will receive a treated, piped water supply in the near future. While it is evident that the implementation of centralised systems may not be the solution rural communities hoped for, decentralised or point-of-use (POU) water collection and treatment systems are believed to be a cost-effective short- to medium-term sustainable solution to ensure rapid implementation of suitable water supply and improvement in the quality of life, particularly in communities where access to safe drinking water services is lacking.

A number of household water-treatment systems are readily available on the market and differ mainly in manufacturer and water-purification mechanisms utilised. The most appropriate technology will depend on the situation, the quality of the raw water, the availability of the required materials and equipment, the time frame in which it is to be used, the customs, preferences and education levels of the local population and the availability of personnel to provide the necessary training and monitoring for the technology to be successfully implemented. There is a tremendous need to provide cost-effective systems that are efficient enough to remove pollutants, especially waterborne pathogens, in water in order to render the water safe to drink. Where possible, such systems should be designed and constructed using locally-available resources and expertise. They should deliver sufficient quantities of water and further should require little or no electricity or chemicals which have to be purchased, as well as minimal maintenance. Nations in the developing world should therefore invest in the availability of these home water-treatment technologies.

Promoting household water treatment and safe storage assists rural communities to keenly take charge of their own water security. This chapter focuses on clay pot filters produced in developing countries and they have been proven to produce safe drinking water and can be implemented in rural communities where access to centralised water-supply systems is lacking. The successful implementation of this point-of-use drinking water technology depends on the involvement of these communities and commitment of those who have the responsibility in making decisions in collaboration with these communities. This aspect is also discussed in this chapter.

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

(PFP) or Filtrón is the most widely used clay pot model. This point-of-use drinking water system is currently produced in more than ten countries around the world (http://www.pottersforpeace. org). The implementation model of the PFP filter is based on the assumption that the filter can be produced at low cost by local potters, thereby also creating employment opportunities in impoverished areas. The disadvantage is that there can be significant issues with quality control.

The design was later adopted and promoted by Potters for Peace, an international network of potters, which aims to promote and support socially responsible ceramic production and fair trade in the developing world.

The PFP Filtrón is similar to a terracotta flowerpot and has a capacity of ~ 6 L to 8 L and flow rates ranging between 1 L/h and 3 L/h and a wall thickness of approximately 1 cm. The ceramic filter itself is 30 cm in diameter and 24 cm high. The filter sits inside the receptacle. Receptacles are either 20-liter plastic buckets or ceramic pots. A plastic spigot is inserted at the bottom of the receptacle (Figure 1). Lastly, a plastic or ceramic lid is placed on top of the filter and receptacle (Lantagne, 2001a,b).

The filter is made by combining equal volumes of moist terracotta clay and fine sawdust or other combustible material and then forming either by wheel throwing or hand building. The Filtrón is usually coated or soaked in a silver nitrate solution after firing in order to improve microbial removal. Colloidal silver solution is applied to all the filters which meet the flow specifications. The stock solution used at Mantagua is a 3.2 % silver solution stabilised by proteins obtained from Microdyn in Mexico. Prior to 2002, for each filter, 2 mℓ of stock were diluted in 300 mℓ filtered water and then painted onto the filter with a clean brush. Two thirds of the diluted solution was applied to the inside of the filter and the remaining one third to the outside (Lantagne, 2001).

From 2002 onwards, each filter was soaked in approximately 200 mℓ of 0.32 % colloidal silver solution for 30 s (Campbell, 2005). A detailed description of the production of PFP filters at the Filtrón workshop in Managua, Nicaragua is available in a production manual downloadable from the PFP website (PFP, 2001).

2. Overview of low cost clay pot filters produced in developing countries During the last three decades, treating water at the household level using clay pot filters has been shown to be one of the most efficient means of preventing waterborne diseases world-wide (ICAITI, 1984; Chaudhuri et al, 1994; Sobsey, 2002; Clasen et al., 2004). Clay pot filters for point-of-use water treatment began appearing in third world marketplaces in the late 1980s and early 1990s and their performance has been evaluated by a number of investigators (Chaudhuriet al, 1994; Sobsey, 2002; Clasen et al., 2004, Baumgartner). Most of these studies have evaluated filters that are typically produced through an industrial design and manufacturing process (that does not use local labour) with high-purity ingredients. This often results in a filter price point that is beyond the reach of many residents of developing communities. Clay pot filters typically made with local labour and materials (clay, water, and a combustible organic material such as sawdust, flour, or rice husks) are described in this section. They include the Potters for Peace Filter Pot or Filtrón, the Ceramique d’Afrique Candle filter and the Silver-impregnated porous pot.

2.1 Potters for Peace Filtrón System Originally developed by the Central American Research Institute of Industrial Technology (ICAITI), an industrial research institute in Guatemala, as part of a 1981 InterAmerican Bank funded study into low cost options for domestic drinking water filtration (ICAITI, 1984), the Potters For Peace

144

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

(a) Potters for Peace filtró

(b) Kosim filter system, Ghana (Swanton, 2008)

Figure 1: Clay pot filter system Filtrón (a) and Kosim (b)

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

145

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

The materials and manufacturing procedure vary from facility to facility and country to country.

For instance, ceramic filter pots produced by Resource Development International at a factory in Kandal Province, Cambodia make use of raw milled clay mixed with ground rice husks which is press moulded and fired at 870 oC. After flow testing (1 – 3 ℓ/h required), 300 mℓ of 230 mg/ℓ reagent grade AgNO3 solution is applied to the filter, with 2/3 applied to the inside and 1/3 applied to the outside (Brown, 2007).

2.2 Ceramiques d’Afrique Candle Filter The ceramiques d’Afrique candle filter element is a small 5 to 8 cm diameter by 10 to 14 cm high ceramic cylinder (Harvey, 2000). Its development was spurred in part by the difficulties in transporting the much bulkier PFP filters on badly damaged roads in Nicaragua following Hurricane Mitch. In addition, the relatively large surface area to volume ratio allows for higher flow rates by using more than one element in each bucket system. Figure 2 shows the typical ceramic filter system and elements.

The disadvantage of the candle compared to the pot is that it is much more difficult to make.

Full description for the manufacturing of ceramiques d’ Afriques candle filter can be found at http://www.potters.org/subject32525.htm. and http://www.geocities.com/ceramafrique/. Briefly the filter element is made from a mixture consisting of 45 % red plastic clay, 45 % porous grog and 10 % combustible such as flour sieved to 30 mesh. Porous grog is itself a mixture of clay and flour which is pressed, dried, fired and then crushed with a mortar and screened to 30 mesh before being mixed with more clay and flour. This mixture is pressed in a mould to form the candle and then a solution of colloidal silver or silver nitrate is brushed on before firing. If nitrate is used, a further firing is required to burn off the nitrate under reducing conditions. The use of porous grog makes the filter fabrication process more complicated but is the key to the higher flow rates that can be achieved. Potters For Peace is also currently working on an extruded candle filter model (PFP, 2008), presumably also with the goal of increasing the flow rate of the system.

2.3 Silver-Impregnated Porous Pot(SIPP)Filter The SIPP device is a prototype nanotechnology-based clay pot filter manufactured by the Tshwane University of Technology and Cermalab Testing Laboratory, Pretoria/South Africa, in fulfilment of the objectives of WRC Project No. K8/810 (Momba et al., 2010), a project commissioned and funded by the Water Research Commission. Opposed to painting of colloidal silver on the inside and outside of the pot as done in the well-known “Potters for Peace” ceramic pot, the inclusion of nano-silver into the clay by the incorporation of the silver in the firing process of the pot offers the possibility of enhanced reactivity compared to conventional coatings due to very high active surface densities. A mixture of ball clay, sawdust, paper fibre and silver nitrate solution (23.5 g) is moulded into a pot shape prior to firing process. More details on the manufacturing process of the SIPP filter can be found in WRC Report No KV 244/10 (Momba et al., 2010). The silver nitrate acts as a disinfectant due to the bacteriostatic properties of the nano-silver particles (OyanedelCraver & Smith, 2008). The complete water treatment system consists of the pot filter (maximum capacity 5–6 ℓ) that is contained in a 10 L plastic receptacle (height 24 cm, diameter 26 cm) (Figure 3, which is positioned on top of a 20 L collection bucket (height 33.5 cm, diameter 32 cm). The expected flow range is between 0.5 L/h and 2.6 L/h. The contaminated water is poured into the clay pot and slowly drips through the fine pores of the clay element into the collection vessel. A small spigot is used to withdraw water for drinking and to prevent the contamination of filtered water by dirty hands or utensils with which water is drawn (Figure 3).

(b) disk Upper vessel for raw water (c) candle

Filter element Lower vessel for filtered water

3. Effectiveness of silver porous clay pot filters in removing contaminants (d) pot

Spigot (a) Filter system

Figure 3: SIPP filter unit: A – the silver-impregnated clay pot that serves as the filtering unit; B – the clay pot fitted into a 10 ℓ bucket and placed on top of a collection vessel; and C – skeletal view of a complete SIPP filter (Source: Momba et al, 2010, 2013)

Filter elements

It is acknowledged that household water-treatment systems and devices are generally accepted not to be primarily suited to the removal of chemicals. The physical parameters such as turbidity, is a key parameter that is used to measure the quality of a water source (EPA, 1999). Removal of contaminants from polluted water sources by porous clay pots occurs by straining or adsorption depending on the filter material, pore size and characteristics of the particles being removed.

