Contributors
K. M. Behall, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Beltsville, MD 20705, U.S.A. Vernon D. Burrows (Retired), Eastern Cereal and Oilseed Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada F. W. Collins, Eastern Cereals and Oilseed Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada Alexander (Sandy) A. Cowan, Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences (IBERS), Aberystwyth University, Gogerddan, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion SY23 3EB, United Kingdom R. G. Fulcher, Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada NoĂŤl Girardet, Buhler, 9240 Uzwil, Switzerland Judith Hallfrisch, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, U.S.A. Raija-Liisa HeiniĂś, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, FI-02044 VTT, Finland George E. Inglett, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Peoria, IL 61604, U.S.A. Heidi F. Kaeppler, Department of Agronomy, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, U.S.A. Anu Kaukovirta-Norja, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, FI-02044 VTT, Finland Pekka Lehtinen, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, FI-02044 VTT, Finland Athole H. Marshall, Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences (IBERS), Aberystwyth University, Gogerddan, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion SY23 3EB, United Kingdom Rebecca Mathews, R Mathews & Associates, Hudson, OH 44236, U.S.A. S. S. Miller, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Eastern Cereal and Oilseed Research Centre, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada
Stephen J. Molnar, Genomics and Biotechnology Program, Eastern Cereal and Oilseed Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada David M. Peterson (Retired), Cereal Crops Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Madison WI 53726, and Department of Agronomy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, U.S.A. Kaisa Poutanen, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, FI-02044 VTT, Finland Howard W. Rines, Plant Science Research Unit, U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, and Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, U.S.A. Marjatta Salmenkallio-Marttila, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, FI-02044 VTT, Finland Sedat Sayar, Department of Food Engineering, University of Mersin, Ciftlikkoy, Mersin 33142, Turkey David G. Stevenson, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Peoria, IL 61604, U.S.A. R. Strychar, Ag Commodity Research, Vancouver, BC V7M 3N3, Canada Nicholas A. Tinker, Genomics and Biotechnology Program, Eastern Cereal and Oilseed Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada John Valentine, Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences (IBERS), Aberystwyth University, Gogerddan, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion SY23 3EB, United Kingdom F. H. Webster, Francis Webster & Associates, Branson, MO 65616, U.S.A. Robert W Welch, Northern Ireland Centre for Food and Health, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA, U.K. Pamela J. White, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, U.S.A. Peter J. Wood, Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada
h iii
Preface to the Second Edition
This is the second edition of the monograph Oats: Chemistry and Technology. The content essentially follows that of the first edition, edited by Francis Webster and published by AACCI (then the American Association of Cereal Chemists) in 1986, but it reflects the considerable changes in the scope of the science— and in the industrial and food uses of oats—that have occurred over the intervening years. Advances in computer technology and in molecular biology have had an enormous impact on science and technology—and our daily lives. This monograph accordingly now has a chapter titled “Molecular Genetics of Quality in Oats.” The nature of much of the data reported in all the chapters would have been almost impossible to obtain 25 years ago, when the first edition was published, because of the lack of computing power. Indeed, the writing, figures, and tables of this monograph are computer generated, rather than produced as before on typewriters and by graphics artists. However, the essential content still depends on the hard work of the authors themselves, and we thank them for their efforts and patience. Oats have historically had a reputation as a generally healthy and nutritionally balanced food. This tradition has today been greatly enhanced by numerous studies showing that consumption of oat products can lower serum cholesterol levels and thus lower the risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. This specific characteristic of oats was first brought to public attention by one of the authors of the first monograph (J. W. Anderson) and has since been given an official seal of approval by the Food and Drug Administration of the United States and by other jurisdictions, such as the European Food Safety Authority. Not only was oats the first food specifically identified for a health claim, but β -glucan, the endospermic cell-wall polysaccharide of oats, was specifically named as the marker of bioactivity. This led to specifications for daily intakes of β -glucan that would achieve a physiologically significant effect. Despite regulatory approval, there continue to be disagreements in the literature as to the magnitude of cholesterol reduction possible and the nature of the metabolic mechanisms involved in these processes. One possible reason for this is that the viscous nature of cereal β -glucan may influence the metabolic response. If so, then not only does the total amount of β -glucan control bioactivity but so do “solubility” and molecular weight distribution. This phenomenon has been clearly demonstrated
for glycemic response, but few studies of blood lipid response have adequately measured these physical characteristics, which can vary in different foods, and the data are contradictory. However, as we go to press, a study has appeared that reports a relationship between the magnitude of cholesterol lowering and the molecular weight and amount of soluble oat β -glucan consumed (American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, doi: 10.3945/ ajcn.2010.29174). This continues to be an active field of research, and certainly more investigation of this relationship is needed. Such information would not only be useful to regulators but would also allow product developers to design more effective foods in which solubility (and kinetics of solubilization), molecular weight, and total dose were appropriately managed to produce effective and palatable foods. As our understanding of the relationship between diet and health has evolved, additional mechanisms for allowing health claims have been established by regulatory agencies. Several general whole-grain oat claims have been approved in the United States under the guidelines outlined in the U.S. Food and Drug Modernization Act of 1999. The claims for oats (and other whole grains) were based upon a 1989 report by the National Academy of Science that stated Diets high in plant foods—i.e., fruits, vegetables, legumes and whole grain cereals—are associated with a lower occurrence of coronary heart disease and cancers of the lung, colon, esophagus and stomach.
The health benefits of oats are a unifying theme throughout this book. Their acknowledged health benefits have made oats a desirable ingredient for use in new food products. However, oat functionalities are, as in most cereals, dependent on the starch, protein, lipids, and phenolics, which have distinct characteristics unique to oats. These unique attributes have had both positive and negative impacts upon oat utilization. For example, unlike lipids in the other main cereals of commerce, much of the oat lipid is found in the endosperm, and this has had a profound effect on processing requirements. The heat processing required for inactivating the abundant lipases and lipoxygenases dramatically alters protein solubility and functionality. Oats also have a unique profile of phenolics, the complexities of which have only recently been established. The antioxidant and other pharmaceutical activities of these components may also confer health benefits. The
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extent and nature of these benefits are poorly understood at this time, but they are the subject of ongoing research. In conclusion, we believe these chapters are a good summary of the present state of oat science. Oat products have the potential to positively impact many health-related conditions associated with coronary heart disease, diabetes, satiety/weight maintenance, and blood pressure. Potentially, oats could be granted several other health claims as additional nutritional trials are completed and solidify our knowledge base. We hope that the information provided will stimulate innovation and further research, leading to improved production and varieties, new processing methods, and development of new and improved food and industrial uses. In addition to the authors, we are indebted to many colleagues in the cereal industry who served as reviewers and/or
provided critical suggestions regarding subject content. The AACC International staff also deserves recognition for its hard work, dedication, and guidance during this endeavor. Thanks to each and every one for sharing your knowledge and giving your support! Peter Wood offers “thanks to my wife Sue, and my sons David and Tim, for their love and support throughout my career, with a special additional acknowledgement to Sue, who has tolerated my pseudoretirement while this monograph has been under preparation.” Francis Webster would “like to thank my wife, Char, for her support and understanding both during the development of this monograph and throughout my career. It has meant the world to me!” F. H. Webster Peter J. Wood
Preface to the First Edition
The oat monograph is the newest in a series on key cereal grains published by the American Association of Cereal Chemists. This publication is intended to provide cereal chemists, students, and industrial processors with an in-depth and authoritative reference on oat chemistry and technology. The information in it represents the efforts of leading North American oat researchers. The individual chapters have a strong technical focus based on each contributor’s experiences in his or her respective area. The result is the most complete text ever published on oats.
This monograph has several unique features that are new to the cereal monograph series. The full-color fluorescent micrographs illustrating oat structure and component compartmentalization complement the individual chapters on specific components. Additionally, separate contributions on flavor chemistry, phenol chemistry, and dietary fiber add new dimensions. I would like to thank each author for his or her cooperation. The assistance and support of the Quaker Oat Company and its technical staff are greatly appreciated. F. W. Webster
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CHAPTER 1
World Oat Production, Trade, and Usage R. Strychar Ag Commodity Research Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Oats (Avena sativa L.) are an important source of livestock feed worldwide, both as a nutritious grain and as forage. They are a good source of protein, fiber, and minerals. Oats are the highest-protein cereal-grain crop and, until replaced by soybeans for livestock feed, were considered the primary protein source in feed rations. Despite the fact that world oat production declined sharply over the past 70 years, particularly as farm mechanization increased between 1930 and 1950, oats still remain an important grain crop for people throughout the developing world and in developed economies for specialty uses. In many parts of the world, oats are grown for use as grain as well as for forage and fodder, straw for bedding, hay, haylage, silage, and chaff. On average, in many regions, 25% of the area seeded to oats is cut for green feed. Livestock feed is still the primary use of oat crops, accounting for, on average, 74% of the world’s total oat usage between 1995 and 2005, according to data of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). However, oats are also used in production
of many human food products and in some industrial applications. Food uses for oats include oatmeal, oat flour, oat bran, and oat flakes, which are used for breakfast cereals and as ingredients in other food products. Oats are a good source of several vitamins and minerals. In the late 1980s, studies revealing oat bran’s heart-healthy attributes increased consumer demand for ready-to-eat oat products. This chapter looks at the production, trade, and usage of oats from a global perspective, with a closer look at production and usage in major oat-producing countries.
Production Oat production currently ranks sixth in the world grainproduction statistics, following corn, wheat, barley, sorghum, and millet (Table 1.1). Oats account for less than 2% of total grain production, with the bulk used on farms for feed.
TABLE 1.1 World Grain Production in Million Tonnes and Percentage of Total a Crop Year
Corn Wheat Barley Sorghum Millet Oats Rye Mixed grain Total a Source:
01/02
02/03
03/04
04/05
05/06
06/07
07/08
08/09
Five-Year Averageb
Percent of Total
600.3 583.1 143.3 58.3 30.5 27.0 22.6 13.0 1,478
603.6 568.7 135.0 52.9 25.1 25.6 20.3 13.4 1,444
627.6 553.9 142.5 58.4 35.7 26.3 14.0 12.2 1,471
715.8 625.7 152.7 57.5 30.9 25.7 17.0 16.9 1,642
699.2 620.1 136.8 58.4 32.5 23.9 14.5 15.2 1,600
712.4 596.2 137.4 57.0 33.6 23.2 12.4 13.1 1,585
792.0 610.6 133.2 63.2 35.0 25.6 14.3 14.6 1,689
781.4 682.4 153.3 63.1 35.2 26.4 17.2 15.2 1,774
740 627 143 60 33 25 15 15 1,658
45 38 9 4 2 2 1 1 100
U.S. Department of Agriculture.
b 2004/5–2008/9.
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h Oats: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed.