Porosity, which is defined as the fractional volume of voids within the filter material, is the primary factor affecting ceramic filter performance (Mattelet, 2006). The higher the porosity, the greater the flow rate that can be achieved but the lower the microbial removal efficiency. The pore size and filtration properties of different filters depend on the materials used and fabrication methods.

Figure 2: Typical ceramiques d’Afrique filter system and elements (source: PFP, 2008)

146

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

147

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

Ceramic filters may have a life span of up to 7 years and still remove microbial and chemical contaminants from water, but the removal efficiency declines though (Lantagne,2001b).The most common ceramic clay pot filter is the Potters For Peace (PFP).This section focuses on the PFP filter and the SIPP filter.

3.1 Turbidity Removal Performance Suspended solids occurring in raw water result in a turbid or murky appearance. The objective of treating turbid raw water is therefore to reduce turbidity levels up to the recommended limit, which is <1 NTU (SANS 241, 2006) and the allowable limit which is <5 NTU (WHO/UNICEF, 2010).

Potter for Peace Filtrón filter - Lantagne (2001a) found that turbidity reduction of the PFP Filtrón filters tested in the field ranged from 30 to 100 % with a few filters actually increasing the turbidity of the filtered water. An increase in turbidity was taken as an indication that the filters had not been cleaned. Most of the filters were able to reduce the turbidity below the WHO standard of 5 NTU. Brown (2007) found that ceramic filters reduced turbidity from a mean of 8.9 NTU to a mean of 2.6 NTU (Table1).

Silver-impregnated porous pot filter -The performance the SIPP filter in removing turbidity was assessed using multiple water sources instead of a single water source (Mwabi et al., 2012; Malhangu et al., 2012). The applicability of filter systems to multiple water sources is important because of the differences in source water quality due to spatiotemporal and seasonal fluctuations. Therefore, a filter system that improves water quality and removes turbidity and bacteria under various water source conditions will provide the rural communities with high-quality water regardless of the quality of the source water, as reported by Sobsey and co-authors (2008). According to Mwabi et al. (2012) and Malhangu et al. (2012), the water turbidity levels were categorised as 2 NTU to 18 NTU, 10 NTU to 40 NTU, 2 NTU to 10 NTU and 2 NTU to 15 NTU for surface water with low turbidity, surface water with high turbidity, groundwater with low turbidity and groundwater with high turbidity, respectively. Regardless of water sources, the SIPP filter produced drinking water with turbidity values <1 NTU (Table 1).

Microbial removal Viruses Potters for Peace F i l t r ó n / 68 - 98% K o s i m filters SIPP

Bacteria

97.8 -100%

85.7-100% 99.5-100%

Turbidity Evaluated Protozoan Flow rate removal in field (NTU) parasites 99.99% (>4 log)

96-100%

1-3ℓ/h

0.5-2.6ℓ/h

30-100% ( 5 NTU)

100% (<1NTU)

42-70% reduction in diarrhoea

No data

Table 1 Efficiency of PFP and SIPP filters in removing pathogens and Turbidity

3.2 Microbial Removal Performance Generally, ceramic filter pore sizes range from 0.1 µm to 10 µm. In the Potters For Peace (PFP) filter design, the goal is to achieve a pore size of approximately 1 µm (Lantagne, 2001). The SIPP filter has also a similar pore size (Momba et al., 2010). By comparison, microbial contaminants range in size from 0.02 to 0.2 μm for viruses, 0.3 to 100 μm for bacteria of various shapes, 8 to 100 μm for protozoa. Most ceramic filters remove a large proportion of solids and silt and many will also

148

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

remove parasites including cysts, ova and guinea worm, and some bacteria based on size exclusion (Kauser, 2004). Filters also have some capacity to remove smaller particles including viruses and bacteria and other contaminants through sorption processes but this capacity will diminish as available sites are exhausted unless the filter can be regenerated. Brown (2007) found that removal rates of both bacteria and viruses were significantly higher in new filters (for approximately the first 100 L filtered) but dropped significantly thereafter. In the case of viruses, the author reported that the average removal rate dropped by nearly three orders of magnitude in spite of the filters being regularly cleaned according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Potters for Peace Filtrón and Kosim - Oyanedel et al., (2008) reported that colloidal-silverimpregnated ceramic filter removed between 97.8% and 100% of E. coli. According to these authors, the quantity of colloidal silver applied per filter determined its removal efficiency. Silver concentrations in effluent filter water were initially greater than 0.1 mg/L, but dropped below this value after 200 min of continuous operation. These results indicate that colloidal-silverimpregnated ceramic filters, which can be made using primarily local material and labour, show promise as an effective and sustainable point-of-use water treatment technology for the world’s poorest communities.

Silver-impregnated porous pot filter - The performance of the SIPP filter in removing faecal coliform, E. coli, pathogenic bacteria such as Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhimurium and Shigella dysenteria from multiple contaminated water sources was carried out in Pretoria/South Africa at TUT Water Research Group laboratory by Mwabi et al. ( 2012; 2013). Source water samples comprised of spiked synthetic water (sterile saline water) and environmental water sources from surface water and groundwater that had various turbidity levels (Ref. Section 2.3.1). Filtration was carried out with the assumption that rural communities could make use of any available water source that is available to them during various seasons. Two scenarios were tested: the first scenario involved continuous filtration of multiple water source samples and the second scenario focused on one water source after cleaning of the filters to regain their flow rate over an eight week period. Different volumes of filtrates were collected at 1 h intervals over the 3 h period of filtration with the assumption that enough purified water would have been produced in this period for drinking and cooking. This also allowed the researcher to ascertain whether significant disparities in the reduction of microbial contaminants could be found at different interval times and to make the necessary recommendations in terms of safe drinking water. One filter unit was used during the six trials of this investigation. The SIPP filter was soaked in 20 L deionised water overnight prior to use. The concentration of the silver in the filtered water was also monitored at one-hour intervals over a three-hour period so as to determine the Ag elution by the SIPP after filtering a total volume of 305 L water. The first, second and third filter runs were performed with deionised water, groundwater and surface water, respectively.

The silver-impregnated porous pot consistently produced high-quality water that had no presence of indicator bacteria after treatment. This filter system consistently removed 100% faecal coliforms and E. coli throughout the study period regardless of water sources and operational conditions (Mwabi et al., 2012). No target pathogenic bacteria were detected in finished surface water after filtration (Table 2). The removal of maximum concentrations of target pathogenic bacteria from synthetic water (6 log10 to 7 log10 units; >99.99% removal) and groundwater (0.6 log10 to 5 log10 units; 99% to 100% removal) was observed after treating this water source with SIPP. The SIPP filter consistently showed high removal efficiency and produced drinking water complying with the recommended limits set by the South African National Standard (SANS) 241 Drinking Water Specification (SANS 241, 2006) and international standards (WHO, 2006). High efficient microbial removal of SIPP filters compared to the control pots without silver have been

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

149

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

attributed to the imbedded Ag nano-particles in the micropores (Momba et al, 2010). Similar observations have been reported by Mwabi et co-workers (2012, 2013).

In a parallel study, using the same filter unit and operational conditions, the ability of the SIPP to remove somatic coliphages, Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp from spiked synthetic, surface and ground water sources was also assessed (Momba et al., 2013). With the exception of the first two hours of the 3rd trial, no somatic coliphages were detected in the synthetic water filtered through the SIPP unit. The reduction rates of somatic coliphages ranged between 85.71% (corresponding to 5 of 35 pfu·100 mℓ-1) and 100% (corresponding to 0 of 39 pfu·100 mℓ-1) for Surface water with low turbidity and between 91.43% (corresponding to 3 of 35 pfu·100 mℓ-1) and 95.45% (corresponding to 2 of 44 pfu·100 mℓ-1) for surface water with high turbidity. For groundwater, the results indicated that the efficiency rates of the SIPP device ranged between 92.59% (corresponding to 4 of 54 pfu·100 mℓ-1) and 100% (corresponding to 0 of 82 pfu·100 mℓ-1) for groundwater with low turbidity, and between 90.63% (corresponding to 3 of 32 pfu·100 mℓ-1) and 96.43% (corresponding to 1 of 28 pfu·100 mℓ-1) for groundwater with high turbidity. Removal of viruses by ceramic filters is believed to be mainly due to the adsorption of microorganisms onto sorption sites which become depleted over time (Franz, 2004). Therefore, up to 100% (> 90%) removal efficiency by this device can be assumed ( Franz, 2004; Clasen and Boisson, 2006).

3.3 Leaching Of Silver from Clay and Public Health Concerns The World Health Organisation does not at present have a health based guideline for silver, citing inadequate data (WHO, 2006). However, it has estimated that 0.1 mg/L silver ion in drinking water should have no adverse effects over a lifetime of consumption based on half the NOAEL (no-observed-adverse-effect-level) intake. This concentration gives a total dose over 70 years of half the human NOAEL of 10 g (WHO, 2006).

Lantagne (2001a) indicated that PFP filters painted with colloidal silver solution showed elevated silver concentrations in the filtrate from the first run after silver application, but the values obtained (29 – 61 μg/L) were well below the WHO guideline. The author noted that the concentration of the silver in the filtrates dropped to 20μg/L or less in the next two runs and it was detected only in two out of 24 filters used for six months. Potters For Peace advocate discarding the water from the first run due to the metallic taste, however, this does not appear to pose a health threat to consumers.

The silver leached from the SIPP filter ranged between 0.5 and 0.6 mg/L, higher than the WHO recommendation of 0.1 mg/L (WHO, 2006). According to Mwabi et al., (2012), the concentration of the Ag in the filtrate gradually dropped to 0.22 mg/L after filtration of groundwater and surface water sources up to a total volume of 320 L, this value was still above the WHO recommended limits (WHO, 2006). Previous studies have indicated the relative non-toxicity of Ag and its health benefits (Furno et al., 2004; Morones et al., 2005). The only currently known health consequence of excessive silver intake is a condition known as argyria in which skin and hair become discoloured by silver accumulation. According to Lantagne (2001a), the only known cases have been due to excessive consumption of silver containing medications and not to the use of silver for disinfecting drinking water.

4. Safe Storage and handling of drinking water The goal of point-of-use household water treatment and safe storage technologies is to empower people without access to safe water to improve water quality by treating it and storing it safely in the home. Safe storage and handling of drinking water and behaviour change should be promoted at the household level to reduce or prevent the risk of waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea.

150

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

A number of studies have reported the deterioration of stored-drinking water and this has been attributed to the living conditions and hygiene practices of households (Gundry et al., 2004; Jagals et al., 2004, Trevett, 2003). Unsanitary methods of dispensing water from household storage vessels, including contaminated hands and dippers as well as inadequate cleaning of vessels, number of children and socio-cultural status, have been pointed out to lead to the accumulation of sediments and pathogens (Tamberkar and Banginwar, 2004). A study carried out by Momba and Notshe (2003) revealed that the formation of biofilms on the inner surfaces of storage containers might also contribute to the deterioration of good quality water. Studies on regrowth and survival of indicator microorganisms on the inner surfaces of household containers used for the storage of drinking water in rural communities of South Africa were conducted by Momba and co-workers (Momba and Mnqumevu, 2000; Momba and Kaleni, 2002). These authors looked at the storage of groundwater and surface water in polyethylene containers and galvanised steel containers. Both studies supported the use of galvanised steel containers for water storage as opposed to using polyethylene (PEP) containers, which were found to be more prone to enhancing biofilm formation than galvanised steel containers. To prevent the deterioration drinking water quality, Momba and Mnqumevu (2000) recommended to rural communities not to store drinking water for more than one day. Periodic cleaning of storage containers to remove accumulated sediment and biofilms which develop on the walls is also essential. Storage vessels should be designed and selected to minimise the risk of recontamination of the water. The characteristics of safe storage containers are summarised in Sobsey (2002), while more information on the available options can be found at CDC (2012). A number of studies have shown that the quality of water deteriorates somewhere between transportation and storage in the household, (Clasen and Bastable, 2003; Gundry et al., 2004; Trevett et al., 2005; Wright et al., 2004) albeit the water is collected from an improved water source, such as a standpipe or protected ground water source.

5. Cost and affordability by rural communities The costs of any given system will depend on the local cost and availability of materials and components as well as any economy of scale which can be achieved. The volume of drinking water produced by a given system depends on the capacity of the device, the flow or treatment time required and the number of times the householder is able to refill it during the day. It is assumed that the maximum volume a single household would produce in a given day is 150 L for six people or 25 L each person. The cost of the SIPP was determined in WRC Project No. K5/1884 (see Chapter 3 in Volume 1). For the PFP, the costs are estimates obtained from the international literature and depend from one country to another. All cost estimates are intended for comparison purposes only. They do not include the costs of training and monitoring which are critical to the successful implementation of any of these systems as well as the costs of additional pre-treatment or posttreatment steps which may be required. Table 2 summarises the estimated water production, costs, sources and available training materials.

Device/system

Water production per day

Potters For Peace Filtrón

10-20 L

Silver Impregnated Porous Pot

10-20 L

Hardware R150-

Cost per KL

Contacts/educational materials

R330

USD18.75USD 41.25

R7-R30

USD 0.875 - USD 3.75

www.pottersforpeace.org

R290

USD36.25

R13-R26

USD1.625 -USD3.25

WRC K5/1884 (Vol. 1)

Table 2: System costs and availability of training materials (2010: USD 1=R 8)

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

151

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

6. Community acceptance of household drinking water treatment systems The acceptance of household drinking water treatment systems by rural communities without access to safe drinking water contributes to a better understanding of how end-users perceive the attributes of home water treatment technologies and how these in turn may affect their social acceptance and sustainability. It also contributes to vital information for establishing useful water-related policies and methods for the safe distribution of and access to clean water by rural communities. Community participation and acceptance of new water supply systems are crucial in ensuring the success of intervention projects. These aspects must therefore be an integral component of the field-testing requirements and of standards or criteria based on which home water-treatment devices are assessed and selected (Momba et al., 2013).

In the Cambodian pilot study, 20 % of households given filters could not use them after one year. The breakage of the filter elements was the main reason in about half the cases (Roberts (2003). Brown (2007) found a discontinuity rate of approximately 2 % per month, also mostly due to breakages. In this study, 98 % of households reported a high degree of contentment with the filter due to the taste of the water, ease of maintenance, health benefits and the fact they no longer needed to boil their water.

The introduction of the SIPP filter to the communities of Makwane village in South Africa was done in a short period of one week in 2012. Overall, there was no or little experience in using the SIPP for the treatment of drinking water at household level by the community of Makwane village (Momba et al., 2013). These authors reported that socio-economic factors such as cost and willingness to pay, efficiency of new technology, awareness raising/informed community, community needs and job creation are among important -factors that influence the acceptance of systems. In general, the newly developed water-purification devices are accepted by the rural community. The enthusiasm for the devices in Makwane village prompted municipal leaders, during the feedback workshop session, to lodge direct requests to the research team for more devices to be deployed across the entire municipal area. This second phase of the project is currently on track and will be completed in 2014.

7. Conclusion The lack of safe water creates a tremendous burden of diarrheal disease and other debilitating, lifethreatening illnesses for people in the developing world. Point-of-use water treatment technology has emerged as an approach that empowers rural communities without access to safe water to improve water quality by treating it in the home. Silver impregnated porous clay pot filters have many potential advantages as a point-of-use water treatment technology. They can be manufactured with mostly local materials and labour. Since clay pots are often used as storage containers for water, it is a socially acceptable technology that can work year round in different climates. Socio-economic factors such as cost, efficiency of new technology, awareness raising/ informed community, community needs and job creation are among important factors that influence the acceptance of systems. This technology is designed to remove both turbidity and pathogens and its retail cost is low. Point-of-use water treatment has been advocated as a means to substantially decrease the global burden of diarrhoea and to contribute to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.

Reference • ADAM, RD (2001) Biology of Giardia lamblia. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 14:447-475.

• AFA Guatemala, ICAITI and IDIESS/URI (1995). “Contra la Morbilidad Infantil: Filtros Artesanales y Educacion.” Revista de Estudios Sociales 53(4).

152

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

• ASLAN S and CAKICI H (2007) Biological denitrification of drinking water in a slow sand filter.

J. Hazard. Mater. 148: 253-258.

• BAUMGARTNER J (2006) The Effect of User Behaviour on the Performance of Two Household Water Filtration Systems. Master’s Thesis. Department of Population and International Health, Harvard School of Public Health. Boston, Massachusetts, USA. • BAUMGARTNER J, MURRCOTT S and EZZATI M (2007) Reconsidering ‘appropriate technology’: the effects of operating conditions on the bacterial removal performance oftwo household drinking water filter systems. Environmental Research Letters 2:1- 6.

• BROWN MJ (2007) Effectiveness of Ceramic Filtration for Drinking Water Treatment in Cambodia.

Ph.D. thesis in Environmental Sciences and Engineering. University of North Carolina, USA. • CDC (2012) Safe water storage http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/storage.html (Accessed 8 April 2013). Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.

• CHAUDHURI M; VERMA SR and GUPTA A (1994) Performance evaluation of ceramic filter candles.

J. Environ. Eng. 120 (6), 1646–1651.

• CHECKLEY W; GILMAN RH; BLACK R E; EPSTEIN L D; CABRERA L; STERLING C. R and MOULTON L H (2004) Effect of water and sanitation on childhood health in a poor Peruvian peri-urban community. Lancet, 363 (9403), 112–8.

• CLASEN T and BASTABLE A (2003). “Faecal contamination of drinking water during collection and household storage: the need to extend protection to the point of use. J. Water and Health 1(3), 109-15.

• CLASEN TF; BROWN J; COLLIN S; SUNTURA O and CAIRNCROSS, S. (2004) Reducing diarrhoea through the use of household-based ceramic water filters: A randomized, controlled trial in rural Bolivia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.70 (6), 651–657.

• CLASEN T; GG PARRA; BOISSON and COLLIN S (2005). Household-Based Ceramic Water Filters for the Prevention of Diarrhoea: A Randomized, Controlled Trial of a Pilot Program in Colombia.

Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 73(4), 790-795.

• http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/full/73/4/790 • CLASEN T; ROBERTS I; RABIE T; SCHMIDT W and CAIRNCROSS, S. (2006) Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD004794. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004794.pub2.

• CLASEN T and BOISSON S (2006) Household-based ceramic water filters for the treatment of drinking water in disaster response: an assessment of a pilot programme in the Dominican Republic. Water Practice Technol. 1 (2), 1-9.