Global oat production has been in a steady decline as farms have become mechanized and the demand for oats for horse feed has declined sharply. However, production appears to have stabilized recently at slightly more than 25 million tonnes (Fig. 1.1) after having declined by 60% over the previous 40 years. Oat area accounts for less than 5% of total cropping in many countries (in some countries, less than 2%), but that level has also steadied. The production stabilization results from several factors. Oats are used in crop rotations as a cover crop. They are also a cheap, nutritious feedstock for young cattle, although the amount that can be fed per animal is limited by the low energy content of oats. Finally, an increase in demand for human consumption has increased the commercial use of oats. However, this increase, which was boosted by the promotion of oats for heart health initiated in the United States in the 1980s, has leveled off and, in some regions, fallen. In most countries, the use of oats for human consumption is generally 25% of total domestic oat use. Oat production will continue to become more specialized in the coming years, with a strong likelihood that commercial companies will increasingly contract milling-quality oat acreage with growers to ensure consistent quantity and quality. Global oat production is not expected to rise significantly in the future outside of Canada because of rising returns for biofuel-related crops such as corn, soybeans, and canola/rapeseed and the low feed value of oats. Even in Canada, which is the largest global oat exporter and has one of the largest oat-milling industries in the world, oat production will find significant competition from other crops. Although oats have an excellent nutritional profile, their low energy content reduces their value as a commercial feed grain for anything other than hobby horses and young calves. This limits the expansion of oat production in most regions. As a percentage of total cropping, oat production in most of the oatproducing countries shows a steady or downward trend. The decline in oat production will create problems for the oat-milling industry because the selection base for milling-quality oats will continue to decline. Nevertheless, overall, the total oat and oatproduct trade is relatively flat. A significant percentage of the decline in raw oat production is being offset by increased global Fig. 1.1. World oat area (p, in 1,000 ha) and oat production (i), in 1,000 tonnes [t]) from 1997 to 2008. (Data from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service)
trade in oat products, such as oat flakes, oat groats, and oat flour. However, the rising cost of freight (container and vessel) will increase costs for net oat and oat-product importers and will also limit trade for feed use. Oats are better adapted to variable soil types than many other small-grain cereal crops and can perform better on acid soils. They are grown mostly in cool, moist climates, and they can be sensitive to hot, dry weather from head emergence to maturity. For these reasons, production is generally concentrated between latitudes 35 and 65°N (including Finland and Sweden) and between 20 and 46°S (including Argentina, Brazil, and Chile). Many producers choose to grow oats because they fit into most crop rotations. Most of the world’s production comes from spring-sown cultivars, but autumn sowing is practiced in Australia and in other regions, including southern U.S. states, where summers are hot and dry. Where winters are severe, such as in Scandinavia, the northern states of the United States, Canada, and higher altitude regions in the Tropics, short-season to mid-maturing oat cultivars are generally sown. In the United States, fall-sown oats appeal to livestock producers in Texas, several Gulf states, and the southeastern seaboard states, where they are used as a nutritious pasture. Many of these fields are then allowed to grow and ripen to harvest for livestock and poultry feed. Russia, Canada, the United States, the 27 states of the Euro pean Union (EU), and Australia account for, on average, 77% of the world’s supply of grain oats, seed, and industrial-grade oats (Table 1.2). While Russia remains the largest producer of oats worldwide, at 20% of total global production, the bulk of Russia’s production is consumed on farms. Production trends there are paralleling global declines. Roughly two-t hirds of production is used for feed and one-t hird for human consumption. Russia imports or exports very few oats. Canada remains the largest global commercial producer and exporter of oats, accounting for 15% of total global production and roughly 60% of global exports. Exports account for onethird of total Canadian production, on average. This compares with an average global export rate of 7% of production. Canada is the only major oat-producing country with a steady-to-higher
World Oat Production, Trade, and Usage production trend, which is due in large part to several factors. First, Canada is in close proximity to the U.S. oat-milling market. Second, Canada relies on return per acre in determining seeding decisions, i.e., it offers no production or trade subsidies. Thus, economics have favored oat production in Canada over many other crops over the past 15 years. A third factor that has contributed to the higher production trend is a large forward-contracting program that allows growers to lock in prices for virtually 90% of the milling-quality crop they grow. In some cases, growers have locked in production contracts one year before seeding. By contrast, Sweden and Finland, the other two major commercial oat-producing countries, are hampered by the need for subsidy
h3
to support production and exports. Subsidies in Sweden and Finland are generally granted annually after the harvest, which can create uncertainty for growers and grain marketers. The loss of subsidized rail rates in 1995 led to a substantial shift in oat production from western Canada eastward (Fig. 1.2). Production has increased in Manitoba and Saskatchewan since 1995. Both provinces have a closer proximity to the midwestern U.S. milling market. A substantial change in grade standards coincided with the loss of the subsidized rates and added to the production increase. This, in turn, increased returns per acre, which resulted in steadily increasing production. The grade change narrowed the percentage of other grains and foreign
TABLE 1.2 World Oat Production in Thousand Tonnes with Five-Year Average, Total, and as Percentage of World Total a Crop Year Country
EU-27c Russian Federation Canada United States Australia Ukraine Belarus China, People’s Republic of Brazil Argentina Chile Norway Turkey Kazakhstan, Republic of Mexico Others World a Data
Percent of World Total
00/01
01/02
02/03
03/04
04/05
05/06
06/07
07/08
08/09
Five-Year Averageb
8,783 6,000 3,389 2,165 1,050 881 495
8,491 7,700 2,691 1,707 1,434 1,116 530
9,680 5,700 2,911 1,684 957 943 575
9,019 5,200 3,377 2,096 2,018 925 500
9,146 4,950 3,467 1,679 1,283 1,000 770
7,968 4,550 3,283 1,667 1,690 800 600
7,768 4,900 3,852 1,359 748 700 550
8,823 5,400 4,700 1,330 843 550 600
8,952 5,400 4,300 1,287 1,400 800 900
8,545 5,000 3,736 1,626 1,316 795 604
34 20 15 7 5 3 2
600 330 645 345 397 314
600 277 645 416 330 265
600 390 500 420 279 290
600 413 348 425 333 285
600 433 508 425 359 290
600 517 350 420 360 290
600 475 400 380 360 290
600 475 470 380 360 290
600 475 500 380 360 290
600 463 415 406 354 289
2 2 2 2 1 1
80 30 473 25,977
218 90 523 27,033
100 65 505 25,599
100 95 525 26,259
140 75 542 25,667
140 80 546 23,861
140 80 563 23,165
160 80 537 25,598
160 80 537 26,421
136 82 543 24,910
1 0 2 100
from various sources, compiled by the author.
b 2003/4–2007/8. c The
27 countries of the European Union.
Fig. 1.2. Canadian provincial oat production in 1,000 tonnes (t), 1986–2008. (Data from Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Economics and Competitiveness Division, November 2005, and Statistics Canada, Field Crop Reporting Series)
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h Oats: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed.
material allowed for each grade, providing growers with the opportunity to capture higher premiums for better-quality oats. Thirty-four percent of total world oat production comes from the 27 countries of the EU (EU-27) (Tables 1.2 and 1.3). The bulk of production there is consumed internally for feed, primarily cattle and hog feed, which is roughly 80% of total usage. The overall area trend in the EU-27 since 1991 has been downward, but, as a result of steadily increasing yields, production has held at 8–9 million tonnes for much of the period. Sweden and Finland are the two major exporting countries. Production in Finland has remained steady or increased slightly over 10 years, whereas Sweden has shown a decrease. Spain and Denmark show an upward trend, while U.K. production has been steady to somewhat higher since 1991. Some declines are evident in the other major oat-producing EU-27 countries (Germany, France, and Poland). No major trends are surfacing in the smaller-production countries in Europe. Australian production has trended somewhat lower, mainly because of declines in major cash-grain-growing regions in eastern and southern Australia. Therefore, the harvested area has exhibited a downward trend since 1991. Years with higher production resulted from exceptional yields. The bulk of oat production is fed on farms, with just over 11% of total supplies used for exports. The overall global production trend in the smaller-producing countries is mostly steady and is expected to remain so into the future.
Yields Oat yields have climbed steadily over the past several decades as oat varieties have improved along with agronomic practices (Fig. 1.3). Since 1960, oat yields have increased by nearly 0.75 kg/ ha, which represents a 139% improvement. However, this was the lowest yield improvement for all of the major cereal grains with the exception of sorghum (Table 1.4), which was similar. By comparison, corn yields rose about 240% in the same period. This reflects a much greater focus on hybrid crops such as corn (and also wheat and soybeans) by governments, private industry, and researchers. Molecular biology techniques have boosted yield potential in both corn and soybeans dramatically, as well as providing technology for specific trait enhancements. The largest yield gains for oats in the past 20 years have occurred in minor oat-producing countries such as Algeria, Brazil, Mexico, and Japan. In terms of major oat-production countries, Canadian yields rose 105% between 1990 and 2005. This unusual increase was the result of a combination of factors. First, the Canadian Wheat Board stopped marketing oats in Canada, and, as a result, private trade took over exporting and marketing activities in 1989. This generated an influx of money and research into oat yields and adjustment of quality standards. This was further spurred by higher exports to the United States, lower tariffs, and a significant expansion of the Canadian oat-
TABLE 1.3 EU-27a Oat Production in Thousand Tonnes (2001–2008), with Five-Year Average for 2004–2008 b Crop Year Country
01/02
02/03
03/04
04/05
05/06
06/07
07/08
08/09
Five-Year Averagec
Percent of EU-27
Austria Belgium Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom Total
128 15 99 0 136 292 91 1,306 485 1,151 80 150 118 310 82 84 8 14 1,305 39 382 32 5 665 953 618 8,549
117 20 62 0 168 276 62 1,442 773 1,016 62 138 134 329 80 97 10 13 1,487 61 327 43 6 916 1,165 755 9,559
129 15 52 0 234 260 64 1,298 556 1,202 59 102 155 306 78 115 11 15 1,182 39 323 58 4 881 1,089 753 8,978
139 20 101 0 227 310 75 1,145 606 1,186 90 217 155 338 107 118 9 10 1,430 61 447 56 5 1,059 926 626 9,466
128 27 50 1 151 315 84 1,072 506 964 77 157 113 429 122 114 8 9 1,324 25 378 38 8 533 746 528 7,907
131 29 30 1 155 274 64 1,026 465 830 122 151 145 394 93 63 7 9 1,035 87 347 41 6 923 636 729 7,795
99 32 23 1 159 311 82 1,188 413 733 130 122 144 358 130 120 5 7 1,485 48 255 37 5 1,306 890 712 8,796
112 38 46 3 159 328 78 1,313 503 849 129 145 160 350 112 122 7 9 1,198 40 344 44 6 1,133 900 755 8,882
122 29 50 1 170 308 76 1,149 499 912 110 159 144 374 113 107 7 9 1,295 52 354 43 6 991 820 670 8,569
1.4 0.3 0.6 0.0 2.0 3.6 0.9 13.4 5.8 10.6 1.3 1.9 1.7 4.4 1.3 1.3 0.1 0.1 15.1 0.6 4.1 0.5 0.1 11.6 9.6 7.8 100.0
a European b Source:
Union (27 countries). Malta not shown. U.S. Department of Agriculture.
c 2004/5–2008/9.
World Oat Production, Trade, and Usage
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TABLE 1.4 Yield (kg/ha) and Percentage Increase (1960–2005) of Major Cereals of Commerce a
Fig. 1.3. World oat yields in kilogram per hectare, 1962–2008. (Data from U.S. Department of Agriculture)
illing industry. These changes provided growers with an ecom nomic incentive to grow better-quality oats.
Trade
Commodity
1960
2005
Percent increase
Barley Corn Millet Mixed grain Oats Rye Sorghum Wheat
1.39 1.95 0.53 2.22 1.32 1.22 1.01 1.15
2.43 4.73 0.82 3.47 1.84 2.11 1.45 2.84
175 242 153 156 139 173 143 246
a Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture.
kets on the eastern seaboard and the Gulf coast. While these markets have somewhat different requirements, specific quality traits seem more important than price to buyers in both. Sweden and Finland are, with some exceptions, dependent on EU export subsidies to access the U.S. market. The bulk of Australian exports moves to Japan, South Africa, Central and South America, and the Middle East. Australia has attempted to gain access to the large U.S. import market in recent years. However, concern
Global oat trade has ranged from about 2 to 2.5 million tonnes over the past 10 years. After trending to a 45-year low of 1.250 million tonnes in the 1982/83 crop year, exports have steadily trended higher. World oat trade has changed significantly in the past 15 years, the largest change being the consolidation of trade into the hands of a few countries (Table 1.5). World oat trade is based around U.S. imports and Canadian and Scandinavian exports. These three areas TABLE 1.5 account for 70–90%, on average, of the global World Oat Trade 2004–2008 in Thousand Tonnesa commercial oat trade annually. Canada re2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 mains the largest exporter, accounting for Exports 64% of global exports in 2005–2009. Sweden Argentina 2 1 2 5 and Finland combined account for roughly Australia 137 191 41 175 16% of the export trade in the same period. Canada 1,374 1,754 1,921 2,300 Australia comes next but accounts for only Chile 29 27 41 25 5%, on average, of global trade. Argentina, 356 231 124 150 EU-27b Chile, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine export very Kazakhstan, small amounts each year. Republic of 5 5 9 10 Others 21 5 13 25 The United States remains the largest United States 31 40 33 50 commercial importer of oats globally, acWorld total 1,955 2,254 2,184 2,740 counting for about two-t hirds of all annual Imports imports. Other countries, such as Japan and Algeria 2 4 9 5 Mexico, import small amounts of <2% each Bosnia and year. The United States is the major driver Herzegovina 6 5 4 5 of the global oat trade. Canadian production Canada 16 21 18 20 China, Peoples is geared mainly for exporting to this marRepublic of 13 18 9 13 ket. Canadian exports have recently ranged Colombia 26 26 18 25 from about 1.4 to 2.4 million tonnes annually, Ecuador … 5 14 25 with most of this going to the United States. EU-27 1 2 5 5 This compares with an annual domestic mill Japan 67 59 62 68 use of 0.600 million tonnes. Without access Mexico 51 83 57 125 to the high-quality, high-priced U.S. marMorocco 1 1 5 5 Norway 2 48 59 50 ket, Canadian production would likely trend South Africa, lower. Canadian oats are imported into the Republic of 42 18 13 25 U.S. Upper Midwest mainly for milling, with Switzerland 26 48 42 56 some tonnage being used for delivery against Others 7 … 23 10 Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) oat futures Unaccounted for 66 85 52 103 and small amounts going into U.S. horse marUnited States 1,629 1,831 1,794 2,200 World total 1,955 2,254 2,184 2,740 kets. Sweden and Finland, the other major a Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture. exporters to the United States, dominate the b The 27 countries of the European Union. horse-quality markets; they export to mar-
2008/09
5 75 1,950 25 150 5 … 40 2,250 5 5 25 20 25 5 5 60 50 5 50 25 50 … 120 1,800 2,250
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h Oats: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed.
regarding the potential presence of wild oat species (A. sterilis) in the Australian oat crop has prevented further exports to the United States, which restricts oat imports that contain the wild oat even though it is present in the United States. Japanese imports are restricted mainly to compound-feed and horse-quality markets. Import tonnage has declined in recent years as oat prices for compound feed have risen sharply. The demand for horse-quality oats remains steady. The bulk of the EU internal trade is to milling markets in Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In normal years, the high cost of shipping a bulky, lower-feedvalue commodity like oats limits internal EU trade.
Economic value
est returns per acre. The demand is limited and inelastic in that oat processors have no alternative but to use oats. This generally translates to a stable market that has seen a steady increase in demand, with relatively good returns for growers. One further benefit, which is unique to the Canadian oat market, is the forward-contracting program. In a normal production year, commercial milling companies contract forward (in some cases up to one year) for large tonnage from growers, up to 90% of the high-quality oats they grow. Prices are locked in for the grade variations. This program, developed in the early 1990s, resulted in a sharp increase in Canadian production of higher-quality oats and a huge annual increase in exports. The economics of growing oats in Europe are tied, in most cases, to EU farm programs and export subsidies. Such subsidies are provided only for Scandinavian oat exports under the accession agreement of 1995.
Oats are grown for two main purposes, feed and food use. A very small percentage is grown for cover crop. Identifying which is more profitable (feed or food use) is difficult, as the decision Usage about the market to which growers sell is not always based on economics. In developed countries, roughly 75% of all oats are used Oats have traditionally been used to feed horses and cattle. In for feed, 25% for human consumption. In less-developed counsome global regions, they are fed to sheep, hogs, and, to a small tries, the percentage of feed use may be substantially higher. degree, poultry. A wide range of other applications for oats inRelative to other crops, oats require low inputs and can cludes food manufacture, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and nube used effectively in most crop rotations. This makes them a traceuticals. Global feed use of oats has been steadily declining, competitive crop in terms of returns per acre, particularly if a while food use has been climbing (Fig. 1.4). Feed use of oats demilling-quality oat is produced. However, the bulkiness of the clined from 90% of total oat production in the past 40 years to crop makes oats more expensive to store and transport comjust over 70% in 2007, with an equivalent increase in food and pared with other grains and oilseeds. industrial use in the same period to nearly 30%. In developed countries, the amount sold for food use is limited by the demand for oat products. Once this demand is filled, Feed Use oat prices generally fall, moving more oats into feed channels, where returns are generally lower. A percentage of millingIn the last century, the development of fossil-f uel-powered quality oats, depending on the CBOT oat futures spreads, can machinery in agriculture replaced the need for draft horses be used for storage and delivery against CBOT futures, to be and greatly decreased feed demand for oats. Table 1.6 shows oat milled, marketed, or sold into commercial-feed markets at a later feed usage trends in major oat-producing countries around the date. This can provide increased profit potential for companies world. Most of the oats produced have been, and continue to be, with storage facilities, increasing the options and opportunities fed on farms where grown. On a per-pound basis, oats have more for growers to produce commercially marketable oats. Prices protein than corn and other feed grains but fewer calories. For of milling-quality oats in North America return, on average, a this reason, they are used mainly as background feed for cattle $0.05–0.15/bu (U.S. $) premium in comparison with feed-quality on farms. Almost all of the current commercial-feed demand oats. This spread can widen substantially in years of lower production or decreased quality. Feed use comprises noncommercial on-farm use and the commercial horse-feed and generalfeed markets. Of these, the horse market generally provides the highest returns and can, in some cases, exceed returns found in milling markets. Returns in the horse market are limited by the price of competitive feed grains, such as corn, barley, bran, and forage. The use of pelletized compound feed has increased in recent years, providing increased competition for oats in horse feed. General-feed use is limited, confined mostly to cattle, dairy cows, and hogs; the use is dependent on the price of competing feed grains. In terms of pure economics, selling to foodFig. 1.4. World oat use as feed (p) or food (milling, seed, industrial, i) as a percentage consumption markets usually provides the highof total production, 1960–2008. (Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture)
World Oat Production, Trade, and Usage
h7
TABLE 1.6 World Annual Oat Feed Use in Thousand Tonnes, with Five-Year Average a Crop Year Country
00/01
01/02
02/03
03/04
04/05
05/06
06/07
07/08
08/09
Five-Year Averageb
Others Russia United States Canada Australia Spain Poland Germany Finland Ukraine Sweden Belarus China Brazil France Italy Romania Chile Norway Denmark United Kingdom Turkey World
5,175 4,288 3,028 1,634 805 826 653 1,001 730 700 605 400 715 168 406 353 219 228 373 190 257 304 19,700
7,007 5,827 2,413 1,426 1,076 575 879 999 730 900 590 430 493 336 438 326 356 285 311 206 185 265 21,211
4,969 3,993 2,435 1,203 656 848 1,060 853 680 800 625 475 200 278 690 338 303 350 250 211 260 280 18,633
4,484 3,492 2,341 1,516 1,635 834 763 1,032 775 800 500 493 364 408 462 343 297 379 306 301 313 263 19,336
4,688 3,361 2,170 1,498 969 1,019 982 873 680 850 550 665 314 433 507 343 421 213 339 306 239 260 19,287
4,205 2,965 2,240 1,368 1,314 583 807 700 600 650 525 510 418 497 415 391 350 283 297 268 202 260 17,381
4,458 3,280 2,090 1,506 529 803 658 710 700 550 450 455 876 383 396 367 320 369 294 235 265 261 17,247
4,468 3,395 2,375 1,297 548 1,106 1,053 635 750 500 690 476 362 424 362 356 229 345 304 296 260 233 17,859
4,441 3,363 1,950 1,400 967 1,067 772 700 750 570 625 458 462 410 428 351 292 366 321 299 365 250 17,819
4,452 3,273 2,165 1,414 865 916 855 724 696 624 568 513 486 429 422 361 323 315 311 281 266 253 17,919
a Compiled
by the author from various sources.
b 2004/5–2008/9.
for oats is focused on specialty feed for race and hobby horses and breeding stock. The lack of improvement in the feed value of oats compared to the gains for corn and wheat has been a major deterrent to feed use, both commercially and on farms. The use of oats in the horse industry has declined in recent years due to the high price of oats relative to other feed-grain crops and the expansion of pelletized feed use. Hulless oats have been bred to have very loose hulls that fall away from the oat groat during harvest. Hulless oat varieties have excellent feed and food value, but they require drier storage conditions. Other specialty markets for oats include those for organic and pesticide-free oats and for birdseed.
Human Consumption Oats are high in protein and oil. Compared to wheat, oats contain one-t hird more protein, nearly four times more fat, and less starch. Advances in nutritional science and increased consumer interest in functional foods have stimulated interest in new product development and oat fractionation. Oat components such as protein and antioxidants can be used as stabilizers, emulsifiers, and food extenders in industrial food processes. In the late 1980s, the human demand for oats began to rise. This increase in oat demand was referred to by some as the “oat bran craze.”
During this period, oat consumption in the United States rose dramatically. Per capita consumption of oat products increased from 4.0 lb in 1984 to 6.5 lb in 1990 (Fig. 1.5). Canadian consumption took a more modest climb until 1996, when consumption jumped to 7.3 lb, and, according to Statistics Canada data, further increased to 9.1 lb early in the first decade of the twentyfi rst century. Oat bran was added to numerous food products such as muffins and cookies, and food companies even boldly labeled high-fat foods such as doughnuts and potato chips as containing oat bran. The craze quickly faded in the early 1990s after a well-publicized study (see Chapter 12), which suggested
Fig. 1.5. Apparent U.S. and Canadian per capita consumption of oat products, 1967– 2003. (Data from U.S. Department of Agriculture and Statistics Canada)
8
h Oats: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed. TABLE 1.7 World Oat Milling/Seed Use (2000–2009) in Thousand Tonnesa Crop Year
Country
00/01
01/02
02/03
03/04
04/05
05/06
06/07
07/08
08/09
Russia United States Canada Poland United Kingdom China Germany Scandinavia Australia Ukraine Argentina Spain Finland Chile Belarus Sweden Mexico Denmark Others World
1,725 987 546 430 289 300 217 251 160 140 150 128 147 100 95 104 70 38 301 6,006
1,900 1,046 707 424 319 301 228 261 170 150 150 120 151 116 100 110 66 40 260 6,517
1,700 1,045 680 425 341 300 250 269 180 150 150 103 152 115 100 117 68 39 381 6,309
1,700 1,059 677 423 333 300 270 259 174 150 149 157 140 120 100 119 87 45 401 6,406
1,600 1,074 708 422 350 300 324 262 179 150 150 155 142 121 100 120 51 44 406 6,366
1,600 1,074 753 416 369 300 308 200 185 150 150 165 140 125 100 60 52 77 468 6,390
1,600 1,090 786 415 423 300 310 210 184 150 150 160 145 130 100 65 50 70 456 6,409
1,600 1,100 850 425 442 300 305 216 191 150 150 165 151 130 100 65 50 75 499 6,508
1,601 1,100 900 426 450 301 315 215 192 150 150 166 150 131 101 65 51 75 550 6,589
a Data
from various sources, compiled by the author.
that oats had no specific cholesterol-lowering effect but merely displaced fat in the diet. In 1995, oats reemerged in the media when the Quaker Oats Company made a proposal to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to allow health claims on oat products. The health claim was approved in 1997, and the following statement was allowed: “Soluble fiber from oatmeal, as part of a low saturated fat, low cholesterol diet, may reduce the risk of heart disease.” When the health claim was approved in 1997, there was speculation that another oat bran craze would emerge; however, this does not appear to be the case, as illustrated in the data on world oat milling shown in Table 1.7.
Grading standards
and test weight are important. Horse markets generally look for color and test weight. However, in years of lower quality, buying standards are adjusted downward somewhat. The performanceoat market demands the highest quality oats. Racehorses and pleasure horses in the United States and Canada are fed highprotein, heavy-test-weight oats that are plump and bright white. The focus on color is somewhat of a “red herring” as it bears little relationship to feed quality issues. Horse owners spending hundreds (in some cases, thousands) of dollars on their equine stock feel that a white oat is essential. Recent drought conditions in western Canada have increased the price of oats to such a degree that southern U.S. horse feeders have substituted pelleted feed for oats. It is uncertain whether this market can be regained, as the pelletized feed has proven for many users to be a more stable alternative to oats. Tables 1.8 and 1.9 show the grading standards for U.S. and Canadian oats, respectively. U.S. and Canadian grain standards
The three main off-farm markets for oats include performance (horse) feed oats, milling oats, and feed oats. Oats are generally segregated into these three different end-use markets according to quality. Higher-quality oats are used in the performance-oat and milling-oat markets. In the United States and Canada, government TABLE 1.8 agencies provide a guideline for oat grades, but U.S. Grade Standardsa buyers may demand specific quality attributes. Minimum Limits Maximum Limits, % In Europe, Australia, and other major markets, quality is determined by the end user. In a very Test Weight per Sound Oats, Heat-Damaged Foreign Grade Bushel, lb % Kernels Material Wild Oats general sense, all markets use the same criteria, with the percentage of each varying depending U.S. No. 1 36.0 97.0 0.1 2.0 2.0 on the needs of the end user. The criteria are test U.S. No. 2 33.0 94.0 0.3 3.0 3.0 weight, other grains, soundness, foreign material, U.S. No. 3 30.0 90.0 1.0 4.0 5.0 color, moisture, and protein. U.S. No. 4 27.0 80.0 3.0 5.0 10.0 Groat quality is the main criterion for milling a Source: U.S. Federal Grain Inspection Agency (adapted from CFR 810—Official U.S. Standards markets; to a lesser degree, uniformity of color for Grain, Subpart G—U.S. Standards for Oats).
World Oat Production, Trade, and Usage
h9
TABLE 1.9 Canadian Grain Commission Grade Standards for Oats a Standard of Quality Minimum Test Weight, kg/hL (g/0.5 L) Degree of Soundness
Grade
No. 1 CWb
56 (260)
No. 2 CW
53 (245)
No. 3 CW
51 (235)
No. 4 CW
48 (220)
Grade if No. 4 specs not met a Source:
b Canada
Good color; 98% of groats must be sound Good color; 96% of groats must be sound Good color; 94% of groats must be sound 92% of groats must be sound
Damage
Hulled and Hulless (%)
Fireburnt (%)
Frost (%)
Fusarium (%)
6
Nil
0.1
0.1
Nil
2
8
Nil
4
2
0.1
4
20
Nil
6
4
0.5
6
0.25
No limit. Not included in total damage assessment
6
1
8
No limit—if sample contains 95% or more of hulless varieties, hulless becomes part of the grade name
Oats, Sample CW Oats, Sample CW Account Light Weight Account Damage and Foreign Material
Oats, Sample CW Account Fireburnt
Heated (%)
Total (%)
Oats, Sample Oats, Sample Oats, Sample CW CW CW Account Account Account Fusarium Heated Damaged Damaged
Canadian Grain Commission. Western.
continue to show differences, but efforts are under way in the two countries to harmonize standards. Australian commodity standards are given for two milling oats, prime milling oils and milling oats No. 1. The milling-oat market seeks oats that have heavy test weight and meet stringent purity requirements. Uniform kernel size is an important factor. Milling oats are graded on the basis of test weight, soundness count, color, moisture, foreign material, and protein. There are typically no substitutes for oats in the human food market. The commercial feed-oat market, other than for horses, is small relative to those for other feed grains such as barley and corn. Despite having the highest protein content of all grains, the high fiber (hull) content of oats decreases its nutrient value and price. For livestock producers, oats increase the time and cost required to bring livestock to slaughter weight. Therefore, oats are fed to breeding cattle and younger livestock instead.
Key Government Policy The government policies impacting major oat markets are EU export subsidies, EU Common Agricultural Policy reform, and the U.S. loan rate.
EU Export Subsidies Subsidies by the EU for Scandinavian oat exports to the United States have played a major role in the maintenance of Scandinavia’s share of the world export market. In recognition of the importance of the oat trade to the economies of Sweden and Finland, special provisions for subsidies on their oat exports were instituted when they joined the EU in 1995.