• DWAF (1996) South African Water Quality Guidelines for Domestic Use (2nd ed.). Department of Water affairs and Forestry, Pretoria, South Africa.

• EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 1999. Chapter 7: Importance of turbidity. In: E P A Guidance manual, Turbidity provisions. . EPA Sacramento, CA, USA. • FRANZ A (2004) A Performance Study of Ceramic Candle Filters in Kenya, Including Tests for Coliphage Removal. M. Eng. thesis. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. • FURNO, F., MORLEY, K.S., WONG, B., SHARP, B.L., ARNOLD, P.L., HOWDLE, S.M., BAYSTON, R., BROWN, P.D., WINSHIP, P.D., REID, H.J. 2004. Silver nanoparticles and polymeric medical devices: a new approach to prevention of infection? J. Antimicrobial Chemother 54, 1019-1024.

• GUNDRY S; WRIGHT J and CONROY R (2004) A systematic review of the health outcomes related to household water quality in developing countries. J. Water and Health, 2 (1) 1-13.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

153

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

• HARVEY R (2000). “Clayart-Thread ‘Nikom, Earthernwear Purifiers and Western Arrogance (long)’.” from http://www.potters.org/subject32525.htm • HUANG GH and XIA J (2001) Barriers to sustainable water-quality Management. J. Environ Manage. 61, 1–23 • HUTTON G; HALLER L and BARTRAM J (2007) Global cost-benefit analysis of water supply and sanitation interventions. J Water and Health, 5(4): 481-502.

• ICAITI (1984). Identification and Evaluation of Design Alternatives for a Low Cost Domestic Filter for Drinking Water. Central American Institute of Industrial Technology, Guatamala.

• JAGALS P; NALA NP; TSUBANE TJ; MOABI M; MOTAUNG K C(2004) Measuring changes in water-related and hygiene practices by developing community households. Water Sci. Technol.

50 (1) 91-97.

• JOHNSON SM (2007) Health and Water Quality Monitoring of Pure Home Water’s Ceramic Filter Dissemination in the Northern Region of Ghana. Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Master’s Thesis.

• http://web.mit.edu/watsan/Docs/Student%20Theses/Ghana/Thesis-SophieJohnson- June%202007.pdf • JOHNSON SM; PELETZ RL; MURCOTT S (2008) Results from Household Ceramic Filter Evaluation in Northern Ghana, Proceedings of the 33rd WEDC International Conference, Accra, Ghana p.463.

• JOHNSON DM; HOKANSON DR; ZHANG Q; CZUPINSKI KD; TANG J (2008) Feasibility of water purification technology in rural areas of developing countries. J. Environ. Manage. 88, 416–427.

• KAUSAR R (2004) Domestic purification of water. Indian J. for the Practicing Doctors 1 (2): 1-3.

• KOSEK M, BERN C and GUERRANT R L (2003) The magnitude of the global burden of diarrhoeal diseases from studies published 1992-2000. Bulletin of the WHO 81,197-204.

• LANTAGNE, D.S. 2001a. Investigation of the Potters For Peace Colloidal Silver Impregnated Ceramic Filter. Report submitted to Jubilee House Community. Report 1: Intrinsic Effectiveness Alethia Environmental, Allston, Massachusetts, USA. • LANTAGNE, D.S. 2001b. Investigation of the Potters For Peace Colloidal Silver Impregnated Ceramic Filter. Report 2: Report submitted to Jubilee House Community. Environmental, Allston, Massachusetts, USA. • LECLERC H, SCHWARTZBROD L and DEI-CAS E (2002) Microbial agents associated with waterborne diseases. Critical Rev. Microbiol. 28 (4):371–409.

• MAHLANGU TO, MPENYANA-MONYATSI L, MAMBA BB and MOMBA MNB (2012) Efficiency of SIPP for production of clean potable water at lower costs. Int. J. E n v i r o n . R e s .

Public Health 9: 3014-3029. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph9093014.

• MATTELET C (2006) Household Ceramic Water Filter Evaluation using Three Simple Low-Cost Methods: Membrane Filtration, 3M Petrifilm and Hydrogen Sulfide Bacteria in Northern Region, Ghana. MS Thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental • MOMBA, M.N.B. & MNQUMEVU, B.V. 2000. Detection of faecal coliform bacteria and heterotrophic plate count bacteria attached to household containers during the storage of drinking groundwater in a rural community. Presented at the WISA 2000 Biennial Conference, Sun City, South Africa, 28 May to 1 June 2000.

• MOMBA MNB and KALENI P (2002) Regrowth and survival of indicator microorganisms on the surfaces of household containers used for the storage of drinking water in rural communities of South Africa. Water Res. 36: 3023–3028.

154

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

• MOMBAMNB and NOTSHE TL (2003) The microbiological quality of groundwater- derived drinking water after long storage in household containers in a rural community of South Africa. J. Wat. Sc. Res. and Technol. – Aqua, 52(1):67-77.

• MOMBA MNB, OFFRINGA G, NAMENI G and BROUCKAERT B (2010) Development of a Prototype Nanotechnology-Based Clay Filter Pot to Purify Water for Drinking and Cooking in Rural Homes.

WRC Report No. KV 244/10. South African Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa. pp. 27-32.

• MOMBA MNB; MWABI JK; MAMBA BB; BROUCKAERT BM; SWARTZC; OFFRINGA G and RUGIMBANE RO (2013) Selection and use of home water- treatment systems and devices. WRC Project K5/1884. Research report Vol.1. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa, • MORONES JR, ELECHIGUERRA JL, CAMACHO A, HOLT AK, KOURI JB, RAMÍREZ JT and YACAMAN MJ (2005) The bactericidal effect of silver nanoparticles. Nanotechnol. 16 (10): 2346.

• MOSZYNSKI P (2006) Worldwide water crisis is a ‘silent emergency,’ UN agency says.” Br. Med. J. 333, 986.

• MWABI JK, ADEYEMO FE, MAHLANGU TO, MAMBA BB, BROUCKAERT BM, SWARTZ CD, OFFRINGA G, MPENYANA-MONYATSI L AND MOMBA MNB (2011) Household water treatment systems: a solution to the production of safe drinking water by the low-income communities of Southern Africa. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36 1120–1128.

• MWABI JK; MAMBA BB and MOMBA MNB (2012) Removal of Escherichia coli and faecal coliforms from surface water and groundwater by household water treatment devices/systems: A sustainable solution for improving water quality in rural communities of the Southern African Development Community Region. Int. J. Environ.Res. and Pub. Health 9, 139-170.

• MWABI JW; MAMBA BB and MOMBA MNB (2013) Removal of waterborne bacteria from surface and groundwater by cost effective household water treatment systems: A sustainable solution for improving water quality in rural communities of Africa. Accepted for publication in Water SA. • NAKHLA G and FAROOQ S (2003) Simultaneous nitrification and denitrification in slow sand filters. J. Hazard. Mater. 96: 291-303.

• OYANEDEL-CRAVER VA and SMITH JA (2008) Sustainable colloidal-silver-impregnated ceramic filter for point-of-use water treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42: 927-933.

• PELETZ R L (2006) Cross-Sectional Epidemiological Study on Water and Sanitation Practices in the Northern Region of Ghana. Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Masters Thesis.

• http://web.mit.edu/watsan/Docs/Student%20Theses/Ghana/Thesis%20Final%20- %20Rachel%20Peletz%20-5_26_06.pdf • PFP. (2001). “Production Manual.”

• http://pottersforpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/production-manual.pdf.

• PFP (2008). PFP Filter Program Update Report (October 2007 - March 2008).

• http://s189535770.onlinehome.us/pottersforpeace/wp-content/uploads/pfp-filter- program-update-report-3-08.pdf • PRITCHARD M, MKANDAWIRE T, EDMONDSON A, O’NEILL JG and KULULANGA, G. (2009).

Potential of using plant extracts for purification of shallow well water in Malawi. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 34(13-16):799-805.

• ROBERTS M (2003) Ceramic Water Purifier Cambodia Field Tests. IDE Working Paper No.1.

International Development Enterprises.

• http://pottersforpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/cwp-cambodia-field-tests-2003-10.pdf

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

155

PROFILE: KROHNE GROUP

CHAPTER 11: Silver Impregnated Porous Clay Pot Filters

• SANS 241 (2006) South African National Standard (SANS) 241 Drinking Water Specification.

South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) SANS 241. Pretoria, South Africa.

• SCHMIDT WP and CAIRNCROSS S (2009) .Household Water Treatment in Poor Populations: Is There Enough Evidence for Scaling up Now? Environ. Sc.Technol.43, (4), 986-992 • SOBSEY MD (2002) Managing Water in the Home: Accelerated Health Gains from Improved Water Supply. Water, Sanitation and Health. Department of Protection of the Human Environment, World Health Organization, Geneva. pp. 1-70.

• SOBSEY MD, STAUBER CE, BROWN JM and ELLIOT MA (2008) Point of use household drinking water filtration: a practical, effective solution for providing sustained access to safe drinking water in the developing world. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42: 4261–4267.

• TAMBERKAR DH; BANGINWAR YS (2004) Studies on Intervention for control of water borne diseases: Promoting personal and domestic hygiene in Hotels’/ restaurant’s owner and workers.

J. Compar. Toxicol. and Physiol. 1, 267-276.

• TREVETT A. (2003) The public health significance of drinking-water quality deterioration in rural Honduran communities. PhD Thesis, Silsoe College, Cranfield University.

• VAN-HALEM D, VAN DER LAAN H, HEIJMAN SGJ, VAN DIJK JC and AMY GL (2009) Assessing the sustainability of the silver-impregnated ceramic pot filter for low-cost household drinking water treatment. Phys. Chem. Earth 34: 36–42.

• VAN HALEM, D. (2006) Ceramic silver impregnated pot filters for household drinking water treatment in developing countries. Masters of Science Thesis in civil engineering Delft University of Technology.

• WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (1996) The World health report 1996: fighting disease, fostering development. Geneva, WHO. • WHO/UNICEF (2000) Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. Joint Monitoring Programme Geneva and New York.

• WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (2002) The World health report 2002: reducing risks, promoting health life. Geneva, WHO. • WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO) (2006) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (3rd ed.).

World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland • WHO (2007) Combating Waterborne Disease at the Household Level. World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007.

• WHO/UNICEF (2012) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2012. Report produced by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, Geneva, Switzerland.

• WRIGHT J; GUNDRY S and CONROY R (2004) Household drinking water in developing countries: a systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point-of-use.

Tropical Medicine and International Health 9(1):106–17.

KROHNE (Pty) ltd With headquarters in Germany Duisburg, the KROHNE group has extended its business into a wide spread of operations, establishing itself in 18 countries and represented in more than 30 locations. The manufacturing operations in Germany, Netherlands, the UK, France, China and India, it came into the Sub-Saharan African region more than 40 years ago.

KROHNE is a leading system provider in the field of industrial process measurement instrumentation. KROHNE provides flow and level metering systems and solutions to industry customers all around the globe mainly in the offshore, pipeline, petrochemical, food and beverage, Oil and Gas and water and infrastructure sectors. KROHNE offers commissioning, calibration and maintenance services.

KROHNE South Africa has branches in Midrand (Head office), Durban, Klerksdorp as well as Cape Town under the General Manager/CEO Mr John Boxley; while sub-distributors have been appointed in, Port Elizabeth, Lephalale, Witbank (Emalahleni), Sasolburg and Secunda.

We provides full sales, service and support through our sales reps, distributors as well as field service technicians who repair and calibrate instruments at our head office in Midrand. Having built strong operational base in the country but with the rapid growth and opportunities in the rest of Africa it has since established offices on Angola, Nigeria, and also operates in Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique and further north in Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda, Kenya and South Sudan and in West Africa Liberia and Ghana.

As a company we are committed to serving our customers, providing solutions that are unique to the geographical environment and doing so in a sustainable manner. KROHNE stands for innovation and maximum product quality and is one of the market leaders in industrial process measuring technology.

Our Vision KROHNE is a global leader in design, development and manufacturing of innovative and reliable process instrumentation; providing measurement solutions to all industries worldwide.

Our Customers Our products and services will exceed our customer’s requirements and expectations for value, quality and service. We will create confidence in our customers by being a fair and reliable partner.

Our Employees Our employees are our greatest asset. We value the individual creativity of all employees and foster an environment conducive to individual initiatives and ideas.

Our Independence We shall generate sufficient profit to finance corporate growth and to secure the financial independence of the company for the benefit of our customers, employees and shareholders.

156

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

157

PROFILE: KROHNE GROUP

PROFILE: KROHNE GROUP

KROHNE TIDALFLUX 2300 - Solution for partially filled pipes KROHNE TIDALFLUX 2300 the tried and tested electromagnetic meter, with its patented level measuring system, ensures accurate and reliable flow measurement in partially filled pipelines.

TIDALFLUX combines two measuring principles in one device. Firstly, the average flow rate in the partially filled cross-section is determined electromagnetically. During this, the device makes the measurements via two measuring electrodes, which are always under the surface of the water and therefore cannot be obscured, even at levels of only 10 % of the inside diameter.

The level is determined using a capacitive contactless level meter integrated in the pipe wall. The measurement takes place independently of deposits and dirt on the pipe walls and is unaffected by wave formation. Another benefit of the device is the abrasion-resistant polyurethane lining, which remains resistant even to sand and stones. In addition to flow, total volume and level, the TIDALFLUX reliably reports when limit values are undershot or exceeded.

The sensor has been designed for measuring all water and wastewater applications including groundwater, potable water, wastewater, sludge and sewage, industry water and salt water in partially filled pipes. Available for a wide diameter range of DN200 up to DN1600 for flow rates up to 90,000 m3/hr!.The TIDALFLUX causes no pressure loss and allows for bi-directional flow metering. With no Filters or straighteners required the flow meter can be installed underground and allows for constant flooding (IP 68).

The TIDALFLUX 2000 provides years of reliable measurements as it has no internal moving parts and nothing can wear.

Highlights Our Future We are at the advent of a new industrial era. We will anticipate changing market needs, adapting our processes through modern tools and innovative technologies

Facts & Figures Total Sales 413 million Euros *

No. of employees 2758

Equity-to-assets ratio 42%

Ownership KROHNE is 100% owned by the Rademacher-Dubbick family.

Corporate Executive Team Michael Rademacher-Dubbick Stephan Neuburger Founded 1921 *) incl. Joint Ventures

158

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

• For partially filled pipes in the water and wastewater industry • Broad diameter range up to DN1600 / 64” • High abrasion resistance and chemical resistance • Measurement possible between 10% and 100% filling • Electrodes for flow measurement are below 10% filling level, therefore no • blind folding by fat and oil floating on the water surface • Complete factory calibration no on-site calibration necessary

CONTACT DETAILS: HEAD OFFICE 8 Bushbuck Close, Corporate Park South, Randtjies Park, Midrand, Gauteng P.O Box 2069/2078.Midrand, 1685 Email: sales@krohnesa.co.za Tel: 0861 KROHNE Tel +27(0) 11 314 1391 Fax: +27 (0) 11 314 1681

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

159

CHAPTER 12: CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES

CHAPTER 12: CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES

CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES Water Services and Accountability SECTION 4: Initiatives Dr Mark Graham Director: GroundTruth Water,Wetlands and Environmental Engineering

Simon Bruton GroundTruth Water, Wetlands and Environmental Engineering

There is no doubt that South Africa is facing ever greater challenges in the management of water resources. To redress past civil rights inequalities, water supply infrastructure is currently being expanded into new areas at extraordinary rates. While great strides are being made to redress water supply disparity, the paradox this creates when finances are limited can be illustrated by reflecting on the words of one of the great civil rights activists of our time, Dr Martin Luther King; “We must be careful at this point not to engage in a superficial optimism or to conclude that the death of a particular evil means that all evil lies dead upon the shore. All progress is precarious, and the solution of one problem brings us face to face with another problem.” To fund this rapid expansion while keeping pace with rising operating costs, budgets within the water sector are stretched to the extent that those areas deemed as not immediately essential (a typical example being water quality monitoring and infrastructure maintenance) are re-allocated to other areas, such as the provision of new water supply infrastructure. Consequently, existing waste water reticulation and treatment infrastructure is at the risk of being neglected and poorly managed (Green Drop reports in evidence), with the resultant impacts on river water quality and water supply dams also not effectively monitored, assessed and managed. The idiom that “you can’t manage what you don’t measure” reinforces that to neglect water quality monitoring cripples our understanding of the trajectories of our critically important water resources toward ever worsening water quality, such as the eutrophication of dams and other water quality challenges (some of which are virtually irreversible).

In addition, following the expansion of water supply infrastructure into new areas, flushing toilets usually follow, creating the need for additional Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTW).

Increased effluent volumes discharged to natural water courses, sub-standard treated effluent quality and sewage leaks ultimately impact on the very raw water resources which the potable water supply schemes depend on. This impacts directly on downstream treatment costs, and perhaps more critically, those communities who have no water supply infrastructure and still depend on raw water resources for their livelihood. This paradox places further pressure on our

162

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

163

CHAPTER 12: CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES

already strained water resources and environment, with knock-on impacts to society as water users.

Within many arenas of public service, it is the responsibility of the citizen to lend a helping hand where the state is over-stretched to meet commitments while redressing past inequalities. Current examples include the implementation of systems where citizens submit their water and electricity readings allowing meter reader costs to be cut, or communities and business adopting public spaces to assist with litter collection and garden maintenance. For this approach to be successful within the field of water quality monitoring, education and awareness initiatives must play a key role, such that society as a whole begins to understand the repercussions of, and different forms of, water resource pollution.

CHAPTER 12: CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES

The miniSASS method is simplified to the identification of only 13 groups of aquatic invertebrates, such that sampling can be undertaken by anyone with an interest in monitoring river health.

CITIZEN SCIENCE Public participation in the monitoring, recording and reporting of water resource pollution can be classed as a form of citizen science, defined as the “partnerships between scientists and non-scientists where data are collected, shared and analysed” (Jordan et al., 2012). In addition to enhancing the research effort, citizen science also provides scope for education (Jordan et al., 2012), awareness and empowerment amongst citizens. Data can be collected by citizens as they go about their daily lives, while also fostering awareness, education and dialogue amongst communities.