Subsidies are granted through a weekly tendering process available only on oats from Sweden and Finland. An open tender does not guarantee export subsidies, and each bid can be accepted or rejected on an individual basis. The EU commitments on export subsidies under the Uruguay Round of the World Trade Organization (WTO) do not place restrictions on oats per se, since the WTO commitment is for export subsidies in total, for all coarse grains. At the time of this writing, the EU has not exceeded its WTO commitments and could increase its expenditures on oats, if desired. Canada and the United States share the objective of eliminating export subsidies in the next round of WTO negotiations. In the meantime, the two countries are continuing to explore options to induce the EU to discontinue export subsidies on sales of oats to the United States and Canada. Without support payment for oats, either for production or exports, it is unlikely that Sweden or Finland can maintain current levels for oat production or for exports to the United States.
EU CAP Reform The income support for agriculture in Finland and Sweden is based on the support measures of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU. In 2003, the EU member countries agreed to a reform of CAP. Changes include a single farm payment decoupled from production, a reduction in direct payments, and a strengthened rural development policy. The single farm payment came into effect on January 1, 2005. Special provisions have been included in this reformed policy to provide extra compensation to Finland and Sweden for the drying costs associated with cereal production in a colder climate.
Index A genome, 12, 55 Abrasion milling, 40 Accelerated pedigree selection, 22 Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase), 56, 57, 69 Acid hydrolysis, 119 Acylglycerols, 144 Adhesives, 354 Agglomeration, 322 Aglycones, 168–169, 173, 174, 181 Agronomic characters, molecular genetics of, 61–62 Air classification, 322, 323 Albumins amino acid composition in storage proteins, 124 changes during seed maturation, 134 isolation and physical properties, 125 Alcoholic fermentation, 351 Aleurone cells, 85, 130–131, 132 Aleurone flour, 180 Aleurone grains, 85, 87 Aleurone layer in germination, 87 protein bodies, 130–131, 132 structure and chemistry, 83–87 Aliphatic aldehydes, 334 Alkaline extraction of β -glucan, 221, 326–327 of oat-hull fiber, 327 n-Alkanols, 192–194 Alkyl thiazoles, 336 Alkylamines, 184 Alklylphenols, 166–168 Alkylresorcinols, 145 Allelopathy, 168 Amines, 334 Amino acids, 103 oat flavor and, 334 of storage proteins, 124–125 in avenins, 128 changes during seed maturation, 133–134 effect of soil fertility on, 135 effects of germination on, 134 in germ tissues, 130 in globulins, 127, 128
supplementing oat protein with, 136–137 Aminobenzoic acids, 87, 180, 181 Aminodeoxychorismate, 181 Aminophenolics biosynthesis and metabolism, 181–183 in human food and health, 184 in plant systems, 183–184 structures and occurrences, 180–181 Aminophenols, 180–181, 182, 183 α-Amylase, 59, 119, 222, 325, 326 β -Amylase, 326 Amylopectin leaching, 117 in oat starch, 111, 112–113 in starch granules, 88, 109, 111 Amylose leaching, 116–117 in oat starch, 111–112, 113 oat starch gels and, 118–119 in starch granules, 88, 109, 111 Amylose-lipid complexes, 115, 117 β -Amyrin synthase gene, 183 Animal feed. See also Feed oats; Hulless oats, animal feed studies covered oats, 47 hulless oats in, 42–49 mixed grains, 316 oat hulls in, 316 other grains in, 42 pelletized, 6 quality, 20–21, 47 studies, 243–244 Anthranilate synthase, 181–182 Anthranilates, 182 Anthranilic acid, 180, 182 Antiatherogenics, 191 Anticariogenics, 355 Anti-inflammatories, 191 Antioxidants avenanthramides, 105, 149, 190–191 breeding for, 19 commercial products, 354 free ferulic acid and ferulate esters, 194 human consumption of oats and, 7 lipid stability and, 149–150
lipophilic, 149 overview, 354 phenolics, 19, 105, 149–150, 338, 354 prevention of rancidity and, 338 uses of, 354 Apigenin, 169, 173–174 Arabinoxylans, 89, 198–200, 200 Aralkylamines, 184 Aroma, 19 Arrhenantherum, 181 Arylamides, 187 Arylamine, 180–181 Arylamine oxidases, 182 Aryloxyphenoxypropionate, 69 Ascorbic acid. See Vitamin C Ash in oat and wheat bran, 105 in oat starch, 110, 111 proximate analysis of, 97 proximate value, 98 Aspect ratio, 302 Aspergillus, 338 A. oryzae, 110 Aspirators, 304, 309 Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study, 287 Australia, oats in, 4, 5–6, 9, 21 Autofluorescence, 85, 89 Avena A. atlantica, 52 A. barbata, 12 A. byzantina, 11, 16 A. fatua, 12, 39, 192 A. hirtula, 52 A. longiglumis, 12, 13, 181, 183 A. macrostachya, 61 A. magna, 12 A. maroccana, 12, 13 A. murphyi, 12 A. pilosa, 13 A. prostrata, 13 A. sativa breeding with, 12, 13 genetic history of, 11 trends in the demand for, 31 winter hardiness, 16
h 363
364
h Index
A. sterilis, 6 breeding with, 12, 63 characteristics of, 12 resistant genes derived from, 15 transfer of mildew resistance from, 12 A. strigosa, 12, 52–53, 59 avenin protein, 133 resistant genes derived from, 15 A. wiestii, 52–53 Avenacins, 16, 181, 183 Avenacosylates, 192–194 Avenalumic acids, 85, 189 Avenalumins, 184, 190 Avenanthramides as antioxidants, 105, 149, 190–191 bioavailability, 191 biosynthesis and metabolism, 182, 187–189 human health benefits, 19, 190–191, 353 levels during germination, 187 oat flavor and, 334 in plant systems, 190 in preharvest sprouted oats, 38–39 stability, 186 structures and occurrences, 184–187 Tranilast and, 191 Avenasterols, 149 Avenin genes, 133 Avenins. See also Prolamins amino acid composition, 124, 125 changes during seed maturation, 134 control of gene expression, 133 genotypic differences and inheritance, 133 hydrolysis, 134–135 isolation and physical properties, 128 in protein bodies, 130, 131, 132 in storage proteins, 58, 124, 125 synthesis, 130 Avenol, 354 Awnless hulless oats, 33 Awns, 33 B vitamins, 47, 101, 180, 311 Baby food, 314 Baby oats, 348 Backcrosses, 22, 63 Bacteria, on oat products, 338 Bakery products, 349–350 Baking, flavor and, 337 Bald conditioning gene, 36 Bald-seeded oats, 36–37 Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging, 291 Barley in animal feed, 42 hulless, 42 Benzaldehyde, 335 Benzoxazinoids, 181, 183 Benzoxazinones, 181, 182, 183 Beta Trim, 325 Beverages, from oats ale, 337
beer, 41, 168, 351 whiskey, 351 Bioinformatics, 68–69 Biological contaminants, 303, 305–307 Biological yield, 14 Biomass fuels, 316, 356 Biotin, 101 Black oat, 17 Blood cholesterol. See Serum (blood) cholesterol Blood glucose β -glucan and, 245–246 oat products and, 282 soluble fiber effects, 262–266 Swedish product-specific health claims, 293–294 Blood lipids animal studies chicks, rabbits, and hamsters, 256–257 rats, 256 human studies blood lipid fractions, particle size, and number, 261–262 factors affecting blood lipid response, 257–261 overview, 257 mechanisms for decreasing, 262 Blood pressure dietary soluble fiber and, 255–256, 266–267 and oats, health claim, 291–292 and potassium, health claim, 281 Body-mass index, 290, 291 Bosom oats, 302, 305 Bracts, 83 Bran, grain fraction, structure and chemistry, 83–87 Bran, milling product. See Oat bran Breads, 340–341, 350 Break rolls, 314 Breakfast cereals, 349, 352. See also Oatmeal; Porridge Breast cancer, 179 Breeding bulk, 22 bulk segregant analyses, 24 carbon dioxide-responsive lines, 13 funding of, 24–25 genetic resources, 11–13 of hulless oats, 32–39 marker-assisted selection, 23–24 methods, 21–22. See also Molecular genetics objectives added value, 25 disease and pest resistance, 15–16 drought tolerance, 16–17 fodder oats, 21 grain yield, 13–14 health benefits for consumers, 19, 357 milling quality, 18–19 overview, 13
premium feed quality, 20–21 regional adaptability, 13 resistance to lodging, 14–15 sustainability, 17 taste and texture benefits for consumers, 19–20 winter hardiness, 16 pedigree breeding, 21–22 programs, 11, 12, 13–21 transgressive segregation, 16 transgressive selection, 12 Brewing, 351 Brown plant hopper, 173 Bulk density, 302 flake thickness and, 314 Burr mills, 301 Bushel weight. See Test weight Butylated hydroxanisole, 354 Butylated hydroxytoluene, 354 By-products, of oat milling, 316 C-genome, 12, 55 C-trim, 324 Caco-2 cells, 165–166, 173–174, 179, 202 Cadmium accumulation, 59 Cadoxen, 233 Caffeic acid as an antioxidant, 354 bioavailability, 166 inhibition of LDL oxidation, 164–165 oat flavor and, 334 occurrences, 161–162 thermal decarboxylation, 167 Caffeoyl-CoA:O-methyltransferase, 190 Calcium, 100 Calcium health claims, 282 Calcium hydroxide, 110 Calcium regulation, 353 Callus, 64–65 CaMV35S promoter, 66 Canada consumption of oats, 7 dormoats, breeding, 39 in global oat trade, 5 hulless oats in, 41–42 oat production and yields, 2–3, 4 Canadian Celiac Association, 41–42 Canadian Wheat Board, 4 Cancer dietary fiber and, 205 health claims for. See Health claims phenolic antioxidants and, 200 Carbohydrates mobilization of stored reserves in, 17 in oat starch, 111–113 proximate analysis of, 97 proximate value, 98 Carbon dioxide-responsive lines, 13 Carbonyls, 334 Cardiovascular disease. See also Coronary heart disease avenanthramides and, 191 diet and, 255
Index increasing incidence of, 321 phenolic antioxidants and, 200 Cariostatic properties, 355 Carotenoids, 101 Caryopsis. See Groat Cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter, 66 Celiac disease, 41–42, 105, 353–354 Cell wall polysaccharides biosynthesis, 198–200 cross-linking, 200 phenolic acids in, 195, 196 Cell walls of aleurone cells, 85 of endosperm cells, 89 in germ, 90 lignification, 204 oat texture and, 338–339 Cellobiose, 230, 231 Cellodextrins, 230 Cellotetraose, 230 Cellotriose, 230 Cellulose biosynthesis genes, 57 in the endosperm cell wall, 89 in the hull, 83 Cellulosic functional fiber, 327–328 Cellulosic gels, 327–328 Cereal cyst nematode, 16, 173 Cerogen, 327 Cetraria islandica, 237 Chemical contaminants, 303 Chevron spikelets, 34 Chicks blood lipid studies, 256–257 growth and β -glucans, 243–244 Children’s health claims, 292 China hulless oats in, 32–33, 36, 40, 49 oat usage in, 21, 41, 351 Cholesterol. See also High-density lipoprotein cholesterol; Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; Serum (blood) cholesterol health claims for dietary saturated fat, 281 human consumption of oats and, 8 mechanisms for decreasing, 262 Choline, 101 Chorismic acid, 181 Chromosome substitution, 13 Chromosomes libraries of, 55 physical mapping, 54–55 translocations, 16, 55 Chronic diseases, 275–276 Cinnamic acid, 161, 166–167 Cleaning, of oat grain, 305–307 Cobalamin, 101 Codex Alimentarius, 295 Coleoptile, 90 Coleorhiza, 90 Common oats evolution of, 12
genetic history of, 11 trends in the demand for, 31 Comparative genomics, 54 Comparative mapping, 54 Compressed-air dehullers, 18, 302 Confocal laser scanning microscopy, 79 Consumer perception, of oats, 341–342 Consumption. See Oat consumption Contaminants biological, 303, 305–307 chemical, 303 mycotoxins, 317 removal of, 302–303, 305–307, 310 Cookies (biscuits), 324, 350 Cooler-dryers, 314 Corn (maize) in animal feed, 42 yields, 4 Corn ear worm, 173 Corn flour, 340 Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study, 290 Coronary heart disease. See also Cardiovascular disease health claims for dietary saturated fat, 281 in Finland and Sweden, 294 overview, 348, 352–353 for soluble fiber, 278–280, 281 for whole-grain products, 280–281 rising incidence of, 328 Corrugated roller mills, 315–316, 322 Cosmetic products from oats, 354–355 p-Coumarate, 201 o-Coumaric acid, 161 p-Coumaric acid bioavailability, 165, 166 biosynthesis, 162 inhibition of human LDL oxidation by, 164 in oat bran cell walls, 85 oat flavor and, 334 occurrence, 161–162 thermal decarboxylation, 167 Covered oats characteristics of, 32 in horse feed, 47 opportunities for, 31 trends in the demand for, 31 Crease, 38, 83 Crossing, genetics of, 11–13 Cross-linking, of cell wall polysaccharides, 200 Crossover frequency, 52 Crown rust breeding resistance to, 13, 15, 16 avenanthramides and, 190 genes for, 60, 62, 63 effect on storage proteins, 135–136 Cultivars, fingerprinting, 63 Cutin, 194 Cutting machines, 301 Cyanogen bromide, 87