Many citizens within South Africa feel disempowered with regards to ‘making a difference’ or ‘voicing their concerns’ over the lack of service provision, either as a result of a lack of basic services, or poor maintenance and management of existing services within their community. The terms community and communication have close origins, stemming from Latin words covering “with/ together”, “gift” and “impart/share”. Ironically, many communities resort to violent protest and the destruction of public property to make themselves heard by authorities through the media. This highlights the need for innovation within the field of monitoring, reporting and management of public service provision and accountability thereof. This article presents two community based methods for the monitoring and reporting of water quality which show great promise in contributing to this movement, promoting a greater ethos of transparency, accountability and action within the water services sector. The first is the miniSASS method for the community monitoring of river health, and the second is the basic monitoring of treated effluent quality by communities. The Mathuba program detailed within Chapter 9 of this handbook is another example of this movement.

Photo: Mark Graham

miniSASS COMMUNITY RIVER HEALTH MONITORING In the 1980s aquatic ecologists like Mark Chutter and others, investigated the sampling of insect fauna or ‘nunus’ within our rivers as an indicator of the health and condition of the systems. It was found that certain river insect fauna were more sensitive to water pollution than others (Chutter, 1998) and that many of these insects are relatively easy to recognise. In time this approach was formalised into the South African Scoring System (SASS), which now in version 5 (Dickens and Graham, 2002), is a robust and standardised (ISO 17025) method for the monitoring of river health.

The skill required to distinguish between the 90+ aquatic invertebrate families leaves the SASS5 method to the specialists. However, to meet the need for a simplified method which could be applied by schools groups, environmental educators and citizens, the mini Stream Assessment Scoring System (or miniSASS) method was developed (Graham et al., 2004). The miniSASS method has recently been updated with the support of the Water Research Commission (WRC), the Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA) and GroundTruth consulting.

164

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

Photo: Simon Bruton miniSASS training day Sponsored by the WRC and WESSA at Umgeni Valley, Howick & Aquatic invertebrates

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

165

CHAPTER 12: CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES

CHAPTER 12: CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES

The simple tools required to undertake miniSASS consist of a basic pond net (or wire coat hanger, shaped into a square and covered with a stocking or sewn mosquito netting), white tray or icecream tub, printed miniSASS field sheet and identification guide (robust miniSASS kits are also available from GroundTruth). Studies during the development of the miniSASS version 2 method showed that a greater than 90% accuracy of results can be achieved when compared to the full SASS5 technique, such that miniSASS forms a reliable ‘red flag’ indicator of water quality problems.

A more detailed investigation of the water quality problem and nature of the pollutant can then be initiated to inform further management action.

Photo: Paolo Candotti

Photo: Simon Bruton School learners identify the aquatic invertebrates present within the miniSASS sample they have collected

166

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

Funded by the WRC, the latest addition to the miniSASS suite is the development of an online spatial database which will act as a repository for citizen-collected miniSASS river health data. The database will capture the sample site locality, the river health score determined using the miniSASS method, and the history of subsequent samples at a site. The interactive mapping functionality provided by the miniSASS database widens the scope of learning and interaction around water quality, pollution and catchment management.

Through the satellite imagery and other spatial data layers school learners and citizens can explore the catchment upstream and downstream of their sample point or community, exploring other miniSASS results and identifying potential water quality drivers which may explain changes in river health at spatial and temporal scales.

These outcomes can lead to dialogue with Photo: Simon Bruton community representatives, service providers, water authorities and the media to publicise and further investigate water quality hot spots and promote accountability to redress impacts at the source.

The miniSASS database can be classified as a form of Collaborative participation in citizen science, where citizens utilise tools and systems developed by scientists to contribute data, but may also contribute to systems refinement, data interpretation and the dissemination of findings (Miller-Rushing et al., 2012). With the possibility of interested groups of ‘citizen scientists’ monitoring their rivers comes a window of opportunity to transform how we approach and manage our water resources in the future. A recent investigation by GroundTruth illustrated that if all the schools in KwaZulu-Natal were to monitor a river within a 5km radius of their school, 80% of the approximately 17 700km length of major rivers in KwaZulu-Natal could be covered by this monitoring network. The miniSASS product suite and implementation of such monitoring initiatives also covers various aspects of environmental and life sciences studies which relate to the school curriculum at various levels.

The assembly of a large, dispersed team of data collectors (i.e. school learners and citizens) creates potential for the collection of (river health) data at unprecedented spatial and temporal scales (Dickinson etal., 2012) at virtually no cost to water authorities and managers. Observations can be collected from communities and places at spatial and temporal scales never before feasible when collected by a finite number of officers from organisations with finite resources. Once sufficient data are uploaded, the miniSASS database of river health could contribute to the management of natural water resources at local, national and international scales (miniSASS is already being implemented in neighbouring countries, primarily through the Orange-Senqu River Commission). To provide examples, the database could be used as a source of baseline data (such as determining condition before toxic spills), to raise flags or identify hot spots of water pollution, or for use in evaluating trends over time.

In May 2012, members of the Duzi uMngeni Conservation Trust (DUCT) undertook an inaugural month-long ‘source-to-sea’ walk of the uMngeni River in KwaZulu-Natal, the critical water supply resource for the Durban – Pietermaritzburg development corridor and surrounds. At various

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

167

CHAPTER 12: CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES

PROFILE: TSOGANG

sites along the river walk miniSASS river health samples were collected, often in conjunction with local schools. The results show the generally healthy condition of the catchment in its upper reaches, with a deterioration around urbanised settlements and below major dams. The collection of miniSASS data during the walk is a perfect illustration of citizen science, where a group of volunteers with no formal training in the aquatic sciences undertook a source-to-sea assessment of the river health condition of the uMngeni River. Annual replication of this initiative and expansion to other rivers nationally, provides great potential to monitor and highlight issues affecting our rivers in Southern Africa.

TSOGANG WATER & SANITATION 19 years of sustainable development, Community Development, & Environment Solutions for South Africa Tsogang Water & Sanitation is a nongovernmental organisation established in 1995 to assist in the development struggle of South Africa. Tsogangâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mandate is to ensure that South Africa achieves her place among nations; that previously disadvantaged populations reach the standards of the Millennium Development Goals set by the United Nations; and to contribute to the achievement of a better life for all.

As an NGO, Tsogang works in cooperation with national, provincial, and local government, as well as civil society organisations, the private sector, and other NGOs. We have assisted the RDP process through the provision of water and sanitation services and the building of houses and schools. We have worked within the Govern strategy to develop employment opportunities through projects. In the MTEF framework, we continue with ISD training, engineering, and projects to assist in the development of the country. We participate in SETA training of municipalities, learners, and communities.

View of the draft miniSASS online spatial database illustrating how miniSASS results are displayed

It is our objective to facilitate more equitable access to economic and social services; to assist in eradicating poverty and assisting the government of South Africa to close the poverty gap.

We aim to facilitate and support the promotion of environmentally-friendly approaches in our programmes and to tread lightly on the Earth so our children will inherit a beautiful blue planet.

Tsogangâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vision and the South African Bill of Rights is a common vision. As such, the South African Constitution is our legal framework to support the development struggle because everyone has the right to housing, education, water & sanitation, and a clean and healthy environment. In its daily work, Tsogang contributes directly to the realisation of these rights and to making them a reality for the rural and peri-urban people of LimpopoMpumalanga and KZN and the rest of South Africa.

168

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

Viva the Constitution Bayete the people Tel: 015 307 2673 Fax 015 307 5299 Mail: tsogang@pixie.co.za Web: www.tsogang.org

miniSASS data gathered during the May 2012 source-to-sea DUCT uMngeni River walk illustrating changes in river health Scoring page of the miniSASS field sheets

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

169

PROFILE: SOIL LAB

profile

CHAPTER 12: CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES

SOILLAB The accurate scientific testing of civil engineering materials forms an essential element of any project.

Soillab has been providing high quality testing to the civil engineering industry for over 50 years and is currently ISO17025:2005 accredited for a range of tests.

Laboratories: At present, Soillab has established commercial laboratories in Pretoria (Gauteng), Secunda (Mpumalanga) and in Kraaifontein (Western Cape). Soillab has also increased its range of services with the introduction of a Rock Mechanics Laboratory in Pretoria called Rocklab.

Soillab also establishes many laboratories on sites when required to do so by the nature of the project and the need for rapid testing of materials during construction.

Staff: The combined Soillab and Rocklab staff compliment includes some 300 people of which 1/3 are technically trained, skilled staff.

Range of Tests: Soillab prides itself on being one of only a few laboratories in the world able to provide a full range of testing services using up-to-date equipment and qualified and experienced staff. In addition to the various categories of testing shown alongside, Soillab also carries out testing related to research and development and carries out a wide range of special tests on civil engineering projects.

In conjunction with Rocklab it also carries out many tests for mining projects.

Satisfied clients: Soillabâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s list of clients include many public authorities, consulting engineers, contractors, project developers, mining houses as well as many smaller businesses such as nurseries and farms.

SOILLAB PRETORIA Wim Hofsink VKE Centre, 230 Albertus Street, Empowerment Initiatives: Soillab is a 30% blackowned company. When working on site projects, the La Montagne 0184, Pretoria PO Box 72928, company augments its core team with labour and temporary staff from the surrounding communities. Lynnwood Ridge 0040, South Africa Tel: +27 (0) 12 481 3801 This approach underpins its commitment to onFax: +27 (0) 12 481 3812 going community upliftment and skills transfer. e-mail: hofsinkw@soillab.co.za

170

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

171

CHAPTER 12: CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES

PROFILE: MLS

SHIYABAZALI COMMUNITY WATER CLARITY MONITORING

Why testing of water is necessary?