h 365
Cyclic hydroxamic acid, 181 Cyclohexanedione, 69 Cysteine, 103 Cytokines, 245 D genome, 55 Databases, genetic, 54, 67, 68, 69 Daylength insensitivity gene, 61 Debranned groats, 40–41 2,4-Decadienals, 335, 336 Decarboxylation, 166–167 Dehulled oats, flavor from heat treatment, 334 Dehullers, 18, 301, 302 Dehulling effect on lipid reactions, 150 improving the efficiency of, 32 process of, 307–310 stone dehullers, 307 Dental caries, 355 Determinate spikelets, 32 breeding for in hulless oats, 34–35 incomplete expression, 35–36 Diabetes cereal fiber consumption and, 287 health claims for risk reduction and disease management, 282–288 human health complications and, 267–268 increasing incidence of, 321, 328 low-glycemic diets and, 219, 286–287, 287–288 whole grains and, 288 Diacylglycerols, 144 Dibenzylfurofuran lignans, 177 Diet and Health report, 280 Dietary fiber. See also β -Glucan; Soluble fiber components fructans, 100 β -glucan, 99–100 solubility and monosaccharide composition, 98–99 content of high-quality bran, 316 of oat bran, 349 of whole-oat products, 349 energy value, 98 enrichment dry-milling methods, 322–323 overview, 328 extracted from oat hulls, 327–328 future of, 328 human health benefits, 205, 321, 328 insoluble, 195, 196, 197 overview of, 328 processing methodologies, 321–322 proximate analysis of, 97 proximate value, 98 risk of diabetes and, 287 soluble, 197 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, 287, 288, 290
366
h Index
Dietary reference intakes, 102 Diferulic acids, 196, 197, 198 Digalactosyldiglyceride, 144 Dimers from ferulic acid, 196–197, 200, 201–202 Dimethyl sulfides, 337 p-Dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde, 87 Diploid genomes, 11 Diploid oats breeding with, 12 interspecific crosses, 63–64 recombination mapping, 52–53 transfer of genes from, 13 Diseases and pests of oats barley yellow dwarf virus, 15, 16, 60, 136 crown rust, 15, 60, 135–136 Helminthosporium leaf blotch, 16 nematodes, 16 Pratylenchus neglectus, 173 stem rust, 60 take-all, 16 Disease resistance, breeding for to crown rust, 13, 15, 16, 60 to loose smut, 39 to mildew resistance, 13 molecular genetics of, 60–61 to powdery mildew, 15 to stem rust, 60 to take-all, 16, 183 to Victoria blight, 65 Disease risk health claims, 292 Diseases from nutritional deficiency, 95 Disk separators, 307, 312–313 Dormoats, 39 Double oats, 302, 305, 316 Doubled haploids, 22, 51, 64 Drought tolerance, 16–17 Drum width graders, 310 Drum-dried oatmeal, 350 Dry fractionation, 322 Dry milling, 322–323 Dry stoners, 305–306 Dryers, 314 Dwarf oats genes for, 14, 15, 62 naked, 13, 15 spring, 15 winter, 20 Dwarfness, in resistance to lodging, 14–15 Dye binding, of β -glucans, 242–243 Eicosenoic acid, 143, 149 Eimeria vermiformis, 245 Elasticity, of β -glucan gels, 237 Electron microscopy, 79 Embryo. See also Germ amino acid composition, 125 damaging during harvest, 39 in hulless oats, 37–38 in tissue culture, 65 Embryogenic callus, 65 Embryonic axis, 90, 125, 130 Endo-β -glucanases, 220
Endoglycanases, 200 Endosperm. See also Starchy endosperm cell walls, 219 β -glucans in, 87 lipase activity, 148–149 protein bodies, 130 subaleurone, 87 Endothermic transitions, 115–116 Energy content, of whole-grain cereals, 98 Entanglement concentration, 237 Enterodiol, 178–179 Enterolactone, 178–179 Enzymatic decarboxylation, 167 Enzymes cofactors of, 100, 101 HHT enzyme, 187, 188, 189, 190 hydrolysis of, 119 inactivation of by extrusion, 150–151 by kiln drying, 150, 310–311 by micronization, 317 by steaming, 150 lipid-related commercial utilization, 152 lipase, 148–149. See also Lipase oats as an industrial source, 356 oxidative, 149 proteolytic, 134–135, 325–326 used in β -glucan enrichment, 324–326 Epithelium, scutellar, 90 Ergot, 303 Essential amino acids, 103, 136 Ester glycosides, 196 Ethanol, 323, 326 Europe oat breeding in, 21, 24 health claims in, 292–295 oat production and trade, 4, 6, 9 Exoglycanases, 200 Expert Protein Analysis System, 69 Export subsidies, 9 Exporters, 5 Extruded oats, 337 Extrusion, 150–151, 339–340 Fall-sown oats, 2, 96 Fat, 96, 97, 98. See also Lipids Fat replacers, 325 Fatty acids composition effect of cultivar on, 146 of oat lipids, 143–144 of oat oil, 98 overview, 144 nutrient density, 102 in the starchy endosperm, 89 Fatuoids, 34 Feed oats. See also Animal feed breeding for premium quality, 20–21 economic value, 6 grading standards, 8, 9 milling by-products in, 316 usage trends, 6–7
Fermented foods, 341, 351 Fertilization, of crop effect on lipid content, 146 effect on storage proteins, 135 Fertilizers, supplementation with selenium, 100 Ferulate bioavailability, 166, 200–202 lignin cross-linking and, 203 Ferulate esters, 194 Ferulated trisaccharides, 195 Ferulic acid as an antioxidant, 194, bioavailability and bioactivity, 164, 165, 166, 200–202 in cell walls, 85, 89, 90 dimers, 196–197, 200, 201–202 oat flavor and, 334 occurrences, 161–162 thermal decarboxylation, 166, 167 Feruloyl disaccharides, 195 Feruloyl esterases, 200 Feruloyl tetrasaccharides, 195 Feruloyl-CoA, 199 Fiber. See also β -Glucan; Dietary fiber; Insoluble dietary fiber; Oat fiber; Soluble fiber cellulosic functional fiber, 327–328 hull fiber, 322, 327–328 risk of diabetes and, 287 Field contaminants, 305–307 Finland health claims in, 294 oat production and trade, 3, 4, 5 Flaked oats. See Oat flakes Flaking effect on texture, 339 process of, 313–314 Flaking rolls, 313 Flavone aglycones, 168–169, 173, 174 Flavones, 353 Flavonoids biosynthesis and metabolism, 172–173 in human food and health, 173–175 in plant systems, 173 structures and occurrences, 168–171 Flavonolignans, 169, 172–173 Flavor. See also Taste alkylphenols and, 168 breeding for, 19 changes during storage, 337–338 components of, 334 factors affecting, 333–337 of native oats, 334 Flavor perception, 334 Floral morphology, breeding for variation in hulless oats, 34–36 Florets of covered oats, 32 emasculating, 21 of hulless oats, 33 Flowering time, molecular genetics of, 61 Fluoresence microspectrophotometry, 81
Index Fodder oats, 21 Folate health claims, 282 Folic acid, 101 Food and Drug Modernization Act, 278, 352 Food oats. See also Animal feed economic value, 6 trends in usage, 7–8, 95 Free fatty acids commercial production, 152 kiln drying and, 310 in malted oats, 151, 152 oat quality and, 148, 303 in oat starch, 110, 147, 148 during oat storage, 338 rancid flavor and, 337 Free phenolics biosynthesis and metabolism, 162–164 in human food and health, 164–166 in plant systems, 164 stucture, 157–162 French Food Safety Agency, 295 Frozen foods, 342, 351 Fructans, 100 Fruits reduced risk of cancer and, 282 soluble fiber health claims, 281 Functional foods consumer perception of, 341–342 defined, 321 β -glucan enrichment methods of, 322–327 overview, 328 increasing interest in oat products, 321 oat-based ingredients, 351 Fungi. See also individual fungi Alternaria, 16, 18 Blumeria graminis f. sp. avenae, 11 Erysiphe graminis, 136 Fusarium, 16, 18, 183 mycotoxins, 303 Gaeumannomyces, 16, 183 Helminthosporium victoriae, 65 on oat products, 338 Puccinia, 135–136, 190 Ustilago avenae, 39 Furans, 337, 355 Furfural, 316, 355–356 Gastrointestinal studies flavonoids, 173–175 free phenolics, 164–166 β -glucans, 244 lignans, 177–179 lignin, 204–205 suberin, 204–205 Gelatinization, 114–116, 117, 339 Gelatinization temperature, 114 Gelation, 138 Gels cellulosic, 327–328 β -glucans, 237–242, 327 homogeneity, 241 Oatrim, 325
Gene expression arrays, 68 Gene transfer, 12–13 General function health claims, 292 Genes mapping, 52–55 orthologs, 54 Genetic bottlenecks, 12 Genetic databases, 67, 68, 69 Genetic engineering enhancement of grain quality and, 67 oat transformation, 66–67 recombination mapping, 52–54 Genetic transformation systems, 66–67 Genomics. See also Functional genomics comparative, 54 contribution to grain quality, 69 Germ proteins in, 130 structure and chemistry, 90 Germinated oat products, 351 Germination aleurone layer in, 87 defined, 151 effect on flavor, 336–337 effect on lipid reactions, 151 effect on storage proteins, 134 effect on texture of processed oats, 339 β -glucan during, 339 levels of avenanthramides during, 187 Gibberellic acid, 15 Gliadins, 353 Global trade, 5–6 Global warming, and breeding objectives, 13 Globulin genes, 132–133 Globulins amino acid composition, 124 changes during seed maturation, 134 classification and solubility fractionation, 123, 124 control of gene expression, 133 functional properties in protein concentrates, 138–139 genotypic differences and inheritance, 133 hydrolysis, 134, 135 isolation and physical properties, 125, 126–128 Osborne fraction, 103, 104 in protein bodies, 130, 131, 132 of the starchy endosperm, 89 in storage proteins, 58, 124 synthesis, 128–129 Glucagel, 327 β -Glucan. See also β -Glucan health claims; Soluble fiber in the aleurone cell wall, 85 analysis, 81, 224–225 blood glucose response and, 282 blood pressure effects, 291 breeding for, 19 in broiler chicken feed, 43 change in molecular weight during baking, 341
h 367
concentrate, 355 content effect on dehulling, 307 in groats, 338 heritability, 19 molecular genetics of, 57–58 of oat bran, 349 in quality bran, 316 of whole-oat products, 349 eligible sources for health claims, 279–280 in the endosperm cell wall, 87, 89–90 enrichment aqueous methods, 323–324 dry-milling methods, 322–323 methods that use enzymes, 324–326 methods that use organic solvents, 323 methods using acid or base conditions or temperature, 326–327 overview, 328 extraction general considerations and principles, 220–221 methods and reagents, 221–224 FDA daily consumption guidelines, 342 as a functional food ingredient, 351 glycemic effect, 286 health benefits, 99–100, 219 hydrocolloids, 324 hydrolysis during germination, 339 identifying molecular markers for, 24 incorporation into foods, 342 molecular genetics studies, 57–58 oat and barley compared, 247–248 in oat and wheat bran, 104–105 in oat dietary fiber, 99–100 in oat-bran products, 350–351 oat texture and, 338 occurrence and location, 219–220 overview, 247–248 physicochemical properties dye binding, 242–243 molecular weight and conformation, 231–235 rheology, 235–242 solubility, 235 structure, 226–231 physiological effects on blood lipids, 256, 257 on chick growth, 243–244 on glycemic response, 244, 245–246 on immune function, 245 on serum cholesterol, 245, 246–247, 257–262 purification, 224 satiety effects, 289 in swine feed, 45, 47 viscosity, 235–237, 338 factors affecting, 342 physiological effects, 243, 245–246 weight loss effects, 290
368
h Index
wound-healing properties, 355
β -Glucan health claims
for blood cholesterol reduction, in various countries, 292–295 impact on oat products, 342 overview, 352–353 reduced risk of coronary heart disease, 278 β -Glucan hydrolase, 89 1,3-β -Glucan synthase, 57 β -Glucanase gene, 57 β -Glucanases degradation of β -glucan gums, 43 effect on oat soluble fiber, 322, 339 inactivation, 220, 221, 348 in poultry feed, 43, 44 produced by lactic acid bacteria, 341 Glucoamylase, 326 Glucomannan, 89 Glucose, in oat dietary fiber, 99 Glucose tolerance, 255 Glutamic acid, 124 Glutamine-glutamic acid, 124 Glutelins changes during seed maturation, 134 classification and solubility fractionation, 123, 124 in storage proteins, 125 Gluten absence in oats, 340, 350 and celiac disease, 41, 353–354 Gluten-free diets, 41–42, 353–354 Glutenins, 353 Gluten-sensitive enteropathy. See Celiac disease Glycemic index, 282, 286, 287, 294 Glycemic labeling, 286 Glycemic response diet and, 255 β -glucans and animal studies, 244 human studies, 245–246 health claims, 325 oat soluble fiber/oat products and, 282–288 soluble fiber effects and dose, 262, 264–265 mechanisms, 265 and particle size, 265 summary of, 265–266 and viscosity and solubility, 265 Glycerol esters, 354 Glycol methacrylate resin, 78 Glycolipids, 89, 144 Glycosylation, of phenolics, 164 C-Glycosylflavones, 169, 172, 173, 174 Government policies affecting oat trade EU Common Agricultural Policy reform, 9 EU export subsidies, 9 U.S. loan rates, 10 Grading of dried-groats, 312
of oat grain, 307 process of, 305 standards, 8–9, 302 Grain. See Groat; Kernel; Oat grain Grain bags, for storage, 317 GrainGenes database, 54, 69 Gramene database, 54, 69 Granola, 349 Granola bars, 351 Green power, from biomass fuel, 316 Green revolution, 49 Grinders, 314 Groat percentage, 302 Groat abrasion milling, 40 bran production, 315–316 bran structure and chemistry, 83–87 breakage during dehulling, 307 milling quality and, 59 breeding with reduced trichomes, 36–37 for shape and crease, 37–38 for variation and modification in hulless oats, 36–38 components, 77 in cooked food products, 40–41 of covered oats, 32 effect of dehulling on, 32 flavor of, 335 grading standards, 8 from hulless oats, 31 level of β -glucans in, 220 milling quality, 18 moisture content effect on dehulling, 308–309 flaking process and, 313 kiln drying and, 311 morphology, 83 oil content and fatty acid composition, 143–144 percent starch in, 109 power washing of, 40 protein in, 47, 123, 130 changes during seed maturation, 133–134 effect on dehulling, 307 effects of germination on, 134 location, 130 natural variation in, 96 scientific definition of, 348 size, 302 storage, 39 Guar gum, 219 Gyratory sifters, 314 Hammer mills, 314 Harvest index, 14 Harvesting, 39 Heading date, genetics of, 61 Health benefits, 95. See also Human health breeding for, 19 β -glucan, 99–100, 219
health claims and, 352–353 management of celiac disease, 353–354 micronutrients, 353 from oat consumption, 351–354 oat improvement programs and, 357 Health claims based on authoritative statements, 278 of Beta Trim, 325 blood pressure effects, 291–292 for cancer for low-fat diets, 282 overview, 352 qualifying criteria for whole-grain oat products, 280–281 of whole-grain foods, 280 classes of. See Health-related claims, classes for diabetes risk reduction and diabetes management, 282–288 effect on consumer perception of oat products, 341–342 effect on oat product sales, 352 history of, 348, 352–353 incorporation of oat fractions into foods and, 342 Nutrim OB and, 323 oat-based functional food ingredients and, 351 overview, 295 purpose and impact of, 275–276 qualified, 277 for reduced risk of coronary heart disease, 294, 348, 352–353 with oat soluble fiber, 278–280, 281 with whole-grain products, 280–281 regulation of, 276 requirements for, 276 satiety and weight loss effects, 289–290 unqualified or NLEA-authorized, 276–277 in various countries, 292–295 whole grains and weight maintenance, 290–291 Health Professionals Follow-Up Study, 286, 288, 290 Health-related claims, classes health claims based on authoritative statements, 278 overview, 276 qualified, 277 unqualified or NLEA-authorized, 276–277 nutrient content claims, 278 structure/function claims, 278 Heart disease. See Coronary heart disease Heart-health claims, 278–281, 348, 352–353 Heat processing/treatment benefits of, 337–338 formation of rancid flavor from, 152 oat flavor and, 334, 337 objectives of, 348 Height, molecular genetics of, 61–62
Index Hemicelluloses, 83, 195 Herbicide resistance, 66, 69 Heritability of β -glucan content, 19 of oat lipids, 146 Hexanal, 334, 335, 337 Hexane extract, 354 Hexanol, 334, 337 Hexaploid oats breeding with, 12 characteristics of, 12 interspecific crosses, 63 recombination mapping in, 53–54 synthetic, 63–64 High-density lipoprotein cholesterol animal studies, 256 β -glucans and, 246, 247 human studies, 257, 260, 261 High-resolution microscopy, 79–80 Hordeins, 353 Hot cereals, 17, 349, 352 HT2 mycotoxin, 18, 303 Hull content, 308 fiber in, 322, 327–328 lignin in, 59, 83 percentage, 60, 307–308 structure and chemistry, 83 Hullability, 18 Hulled oats, flavor from heat treatment, 334 Hulless barley, 42 Hulless fatuoids, 34 Hulless gene, 33, 34 Hulless oats. See also Naked oats animal feed studies broiler chickens, 43–44 dairy and beef animals, 47–48 hen eggs, 44–45 lambs, 48 overview, 42–43, 48–49 rabbits, 48 recreational horses, 47 swine, 45–47 turkey broilers, 44 awnless, 33 breeding, 32–39 for disease resistance, 39 genetics, 33 improving the expression of hulless genes, 34 incomplete expression of determinate spikelet morphology, 35–36 incomplete expression of hullessness, 33–34 indeterminate vs. determinate spikelets, 34–35 preharvest sprouting, 38–39 for premium feed quality, 20–21 rachilla length, 36 for variation and modification of groat morphology, 36–38 for the celiac patient, 41–42
characteristics of, 32–33 disease susceptibility, 39 future of, 32, 49 grain storage, 39 groat weight, 33 harvesting, 39 improvements, 49 nonfood uses, 48 opportunities for, 31, 48–49 origin of, 32–33 special processing of, 40 usage trends, 7 uses in food, 40–42 yield, 33 Hullessness genetics of, 33 incomplete expression of, 33–34 Human health. See also Health benefits; Health claims alkylphenols and, 168 aminophenolics and, 184 benefit of oat products to, 267 blood glucose and insulin studies, 262–266 blood lipid studies, 257–262 blood pressure studies, 266–267 claims for diabetes risk reduction and disease management, 282–288 consumption of dietary fiber and, 321, 328 consumption of oats and, 275, 351–354 diabetes and its complications, 267–268 dietary fiber and, 205 flavonoids and, 173–175 free phenolics and, 164–166 β -glucans and, 99–100, 219 incidence of diet-related health disorders, 321 lignans and, 177–179 lignin and, 204–205 management of celiac disease, 353–354 phenolic acid amides and, 190–191 phenolic esters and, 200–202 suberin and, 204–205 Husked oats. See Covered oats Husks. See Oat hulls Hybridization, 21, 22 Hybrids intergeneric, 64 interspecific, 63–64 Hydrolysis of lipids, 337 of vegetable oil, 152 Hydrolyzed oat flour, 325 Hydroperoxide lyase, 149 Hydroperoxides, 337 Hydroquinones, 162 Hydrothermal processing, 338 Hydroxy fatty acids, 337 Hydroxybenzoic acid bioavailability and bioactivity, 164 biosynthesis and metabolism, 162–164 function in plants, 200
h 369
structures and occurrences, 158, 161, 162 Hydroxycinnamate ester glycosides, 196 Hydroxycinnamates, 201–202 Hydroxycinnamic acid. See also Free phenolics antioxidant properties, 200, 354 bioavailability and bioactivity, 164–166 biosynthesis and metabolism, 162–164 in cell wall polysaccharides, 195 enzymatic decarboxylation, 167 function in plants, 200 structures and occurrences, 158, 161 thermal decarboxylation, 166–167 Hydroxycinnamic acid amides, 190 Hydroxycinnamic acid esters, 192 Hydroxycinnamoyl esters, 192, 199 Hydroxycinnamoyl ethers, 199 Hydroxydihydrocinnamic acid, 166 HydroxycinnamoylCoA:hydroxyanthranilate N-hydroxycinnamoyltransferase (HHT), 187, 188, 189, 190 7-Hydroxyhexadecanoic acid, 143, 144 Hydroxyl acids, 152 Hydroxylinoleic acids, 143, 144, 149 Hypertension, 255, 266–267, 281, 291–292 Immune function, 245 Impact dehulling, 18 Impact milling, 315, 316, 322 Importers, 5, 6 Inclusions, in protein bodies, 89 Indent machines, 306–307 Indented cylinders, 312 Indeterminate panicles, 33 Indeterminate spikelets, 34 Indispensable amino acids, 103 Infant foods, 350 Insoluble dietary fiber human health benefits, 321 in oat fiber, 349 phenolic esters, 195, 196, 197 risk of diabetes and, 287 Instant hot cereals, 349 Instant oat flakes, 348 Instantized products, 301 Instantized steel-cut groats, 348 Insulin levels diet and, 255 β -glucans and, 219 animal studies, 244 factors affecting, 262–266 human studies, 245–246 Insulin resistance, 255 Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study, 287, 288 Insulin response oat products and, 282 Swedish product-specific health claims, 293–294 Interspecific crosses, 63–64 Intrinsic viscosity, 232
370
h Index
Iowa Women’s Health Study, 287, 288, 290 Iron, 100 Irpex lacteus, 200 Isobutanol, 337 Isoswertisin, 173 Joint Health Claims Initiative, 292, 293 Kaonao, 40, 351 Kernel. See also Oat grain dehulling, 307, 308–309 discoloration, 18 effect of breakage on lipid reactions, 150 of hulless oats, 32, 35 microstructure and chemistry analytical techniques, 77–83 bran, 83–87 germ, 90 hull, 83 starchy endosperm, 87–90 milling quality, 18, 59–60, 302 moisture content, 308–309 molecular genetics, 59–60 size, 18, 59, 302 thins, 59 weight, 307 width, 307 Keyhole symbol, 293, 294 Kiln drying, 150, 310–311, 337 Klason lignin, 202, 203 Labeling and Education Act, 348 Lactam glucosides, 181 Lactic acid bacteria, 338, 341, 351 Lactobacillus, 167 L. plantarum, 167 Laminaribose, 230, 231 Landraces, 11 Lariciresinol, 176 Lecithin, 144–145, 149 Lemma, 32, 83, 349 Length-sizing process, 312–313 Leucodelphinidin, 169 Lichenan solubility, 235 structure, 226–227 X-ray diffraction and conformational analysis, 234 Lichenase, 224–225 Life cycle assessment, 17 Lignan aglycones, 176 Light beer, 351 Light microscopy, 78–79 Light oats, 305, 316 Lignans biosynthesis and metabolism, 177 in human food and health, 177–179 oat flavor and, 334 in plant systems, 177 structures and occurrences, 175–177 Lignification, 200, 204 Lignin biochemistry, 202–204 in the hull, 20, 83
in human health, 204–205 localization, 204 in plant systems, 204 Linoleic acid, 89, 98, 143, 147, 149 Linolenic acid, 98, 143, 145, 149 Lipase activity of, 148–149, 151 commercial uses, 152 inactivation by heat, 337–338 by kiln drying, 150, 310–311 by steaming, 150 oats as an industrial source, 356 Lipid bodies, 85 Lipid composition, 143–144 Lipid content agricultural and quality variables, 146 effect of growing conditions on, 146 overview, 143–144 Lipid oxidation compounds, 337 Lipids analysis of total lipids, 148 antioxidants and, 149–150 class composition, 144–145 commercial utilization, 152 effect of cultivar on, 146 effects of processing and storage on, 150–152 in germ, 90 heat treatment and, 337–338 heritability, 146 hydrolysis and oxidation during processing and storage, 337 neutral, 89 nonstarch, 110, 147 polar, 152 starch lipids, 89, 110–111, 147–148 synthesis in oats, 145–146 Lipolysis, 148 inactivation, 150–151 Lipoperoxidase, 148, 149 Lipoperoxide, 149 Lipophilic antioxidants, 149 Lipoxygenase, 148, 149 inactivation by heat, 337–338 by kiln drying, 310–311 Loan rates, affect on oat markets, 10 Lodging, breeding resistance to, 14–15 Lodging genes, 62 Long-chain fatty acids, 98 Low temperature, effect on lipid content, 146 Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol animal studies, 257 coronary heart disease health claims and, 352 β -glucans and, 246, 247 health claims in the Netherlands, 295 human studies, 261, 262 mechanisms for decreasing, 262 Low-density lipoprotein oxidation, 164–165, 190, 191 Low-fat oats, 19–20
Low-fat whole-grain foods, 280 Low-glycemic diets, 286–287, 287–288 Luteinizing hormone, 356 Luteolin, 169, 173–174 Lysine, 45–46, 103, 124, 135, 337 Lysoinositolphosphatide, 147 Lysolecithin, 147 Lysophosphatidylcholine, 144–145, 148 Lysophosphatidylethanolamine, 145, 148 Lysophosphatidylglycerol, 148 Lysophosphatidylserine, 147 Lysophospholipids, 110 Macronutrients, digestibility, 104 Magnesium, 100 Magnetic resonance imaging, 82–83, 226–227 Magnetic separators, 307 Maillard reaction, 334, 336, 337 Maize. See also Corn crosses, 64 Malaysia, health claims in, 295 Malt sprouts, 134 Malting defined, 151 effect on flavor, 336–337 effect on lipid reactions, 151 effect on storage proteins, 134 effect on storage stability and lipolytic activity, 152 effect on texture of processed oats, 339 Maltodextrin, 325 Mammalian lignans, 177 Manganese, 100 Mapmaker software, 52 Markets for oats for feed oats, 9 government policies affecting, 9–10 trends, 6 Melanoidins, 168 Metabolic syndrome, 255 Metabolizable energy, 20 Meta-QTL analyses, 23, 24 Methane fermentation, 20 Methionine, 103, 124 2-Methoxyhydroquinone, 162 3-Methylbutanal, 335 Microbiological quality, 338 Micronization, 317 Micronutrients availability, 104 human health benefits, 353 minerals, 100 vitamins, 100–101 Microwave heating, 150 Middlings, 316 Middlings yield, 316 Mill yield, 59, 301, 302 Milled oat flavor, 337 Milling. See also Dry milling by-products, 316 challenges of, 301 changes and improvements in, 316–317 cleaning, 305–307