The water you are using may or may not be contaminated . Many people are aware of some of their water quality problems. For example, some people may be plagued with high concentrations of Calcium and Magnesium, which causes water to be aesthetically unpleasing to drink and difficult to wash with.

Unfortunately, not all water quality problems can be easily detected without proper testing. Some waters may look reasonably good but may actually be unsuitable for the specific application you are using it for. For example rural schools and communities using pit latrines have their water contaminated by high levels of nitrates which affect the oxygen carrying capacity of blood in infants.

Some prudent questions to ask include: • • • •

How often should I test?

What should I test?

How do I interpret results?

What if there is a health concern?

The Shiyabazali informal settlement in Howick, KwaZulu-Natal, has spread adjacent to the uMngeni valley, encompassing the treated effluent discharge point of the Howick Waste Water Treatment Works. Having no formal infrastructure or services, some community members utilise the treated effluent for clothes washing and other limited uses. Community members soon noticed that the quality of the effluent was highly variable (noticeable in odour and turbidity). The poor effluent quality not only affects the local community, but the full water supply chain that depend on the uMngeni River and its water supply dams. Through partnerships with the Regional Centres of Expertise (United Nations University), RCE KwaZulu-Natal, WESSA and DUCT initiated a programme to empower the community to monitor the variability of the treated effluent quality through basic methods. Using gloves, a community member collected effluent water samples three times a day (8am, 12 noon and 5pm) in basic plastic bottles. The ‘turbidity’ or discoloration of the samples was then visually categorised on a simple scale, as a surrogate for the overall water quality of the effluent. The samples were then photographed as a record of the variations and trends in the effluent quality. It was soon noticed that there was a general improvement in the observed turbidity, with further dialogue revealing that the staff at the WWTW had heard of the monitoring, and were intensifying efforts to meet the required effluent quality limits (Taylor et al., 2012). This initiative illustrates one simple method of citizen monitoring which can empower communities to affect accountability on the responsible authorities, making a positive improvement to their living environment. A clarity tube was later utilised for greater accuracy in the measurement of water clarity.

Testing the water allows a knowledgeable approach to address the specific problems of a water supply. This will assist you in making informed decisions about your water and how to use it. The purpose of Morwamocha Water Laboratory Services is to provide you with a water quality Report based on competent sampling and testing and professional interpretation of the results. This helps to ensure that the water source is being properly protected from potential contamination, and that an appropriate treatment system is selected and is operating properly.

Why is it necessary to test construction Materials and sites?

Construction sites have to be investigated in the form of Centreline and Foundation Investigations in order to assist construction experts such as engineers and designers to come up with appropriate Road and Foundation Designs.

Materials have to be tested for quality purposes so that they comply with prescribed specifications such as SAB TMH or SARAL acceptance procedures.

During construction on-going Quality Tests have to be done on compaction, Concrete as well as material tests to ensure compliance.

Water Lab 01 Church street Morwamocha House Polokwane 0699

172

Soil Lab Phone: 015 291 5376/7 Fax: 015 291 5379 Email: info@mochalabs.co.za

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

43 Granite Street Superbia Polokwane 0699

Phone: 015 292 0400 Fax: 015 291 5379 Email: i nfo@mochalabs.co.za

Londi Msomi Treated effluent water samples collected during the week of 22-28 March 2012, and Shiyabazali residents learning to use the water clarity tube

CONCLUSION Within the current paradigm of water resource management, where finances and capacity for the wide-spread monitoring of river water quality are limited, the community monitoring of river health and water clarity through the methods described shows great potential to contribute toward meaningful change, with some of the benefits highlighted as the following: • Educate learners and communities on issues of pollution and river health.

• Develop a national database of river health through citizen science.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

173

CHAPTER 12: CITIZEN MONITORING OF WATER RESOURCES

ROCK-IT

Perfectly natural, naturally perfect ROCK-IT is at the forefront of artificial rock design and construction internationally, using innovative ideas and technology in their design and construction methods. Top artistic direction and implementation ensure a product that is cutting edge and world class.

ROCK-IT undertakes project co-ordination and implementation involving consultation and design with our clients and all appropriate associates including architects, landscapers, environmental engineers, town planners, civil engineers and quantity surveyors.

• Empower society to make a difference and show stakeholders that they are being watched by their community, and that they can be held accountable.

• • • •

Water Conservation & Management: Dams Wetlands Water Purification

Other Products & Services:

Our Products include: Other Products & Services:

Rock Work Garden Ponds Koi & Fish Ponds Pool Conversions Waterfalls & Streams Resorts & Water Parks Retaining Walls & Cladding Adventure Golf & Theme Parks

• • • • •

Tel: +27 (031) 768 7017 Fax:+27 (031) 768 7017 guy@rock-it.co.za www.rock-it.co.za

Natural Eco-Pools Rock Pools Hybrid Pools Conventional Pools Rim Flow Pools

“We value our resources” AQUAINNOVATE™ has been birthed out of a passionate dream to impact this world in a profoundly unique way. We believe that our lives carry an eternal purpose and seek to engage in this by creatively solving the challenges we face, leaving a responsible water footprint for the generations to come...

“We find solutions that change the way people live” • Turnkey Solutions for Remote Sites • Sewerage Treatment Plants • Greywater Recycling • Water Filtration Systems • Wash Water Recycling Systems • Rainwater Harvesting • Service and Maintenance

The miniSASS online spatial database (www.minisass.org) is due for release in the third quarter of 2013. In the interim the following resources can be consulted: • For miniSASS resources or sampling equipment ºº Visit the miniSASS page on the GroundTruth website www.groundtruth.co.za ºº Email info@minisass.org or info@groundtruth.co.za • For environmental education resources and support ºº www.wessa.co.za or www.wrc.org.za • For information on the activities of the Dusi uMngeni Conservation Trust ºº www.duct.org.za

REFERENCES Chutter FM (eds). 1998. Research on the rapid biological assessment of water quality impacts in streams and rivers. WRC Report No 422/1/98. Pretoria: Water Research Commission.

Dickens CWS, Graham PM. 2002. The Southern Africa Scoring System (SASS) version 5 rapid bioassessment for rivers. African Journal of Aquatic Science 27:1-10.

Dickinson JL, Shirk J, Bonter D, Bonney R, Crain RL, Martin J, Phillips T and Purcell K. 2012. The current state of citizen science as a tool for ecological research and public engagement. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 10(6): 291-297.

Graham PM, Dickens CWS, Taylor RJ. 2004. MiniSASS – A novel technique for community participation in river health monitoring and management. African Journal of Aquatic Science 29:25-35.

Jordan, R.C., Ballard, H.L., and Phillips, TB. 2012. Key issues and new approaches for evaluating citizen-science learning outcomes. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 10(6): 307-309.

Miller-Rushing A, Primack R, Bonney R. 2012. The history of public participation in ecological research. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 10(6): 285-290.

Taylor J, Msomi L, Taylor L. 2012. RCE KwaZulu-Natal: Shiyabazali Settlement - Water Quality Monitoring and Community Involvement. [Internet], Regional Centres of Expertise KwaZulu-Natal, WESSA, Howick. Available from: http://www.ias.unu.edu/resource_centre/RCE%20KZN_final%20 310512.pdf. [Accessed 13 May 2013].

Suite 415, First Floor, Block 4, Island Office Park, 35-37 Island Circle, Riverhorse Valley East, Durban, 4017 P O Box 757, Umhlanga Rocks, KwaZulu-Natal, 4320 DBN (031) 533 8760 | CPT (021) 403 6331 | JHB (011) 258 8863 For more info visit www.aquainnovate.com

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

175

Mbuzini Case Study: SAINT GOBAIN

Mbuzini Case Study: SAINT GOBAIN

have superior stiffness when compared to other materials. A benefit of this is that each length of semi-ridged pipe copes well in unstable soils and requires less specialised trench compaction or side support, as 70% of the stiffness is generated by the pipe itself. It’s inherent strength means that ductile iron has the highest safety rating of any other pipe material.

Saint-Gobain PAM – Mbuzini Case study : Ductile Iron Pipes Mbuzini is a small town in the Mpumalanga Province of South Africa, situated on the borders of Mozambique and Swaziland. As the town has grown, the supply of potable water has struggled to keep up with demand. So in October 2011 the Nkomazi Municipality took the decision to upgrade Mbuzini’s water supply infrastructure.

The ‘Mbuzini Bulk Augmentation Scheme’, as the project was known, consisted of the construction of two pump stations, two 3 million litre concrete water reservoirs, one 1 million litre concrete water reservoir, a 300mm diameter Hydroclass ductile iron pipeline 9.5 kilometres long and a 250mm diameter Hydroclass ductile iron pipeline 4.5 kilometres long. This whole project took only 12 months to complete from placing the order to the final pressure testing of the pipelines.

Notably, this is the first project anywhere in Africa to make use of Saint-Gobain PAM’s Hydroclass ductile iron piping and investment in the local communities was an important consideration.

Because of the ease of installation of these ductile iron pipes Saint-Gobain PAM’s on site technical team were able to train community members in all aspects of pipe installation. Unlike steel pipework which requires specialist machinery, tools and skills to install, ductile iron pipes are produced in shorter more manageable lengths and incorporate a unique ‘push and fit’ sealing arrangement. The specially designed joint seal can handle the highest deflection of any other ductile iron piping system on the market. This clever sealing arrangement also means that it was possible to lay approximately 290 meters of 300mm pipe per day, almost three times that of traditional steel pipe.