Index dehulling, 307–310 grading, 307, 312 history of, 301 kiln drying, 310–311 overview, 95–96, 304–305 processing of dried groats bran production, 315–316 cutting, 312–313 flaking, 313–314 flour production, 314 grading, 312 overview, 311 varietal development programs and, 317–318 Milling classifiers, 305 Milling-quality oats breeding for, 18–19 economic value, 6 effect of the hull on, 83 grading standards, 8, 9 physical kernel traits and, 59–60 specifications, 301–303 Minerals availability, 104 minor, 100 nutrient density, 102 Mitochondrial genome, 68 Mixed grains, milling by-product, 316 Moisture content effect on dehulling, 308–309 effect on rancidity during storage, 338 effect on storage and handling, 317 flaking process and, 313 kiln drying and, 311 lipase reaction and, 148 of oat grain, 304 Molecular genetics of agronomic traits, 61–62 bioinformatics, 68–69 in breeding, 23–24 of chemical composition cadmium accumulation, 59 β -glucan content, 57–58 hull lignin, 59 oil content, 56–57 protein content, 58 starch, 59 tocopherols, 58–59 contribution to grain quality, 69 of disease resistance, 60–61 diversity array technology (DArT), 23 doubled haploids, 64 expressed sequence tags, 16, 57, 63, 67–68 fingerprinting, 63 functional genomics, 67–68 future of, 69–70 GenBank, 68, 69 gene chips, 16 gene expression arrays, 68 genetic mapping chromosome-specific libraries, 55 comparative mapping, 54 physical mapping, 54–55
quantitative trait locus analysis, 55–56 recombination mapping, 52–54 intergeneric hybrids, 64 of interspecific crosses, 63–64 molecular markers in breeding, 63–64 characteristics of, 51 in DArT analysis, 54 in recombination mapping, 52 user-friendly, 62 oat transformation (genetic engineering) application, 67 development of systems for, 66–67 organelle genetics, 68 overview, 51–52 of physical kernel traits and milling quality, 59–60 somaclonal variation, 65 tissue culture, 64–65 Monoacyl lipids, 110 Monoacylglycerols, 144 Monocytes, 245 Monoferulated oligosaccharides, 195–196 Monoferulic acids, 196, 197, 198 Monogalactosyldiglycerides, 144 Monogalactosylmonoglycerides, 144 Monosaccharides, 99 Monoterpenes, 335 Muesli, 293–294, 349 Mycotoxins, 18–19, 303, 317, 357 Myristic acid, 143 Naked oats. See also Hulless oats breeding for premium feed quality, 20–21 characteristics of, 32–33 development of, 13 dwarf, 15 Native oats, flavor of, 334 Natural cereal products, 351 Natureal, 323, 350, 351 Nematodes, 16, 173 Neomycin, 43 Net protein utilization, 135 Neural tube defects, 282 Neutral cellulase gamanase digestibility, 20 Niacin, 87, 90, 101 Nitrogen fertilization effect on lipid content, 146 effect on storage proteins, 135 Nitrogen heterocycles, flavor components, 335–336 NLEA-authorized health claims examples of, 281–282 overview, 276–277 reduced risk of coronary heart disease with oat soluble fiber, 278–280 with whole-grain products, 280–281 Nonatrienal, 334 Nonstarch lipids, 110, 147 Nonstarch polysaccharides, 99 Novel foods, 351
h 371
Nucellus, 83 Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, 82–83, 226–227 Nullisomic lines, 54–55 Nurture 1500, 323 Nutrient availability, 104 Nutrient composition energy content, 98 fatty acids, 98 micronutrients, 100–101 natural variation in, 96 vs. nutritional quality, 96 proximate constituents, 96–98 Nutrient density, 96, 101–103 Nutrient-content health claims, 278, 294, 295 Nutrient-function health claims, 295 Nutrim OB, 323–324 Nutrition Facts labels, 278 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA), 276, 352 Nutritional quality availability, 104 digestibility, 104 vs. nutrient composition, 96 nutrient density scores, 101–103 protein quality, 103–104 Nutritional Quality Index, 102 Nutritional-deficiency diseases, 95 Oat bran. See also Bran, grain fraction; Wheat bran from abrasion milling, 40 amino acid composition, 125 blood lipid effects in humans, 257–262 blood pressure and, 266 bread enriched with, 341 definitions of, 104, 279, 316, 322, 348, 349 extraction of β -glucans, 221–224 β -glucan content, 220 β -glucan enrichment methods, 323–326 human consumption, 7–8 nutrient composition compared to wheat bran, 104–105 production of, 315–316 protein percentage, 130 quality, 316 in ready-to-eat cereals, 350 satiety and weight loss effects, 289–290 water hydration capacity, 338 yield, 316 Oat Bran Concentrate, 324 Oat consumption economic value of, 6 health benefits, 275, 351–354 percent of total domestic oat use, 2 trends in, 7–8, 95 Oat cultivation, history of, 347 Oat extracts, colloidal, 355 Oat fiber. See also β -Glucan; Dietary fiber; Soluble fiber defined, 97 hull fiber, 322, 327–328
372
h Index
nutrient density, 102 scientific definition of, 349 Oat flakes. See also Flaking aroma compound of, 19 bran production with, 315–316 characteristics of, 313–314, 348 instant, 348 rancid flavor and, 152 Oat flour as an antioxidant, 354 food applications, 351 hydrolyzed, 325 in infant foods, 350 oat protein concentrates from, 137 production of, 314, 348 in ready-to-eat cereals, 349 scientific definition of, 349 whole-oat flour, 279, 348 Oat β -glucan extract, commercial product, 327 Oat grain. See also Groat; Kernel flavor of, 334 precleaning process, 304 storage and handling, 303–304 Oat gum. See β -Glucan Oat hulls as biomass fuels, 316, 356 of covered oats, 32 disposal and utilization of, 316 food-grade fiber products from, 351 furfural synthesis, 355–356 of hulless oats, 33 milling quality and, 83 miscellaneous uses of, 356 oat mill yield and, 59 premium feed quality and, 20 scientific definition of, 349 structure and chemistry, 83 lignin in, 20 test weight and, 302 uses of, 83 Oat leaf extract, 356 Oat nonfood applications adhesives, 354 antioxidants, 354. See also Antioxidants cariostatic properties and, 355 cosmetic products, 354–355 furfural synthesis, 355–356 industrial enzyme production, 356 miscellaneous uses of hulls, 356 pharmaceutical products, 356 Oat processing bran production, 315–316 cutting, 312–313 effect on flavor, 334–337 effect on lipid reactions, 150–151 effect on oat texture, 339–341 flaking, 313–314 flour production, 314 grading, 312 microbiological quality and, 338 overview, 311
Oat production, 1–4, 95 Oat products. See also Whole-grain oats, products from bakery products, 289, 349–350 beverages, 41, 168, 351 breakfast cereals, 349. See also Oatmeal changes in flavor during storage, 337–338 cookies (biscuits), 350 effect of health claims on sales, 352 future of, 342–343 gluten in, 353–354 glycemic effects and, 282–288 health claims and, 276. See also Health claims heat processing and, 348 infant foods, 350 microbiological quality, 338 new applications, 351 oat bran. See Oat bran oil extract, 355 porridge, 341, 351 potential and challenges of, 341–343 ready-to-eat cereals, 349, 352 scientific definitions of, 348–349 soups, 341–342, 351 trends in consumption, 347 typical commercial products, 348 Oat protein. See also Groat, protein in; Protein; Storage proteins concentrates, 137–139 concentration effect of climate on, 135 effect of fertilization on, 135 digestibility, 104 gels, 138 in germ, 90 human consumption of oats and, 7 isolates, 137–138 nutrient density, 102 nutritional value, 136–137 proximate analysis of, 97 proximate value, 98 quality, 103–104 in starch, 110, 111 of the starchy endosperm, 88–89 Oat sprouts, 41 Oat starch. See also Starch granules as an adhesive, 354 carbohydrate components, 111–113 digestibility, 104, 338 films, 111 food industry uses, 120 future work areas, 120 gelatinization, 339 during baking, 341 extrusion cooking and, 340 gels, 118–119 of the groat, 87–88 industrial uses, 120 isolation and purification, 109–110 molecular genetics of, 59 noncarbohydrate component, 110–111
oat texture and, 338, 339 overview, 109 physical properties, 109, 113–114 physicochemical and rheological properties acid and enzyme hydrolysis, 119 gelatinization, 114–116 swelling power and amylose leaching, 116–117 viscosity, pasting, and paste properties, 117–119 proximate analysis of, 97 Oat utilization future of, 356–357 historical overview, 347–348 OatLink Project, 20, 23, 318 Oatmeal, 95, 349 colloidal, 355 cosmetic uses, 354–355 effect of health claims on sales, 352 effect of toasting on flavor, 334–336 factors affecting texture, 339 food applications, 350, 351 history of, 347 in infant foods, 350 Oatrim, 261, 279, 323, 324–325, 351, 352 OatVantage, 327, 350–351 OatWell, 295, 322–323, 350, 351 Oats, general end uses and consumer perception of, 341–342 future trends in usage, 10 historical overview, 347–348 trends in production and consumption, 1–4, 7, 95, 356–357 OatsCreme, 326, 351 Obesity, 255, 265, 321, 328 Octoploid oats, 13 Oil commercial utilization, 152 lipid class composition, 144–145 Oil content. See also Lipid content agricultural and quality variables, 146 breeding for molecular genetics of, 56–57 in naked oats, 20–21 low-oil levels, 19–20 economic levels, 152 effect of fertilization on, 146 heritability, 146 methane fermentation in ruminants and, 20 molecular genetics of, 56–57 neutral fraction, 152 overview, 143–144 in premium-feed-quality oats, 20 protein content and, 146 tocol concentration and, 19 Oil extraction, 152 Oleic acid, 89, 98, 143, 144 Oleosins, 146 Oral viscosity, β -glucan and, 342 Organelle genetics, 68
Index Organic Natural Oat Fiber, 351 Orthologs, 54 Osborne fractions, 103, 123–124 Osteoporosis, 282 Oxazoles, 336 Oxidative rancidity, 310, 337 Oxylipins, 143 Paddy separators, 309 Palea, 32, 83, 349 Palmitic acid, 89, 98, 143, 147 Pan-drying, 310 Panicle, 32, 33 Pantothenic acid, 101 Parenchyma, scutellar, 90 Particle-reduction process, 322 Pasta, 351 Pasting properties, 117–118, 324, 339 Penicillium, 338 Pentanal, 334 Pentanol, 334 Pentosanases, 325 Pentosans, 321, 355, 356 Pericarp, 83 Peroxidase inactivation, 310–311, 337–338 Peroxygenase, 149, 152 Pest resistance, breeding for, 15–16 Pesticide contamination, 303 Phenol glucosyltransferases, 162 Phenolic acid ether glucosides, 162 Phenolic acids as antioxidants, 354 conjugated with amines biosynthesis and metabolism, 187–189 in human health and food, 190–191 in plant systems, 189–190 structures and occurrences, 184–187 oat flavor and, 334 Phenolic antioxidants, 149–150 Phenolic esters with n-alkanols biochemistry, 192–194 functionality, 194 with sugars and polysaccharides biochemistry, 195–200 functionality, 200–202 Phenolic ether glycosides, 162 Phenolic polymeric ethers biochemistry, 202–204 functionality, 204–205 Phenolics in the aleurone cell wall, 85 alkylphenols biochemistry, 166–168 functionality, 168 aminophenolics biochemistry, 180–183 functionality, 183–184 as antioxidants, 19, 105, 149–150, 338, 354 flavonoids biochemistry, 168–173
functionality, 173–175 free phenolics biochemistry, 157–164 functionality, 164–166 future research directions, 205–206 in the hull, 83 human health benefits, 353 lignans biochemistry, 175–177 functionality, 177–179 oat flavor and, 334 prevention of rancidity and, 338 Phenols, simple, 162 Phenylalanine, 103 Phenylalanine ammonia lyase, 162 Phenylpropanoid pathway, 162 Phosphatidylcholine, 144 Phosphatidylethanolamine, 145 Phosphinothricin, 66 Phospholipids, 89, 144, 145 Phosphorus, 100, 104, 110, 111 Photoperiod, regional adaptability and, 13 Phylloquinone, 101 Physical mapping, 54–55 Physicans’ Health Study, 290 Phytates, 85, 87, 104 Phytic acid, 87, 104, 105, 149 Phytin, 85 Phytin globoids, 90, 130, 132 Phytoalexins, 184 Phytoestrogen, 179 Phytotoxin resistance, 65 Pin mills, 314 Pin oats, 305, 316 Pinoresinol, 176, 177, 178 Plant defenses aminophenolics in, 183–184 flavonoids in, 173 free phenolics in, 164 lignans in, 177 phenolic acid amides in, 189–190 Plasma cholesterol, 99–100 Policosanols, 192, 194 Polysaccharides nonstarch, 99 phenolic esters with, 195–202 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, oxidation of, 337 Porridge, 17, 351 Postprandial blood glucose diet and, 255 β -glucans and, 245–246, 262 oat bran consumption and, 262 soluble fiber and, 264 Postprandial glycemia, 286 Potassium, 100 Potassium health claims, 281 Powdery mildew, 15, 136 Prebreeding, 22 Precleaning process, 304 Preharvest sprouting, 38–39 Primary kernels, 302 Processed oats alkylphenols and flavor, 168