Traditional specifications call for the pipes to have an external zinc coating of 130g/m2, but PAM is the first company to supply 200g/m2 of zinc coating as standard. Since the zinc coating is an active protector it’s able to extend the lifespan of the pipe material by as much as 60% thus reducing future line replacement costs.

Internally all Hydroclass pipes are lined with a special blast furnace slag cement mortar, which firstly, guarantees that the hydraulic performance of the pipe is maintained long term; secondly, prevents any risk of internal attack from the waters being carried; and thirdly, maintains the quality of water. Just as the exterior zinc coating is an active protector, so too the blast furnace slag cement acts as an active protector shielding the ductile iron pipe from corrosion and extending its lifespan.

Thanks to class leading engineering and design, not only has Mbuzini benefited from improved access to water, but community also profited from job creation and skill development.

The Mbuzini project’s planning committee decided early on to use Saint-Gobain PAM’s ductile iron piping system because of PAM’s: product and quality system certifications; the opportunity for social development in the Mbuzini area and of course cost.

Saint-Gobain PAM’s Hydroclass ductile iron pipes comply with the stringent international ISO 2531:2009 and EN545:2010 quality standards. Because of ductile iron’s elemental composition the pipes

176

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

constance.molefe@saint-gobain.com THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

177

PROFILE: NIC

PROFILE: NIC

A simple cleaning operation will fully restore the original meter precision. The increase of hydraulic losses due to the accumulated solid sediments is insignificant. Long-term operational tests have proved and documented major technical, operational and economic advantages of the FLOMIC battery-powered ultrasonic water meters over conventional mechanical water meters.

New products...

Battery-powered ultrasonic flow meters of the FLOMIC series supplied to a Mexican customer Mexico is a large country where in many places the drinking water needs to be extracted from underground springs. One of these projects is in Puebla City where 185 underground springs supply water in the aggregate daily volume of 328,320m3. The water is pumped to water reservoirs from the springs, and it is distributed to different districts of the city. Some of districts lie at higher altitudes. The water consumption of individual sources (wells) needs to be measured and the daily consumption data sent via wireless network to the main distribution control centre of the water-supply company. In some locations - in particular, far and high-up locations - there is no electricity available. Since the water meters used cannot be powered from electrical sources, the selection is limited to mechanical or battery-powered electronic flow meters. This was an opportunity for ELIS and their FLOMIC FL1024 ultrasonic water meters and the FLOMIC FL3005 flow meters. Considering the fact that the measurements were to be performed on piping of nominal diameter up to DN 800, the application of mechanical flow meters was excluded and the battery-powered ultrasonic flow meters proved to be the best solution.Feedback on operational experiences with the ELIS products .

Application of battery-powered FLOMIC meters for water flow-rate and consumption measurements in systems containing water with high manganese and iron content

Fig.1 Mechanical water meter after three-month operation

Conventional mechanical water meters, until recently used in such and similar water-supply systems, have not proved satisfactory. Within a relatively short time (several months), the meters become clogged with manganese, ferrous and other contaminants eventually preventing the correct meter function. The picture on the left shows a mechanical meter after three-month operation. The accumulated mineral sediments have rendered the meter inoperative and increased significantly the hydraulic losses in piping. The meter cleaning operation and restoration of the measurement function will be rather problematic.

Fig.2 FLOMIC FL 1024 water meter after three-month operation

180

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

This picture shows the internals of a FLOMIC FL 1024 battery-powered ultrasonic water meter after three months’ operation in the same watersupply system. Although some sediments have accumulated on the internal walls, the meter is fully operative.

The FLOMIC water meter - a sophisticated solution to monitoring watersupply systems and simultaneous measurements of water pressure ELIS has launched an important innovation within their group of products intended for water consumption measurement and monitoring of the conditions in water-supply networks. The successful FLOMIC FL102X series of battery-powered ultrasonic water meters now allows continuous measurement of instantaneous values of water pressure in supply networks and pressure data archiving. The customers, in particular water-supply network operators, will appreciate this capability extending significantly the scope of information the FLOMIC meters provide about the operational status of the selected key points of watersupply systems.

Among the advantages of the FLOMIC FL102X water meters are:

•

•

• measurements of fluid volume, instantaneous flow rate and instantaneous pressure by a single battery-powered device, and visualisation of the measured data • autonomic meter function independent of external (line) power supply; the guaranteed battery lifetime is 6 to 8 years the data archiving capability concerning the total fluid volume passed through the meter and instantaneous values of fluid flow rate and pressure on-site reading of the archived data using a portable PC

Save time and money with ELIS certified water meters according the MID

In March 2011, ELIS obtained the certificate no. TCM 142/11-4817 for the ultrasonic battery-powered water meters FLOMIC FL5024 and FL5044. ELIS is now one of the few manufactures of controlled measuring instruments who are able to produce quality and accurate water meters according to MID, which is valid for the whole of Europe. In other words, our customers have the advantage to install a certified water meter to the measuring system as a controlled measuring instrument without any other metrological approval in Europe. As a result, our customers simply save time and money. The tests of our water meters FLOMIC FL5024 and FL5044 were carried out according to the international recommendation OIML R49 Edition 2006 (E) along with EN 14154-1:2005+A1:2007. The test protocol no. 6015-PT-P0008-10 was issued the 21st of March 2011.

THE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE HANDBOOK

181

Solution for partially filled pipes

index Index of advertisers Company Page

KROHNE TIDALFUX 2300 designed for measuring all water and wastewater applications The TIDALFLUX 2300 flow meter with integrated and non-contact capacitive level measuring system provides accurate flow measurement in partially filled pipes. Available for a wide diameter range of DN200 up to DN1600 for flow rates up to 90,000 m3/hr!

No pressure loss, no Filters or straighteners required this allows for underground installations and constant flooding (IP68).

KROHNE - Process engineering is our world

Abeco Tanks 30, 31 Agua Africa 76 Anglo American 18, 19, Aqua Earth Consulting 104 Aqua Earth Geothermal 106 Aqua Innovate 174 Aquamat 112,113 Decentralised Environmental Solutions (DEWATS) 42 Department of Water Affairs 15, 17 Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality 56, 57, 58, 59 Geberit Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd 36, OBC Iliso Consulting Engineers 4, 48, 49 IWR Water Resources 120, 121 JOJO Tanks 38,44 Krohne (Pty) Ltd 157, 158, 159, 182 Mintek 110, 111 Morwamocha Laboratories 172, 184, IBC NCPC-SA 14, 160, 161 NIC Instruments & Engineering (Pty) Ltd 8, 180, 181 Pipeline Performance Technologies (Pty) Ltd 12, 16 PMPS 46, 47 Pula Water 94, 95 Rand Water 62, 64, 65 Rock-It 174 SA Chemicals 74 Saint Gobain Pipelines 176, 177, 178,179 Senter 360 IFC, 1 Sika South Africa (Pty) Ltd 2, 3 Soil Lab 6, 170 South African Institute of Entrepreneurship 26, 28, 29 Talbot & Talbot (Pty) Ltd 10 TCTA 138, 140, 141 The Chemical & Allied Industries Association 108 Tsogang Water & Sanitation 168 University of Monash 24 Water Africa SA 40 Water Solutions for Southern Africa (WSSA) 128, 130, 131 Waterspec Engineers 78, 79

Soil Laboratory Morwamocha Soil Laboratory is a wholly black owned Lab with adequate resources (equipment and competent personnel) to handle major construction projects such as:

Water Laboratory Morwamocha Water Laboratory Services (Mochalabs) is a SANAS accredited Testing laboratory specializing in chemical and microbial analysis of water samples. The water samples include: potable water, sewage waste water, and industrial waste water.

• Testing of soils, concrete,

aggregates and bituminous products.

• Geotechnical Investigation.

Foundation testing (consolidations,

tria-axials, shear box, collapse/swell potential).

• Centreline Soil Investigation.

Supply of Site Labs (Personnel and equipment).

• Concrete and Asphalt core drilling.

The services of Mochalab are open to the public be it institutions or individuals .

Municipal Services: Monitoring of potable water (according to SANS 241) and sewage treatment plants for functionality and to determine if quality complies to discharge standards.

The Soil Lab is currently working towards the ISO 17025 QMS for laboratories and hopes to be accredited soon. Morwamocha Soil Lab enhances and assures Quality Control in the Civil and construction industry through its effort in its Polokwane based laboratories and site labs. Mocha Soil Lab offers its expert knowledge and accurate results to a diverse client base which includes but not limited to; facility owners and managers, engineering firms, consulting companies, government agencies and construction companies throughout the country.

Environment and Geo-Hydrologists consultants: Waste water discharge analysis for compliance to government regulations and underground water (borehole) analysis before commissioning.

Farmers: Chemical analysis of agro soil for purposes of Fertilizer intelligence and Land management.

Water samples for irrigation water.

Mining and Manufacturing Industry: underground water and treated effluents samples submitted for regular analysis to determine compliance to discharge standards.

Individuals owning boreholes testing for drinkability 01 Church street Morwamocha House Polokwane 0699

Phone: 015 291 5376/7 Fax: 015 291 5379 Email: info@mochalabs.co.za

Physical Address 43 Granite Street Superbia Polokwane 0699

Postal Address Postnet Suite 228 Private Bag X9307 Polokwane 0700

Phone: 015 292 0400 Fax: 015 291 5379 Email: info@mochalabs.co.za