h 373
hardness, 339 Product quality, effect of storage on, 337–338 Product-specific health claims in the Netherlands, 295 in Sweden, 293–294 Production. See Oat production Prolamins. See also Avenins amino acid composition, 104, 124, 125 classification and solubility fractionation, 123 effect of germination on, 337 in protein body inclusions, 89 in storage proteins, 58, 124, 125 Promoters, of genetic transformation, 66 Proteases, 110, 326, 334 Protection, of oat plant from invaders. See Plant defenses Protein. See also Oat protein; Storage proteins bodies of aleurone cells, 85, 87 overview, 130–132 protein-carbohydrate, 87, 130 of scutellar parenchyma, 90 of the starchy endosperm, 89 concentrates, 137–139 concentration effect of climate on, 135 effect of fertilization on, 135 content breeding for high levels, 12–13 effect on dehulling, 307 molecular genetics of, 58 oil content and, 146 isolates, 137–138 quality, 103–104 Protocatechuic acids, 164 Provitamin A, 101 Proximate constituents, 96–98 Pullulanase, 326 “Pure oats,” for celiac patients, 41–42 Pyrazines, 335–336 Pyridines, 336 Pyridoxal, 101 Pyridoxamine, 101 Pyridoxine, 101 Pyrroles, 337 Qualified health claims, 277 Quality. See also Milling-quality oats; Nutritional quality of grain contributions of molecular genetics to, 69 enhancement through tissue culture, 65 genetic engineering and, 67 grading standards and, 8–9 of oat products effect of storage on, 337–338 feed, 20–21, 47 free fatty acid content and, 148
374
h Index
microbiological, 338 and molecular genetics, 51–52 Quantitative trait loci (QTLs), 16, 23 Quick-cooking oats, 348, 349 Rachilla length, 36 Radiation use efficiency, 14 Rancidity, 310 acquired during storage, 151–152 causes of, 337, 338 Random coil polymers, 237 Ready-to-eat cereals, 349, 352 Receiving separator, 304 Recessed embryos, 37–38 Recurrent selection, 12, 22 Red oat, 11 Regional adaptability, 13 Relative fluorescence intensity, 81 Relative nutritional value, 134 Resistance genes, 15, 60–61 Resistant-gene analogs, 60 Retinol. See Vitamin A Rheology of β -glucan-enriched extracts, 326 of β -glucans, 235–242 of Oatrim, 325 Riboflavin, 101 Rice oat-rice beer, 41, 351 oat-rice food mixtures, 41 Ripening, 304 Rolled oats defined, 279 description of, 348 hot cereals with, 349 scientific definition of, 348 Roller mills, 301, 315–316, 322 Root lesion nematode, 173 Rotary granulators, 312 Rust-resistance genes, 60 Rye bread, 340 Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 167 Salcolin A, 169 Salcolin B, 169 Saponins, 182 Scopoletin, 162 Scopolin, 162 Scourers, 309 Screenings, 18, 314 Scutellum, 90, 125, 130 Secalins, 353 Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, 176, 179 Secondary kernels, 302 Seed coat, 83 Seed maturation, 133–134 Seed storage proteins, 58, 133–134 Selection in breeding, 21–22 marker-assisted, 23–24 Selenium, 100 Separators, 305, 307, 309 Sequence-characterized amplified region markers, 23
Serum (blood) cholesterol animal studies, 244–245, 256–257 β -glucans and, 219, 244–245 β -glucan health claims, 292, 293, 295 human studies, 246–247, 257–262 Shear stress and shear rates, 235–237 Shear-thickening, 325 Shear-thinning, 235–237, 324, 325 Short-seeded groats, 38 Sieving, 18, 322 Sifting systems, 314 Silage bags, 304 Simple sequence repeat markers, 23, 62 Sinapate, 166 Sinapic acid, 164, 165, 334 Single nucleotide polymorphism markers, 16, 23, 62 Single-seed descent breeding, 22 Site-directed mutagenesis, 69 β -Sitosterol, 145 Slow rusting, 60 Small intestine epithelium, 165–166 Small oats, 348 Smith degradation, 226 Smuts, 16, 303 Snack foods, 341 Sodium, 100 Sodium carbonate, 109, 110 Sodium chloride, 342 Sodium health claims, 281 Sodium hydroxide, 109, 110, 326, 327 Sodium taurocholate, 43 Soil fertility, effect on oat protein, 135 Solar radiation during growing period, 14 Solubility effect on blood glucose and insulin responses, 265 of β -glucans, 235 Solubility fractionation, of storage proteins, 123–124 Soluble fiber. See also Dietary fiber; β -Glucan blood glucose and insulin response, 262–266 blood lipid studies in animals, 256–257 in humans, 257–262 blood pressure and, 255–256, 266–267 content in quality bran, 316 of whole-oat products, 349 dietary, 197 eligible sources, 279–280 glycemic effects and, 282–288 health claims blood cholesterol reduction, 293 diabetes risk reduction and disease management, 282–288 in Malaysia, 295 overview, 352–353 reduced risk of coronary heart disease, 278–280, 281 in Sweden, 293 human health and, 255–256
mechanisms for decreasing blood lipids, 262 Soy-oat infant formula, 350 Spectroscopic techniques, 80–82 Spikelets chevron, 34 of covered oats, 32 of hulless oats, 33 indeterminate vs. determinate in hulless oats, 34–35 kernel size and, 302 rachilla length in hulless oats, 36 Spring oats, 11, 15 Sprouting effects on storage proteins, 134 preharvest, 38–39 Staling, of bread, 340 Staphylococcus aureus, 245 Starch. See Oat starch Starch granules acid and enzyme hydrolysis, 119 during baking, 341 carbohydrate components, 111–113 characteristics of, 87–88, 109, 338 gelatinization, 114 lipids of, 147–148 oat texture and, 338 protein in, 111 retrogradation, 115, 116 specific surface area, 113–114 swelling power and amylose leaching, 116–117 type, size, and size distribution, 113–114 X-ray diffraction patterns and relative crystallinity, 114 Starch lipids, 110–111, 147–148 Starch pastes, 111, 117–118 Starch synthase, 59 Starchy endosperm depleted layer, 90 of malted grains, 339 protein bodies in, 130, 131–132 protein percentage, 130 structure and chemistry, 87–90 Steaming, 150, 301, 339 Stearic acid, 98, 143 Steel-cut oats (steel-cut groats), 301 bran production, 315–316 description of, 348 flaking, 313–314 instantized, 348 production of, 312–313 scientific definition of, 349 Stem carbohydrate reserves, mobilization, 17 Stem nematode, 16, 173 Stem rust, 15 Stem rust resistance genes, 60, 62 Sterols, 145, 149 Stone dehulling, 307 Stone ovens, 310 Storage and handling changes and improvements in, 317
Index effect on lipid reactions, 151–152 effect on product quality, 337–338 of hulless oats, 39 of oat grain, 303–304 Storage bins, 39 Storage lipids, 78 Storage modulus, 237 Storage proteins amino acid composition, 124–125 cellular location, 130 classification and solubility fractionation, 123–124 concentrates, 137–139 control of gene expression, 133 during development germination, 134 proteolytic enzymes, 134–135 seed maturation, 133–134 environmental effects climate, 135 diseases, 135–136 fertility, 135 genes for, 132–133 genotypic differences and inheritance, 133 isolation and physical properties, 125–128 nutritional value, 136–137 overview, 123, 139 protein bodies, 130–132 synthesis, 128–130 Stroke, risk of, 281 Structure/function claims, 278 Subaleurone, 87 cells, 89 Suberin, 194, 204–205 Subsidies and oat trade, 9 Sucker mouth, 34 Sugars, phenolic esters with, 195–202 sugary-1 gene, 59 Swathed oats, 38 Sweat stage, 304, 317 Sweden health claims in, 293–294 oat production and trade, 3, 4, 5 Swelling power, 116–117 Switch gene, 33 Syringaresinol, 176 Syringic acid, 334 Syrup, 326, 351 T2 mycotoxin, 18, 303 Table separators, 309 Take-all disease, 183 Tall dwarfs, 15 Taste. See also Flavor bitter, 151–152 breeding for, 19–20 heat processing and, 348 Temperature effect on lipid content, 146 effect on rancidity during storage, 338 Temperature-moisture profiles, 311 Test weight, 47, 59, 302
Testa, 83 Tetrahymena growth assay, 134 Tetraploid oats breeding with, 12–13 interspecific crosses, 63–64 Texture breeding for, 19–20 factors affecting, 338–341 of oat bread, 340–341 of oatmeal, 339, 349 Thermal decarboxylation, 166–167 Thermal stabilization, 317, 322. See also Heat processing/treatment Thermolysin, 326 Thiamin, 101 Thiazoles, 335–336 Thickening agents, 342, 350 Thins, 59, 303 Threonine, 124 Threshing, 39 Tibor, 33, 42, 43, 44, 45 Tilling population, 57, 59 Time-temperature-moisture profiles, 311 Tissue culture, 64–65 Tissue-culture-induced variation, 65 Toasted oats, 336 Toasting, effect on flavor, 334–336 Tocols, 19, 149, 151. See also Vitamin E Tocopherols, 19, 58–59, 149 Tocotrienols, 19, 149, 152 Trace minerals, 100 Trade, 5–6 government policies affecting, 9–10 Tranilast, 191, 353 Transgenes, 66 Transpiration efficiency, 17 Triacylglycerols, 97, 144, 257, 261, 337 Trichomes, 36–37, 83 Tricin, 169 Triglycerides, 148, 260 Trihydroxylinoleic acid, 149 True digestibility, 135 β -Truxinic acid diester, 196 Trypsin, 325, 326 Tryptophan, 103, 124, 337 Twin oats, 305 Tyrosinase, 311 Tyrosine, 103 United Kingdom health claims in, 292–293 oat breeding, 17, 20, 24 oat production, 4, 16 United States funding for breeding and research, 24 in global oat trade, 5 loan rates, effect on, 10 oat consumption in, 7 oat grading standards, 8–9 oat production, 16, 21 U.S. Food and Drug Administration daily consumption guidelines for β -glucan, 342 definition of whole grains, 281
h 375
guideline for whole-oat products, 349 health claims and, 276–278, 278–280, 348, 352 nutrient content claims and, 278 structure/function claims and, 278 Unqualified health claims, 276–277 Unsaturated fatty acids, 152 Vanillic acid, 161 Vanillin, 168 Vegetables reduced risk of cancer and, 282 soluble fiber health claims, 281 Very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, 261–262 Victorin, 65 4-Vinylguaiacol, 166, 168 4-Vinylphenol, 168 Viscofiber, 326 Viscoelasticity, of β -glucan gels, 237 Viscosity effect on blood glucose and insulin responses, 265 of β -glucan, 235–237, 338 factors affecting, 342 physiological effects, 243, 245–246 intrinsic, 232 of Nutrim OB, 324 of oat gum, 342 of Viscofiber, 326 Vitacel, 328, 351 Vital functions health claims, 294 Vitamin A, 101 Vitamin B, 101, 180, 311 Vitamin C, 101 Vitamin D, 101 Vitamin E, 19, 101 Vitamin K, 101 Vitamins availability, 104 effect of kiln drying on, 311 in oat and wheat bran, 105 overview, 100–101 Water proximate analysis of, 97 proximate value, 98 Water-use efficiency, 17 waxy gene, 59 Weight loss oat products and, 289–290 whole-grain intake and, 291 Weight maintenance, 290–291, 292 Wet fractionation, 150 Wet milling, 323 Wet polishing, 40 Wheat, in animal feed, 42 Wheat bran, 104–105 Whole grains AACCI definition, 352 FDA definition, 281 risk of diabetes and, 288 Swedish definition, 294 weight loss and, 291
376
h Index
weight maintenance and, 290–291 Whole-grain foods defined, 281 health benefits, 95 low-fat, 280 moderate-fat, 280 risk of heart disease and certain cancers, 280 Whole-grain health claims, 342 based on authoritative statements, 280–281 for coronary heart disease, 294 Joint Health Claims Initiative generic health claim, 293 Whole-grain oats in bread, 340 flaking, 313–314 health claims and, 342 products from FDA guideline for, 349
health benefits, 321 health claims for coronary heart disease, 280–281 qualifying criteria for health claims, 280–281 Whole-oat flakes, 349 Whole-oat flour, 279, 348 Width graders, 307 Width separators, 307 Winter hardiness, 16, 62 Winter oats, 13, 14, 16 World trade, 5–6, 9–10 Xylanase, 200 Xylitol, 355 Xylose, 99, 356 Yeast, 167 Yield bran yield, 316
as a breeding objective, 13–14 defined, 61 grain yield as a breeding objective, 13–14 definitions of, 14, 61 molecular genetics of, 61 of hulless oats, 33 middlings yield, 316 mill yield, 59, 301, 302 molecular genetics of, 61 overview, 4–5 Yield safety, 17 Yogurt, 289 Yogurt and muesli product, 293–294 Zearolone, 303 Zinc, 100 Z-Trim, 328, 351